细胞培养 英文版

常用医学标准的中英文术语翻译医学标准术语的翻译对于医学界的交流和研究至关重要。

准确地翻译这些术语可以避免误解和混淆，确保专业信息的传递准确无误。

以下是一些常见的医学标准术语的中英文翻译。

1. 临床试验 - Clinical Trial临床试验是一种为了评估新型药物、治疗方法或医疗器械而进行的研究。

这些试验通常包括对人体进行的细致观察和数据收集，以确定疗效和安全性。

2. 疫苗接种 - Vaccination疫苗接种是指通过注射、口服等方式给予人体疫苗，从而提高人体免疫系统对某种疾病的抵抗力。

3. 随机对照试验 - Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)随机对照试验是一种实验设计，将受试者随机分配到接受不同处理或对照组的不同条件下观察疗效。

4. 细胞培养 - Cell Culture细胞培养是指在实验室中人工创造一种类似于体内环境的培养条件，以培养和研究生物体的细胞。

5. 模拟人体实验 - In Vivo Experiment模拟人体实验是指在活体动物身上进行的实验，以评估药物、治疗方法或其他治疗干预措施的疗效和安全性。

6. 病理研究 - Pathological Research病理研究是通过对病理标本进行组织学、细胞学或分子学等分析，以诊断和研究疾病的方法。

7. 累及人数 - Incidence累及人数是指在一定时间内发生某种疾病或事件的数量，通常以每一万或每一百万人为单位。

8. 重大不良事件 - Adverse Event (AE)重大不良事件是指与药物治疗或其他干预措施相关的严重不良反应或意外事件，可能导致严重的身体伤害甚至死亡。

9. 生物等效性 - Bioequivalence生物等效性是指在给予相同剂量的药物后，在体内的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄等动力学过程中的相似性。

10. 患病率 - Prevalence患病率是指某一特定人群中患有某种疾病的比例或频率，通常以百分比表示。

细胞培养的常用术语及解释体外培养(in virto)：原意为在试管中，现常与组织培养一词通用，译为体外培养。

组织培养(tissue culture)：维持组织在体外生长、与泛指体外培养。

器官培养(organ culture)：在体外维持器官、器官的部分或器官的原基生存和生长的方法。

* 细胞培养(cell culture)：细胞（包括单个细胞）在体外条件下的生长称为细胞培养，在细胞培养中，细胞不再形成组织。

细胞融合(cell fusion)：两个独立的细胞融合成一个细胞。

可用聚乙二醇（PEG）或仙台病毒诱发。

* 细胞杂交(cell hybridization)：两个或多个不同的细胞融合。

导致一个含核体（aynkaryon）的形成。

体外培养转化(in vitro transformation)：细胞在体外培养中发生与原细胞遗传性状不同的变化，但不一定具有致癌性。

单倍体(haploid)：正常细胞染色体基本数（每一染色体只有一种）。

整倍体(euploid)：具有两个以上单倍体数目的细胞。

非整倍体(aneuploid)：细胞核内染色体数为单倍染色体数的非整倍数时，称非整倍体。

二倍体(diploid)：具有两套染色单体数目的细胞（2n）* 原代培养(primary culure)：从体内取出细胞或组织的第一次培养。

再培养(subculture)：同传代。

* 传代(passage)：无论是否稀释，将细胞从一个培养瓶转移或移植到另一个培养瓶即称为传代或传代培养。

也称再培养。

单层培养(monolayer culture)：培养细胞在底物上长成单层。

悬浮培养(suspension culture)：细胞在培养液中呈悬浮状态生长。

* 贴壁依赖性(anchorage-dependent)：为细胞需贴附于底物或支持物上才能生长的性质。

贴壁依赖性细胞(anchorage dependent cell)：由它们繁衍出来的细胞（或培养物）只有贴附于不起化学作用的物体（如玻璃或塑料等无活物体）的表面时，才能生长，生存或维持其功能。

细胞培养名词解释细胞培养是一种人工模拟体外环境，使细胞能够在实验室中生长和繁殖的技术。

在细胞培养过程中，细胞被放置在适当的培养基中，提供合适的营养物质和环境条件，以促使细胞进行正常的生长和分裂。

细胞培养的过程中涉及到许多与技术相关的名词，下面是一些常见的细胞培养名词的解释：1. 细胞培养基（Cell culture media）：细胞培养基是一种含有营养物质的培养液，提供细胞所需的营养物质和生长因子，维持细胞的生长和分裂。

2. 无血清培养基（Serum-free medium）：无血清培养基是一种不含胎牛血清的培养基，用来替代传统的含有血清的培养基。

无血清培养基可以减少很多血清相关的问题，如感染风险、批次差异等。

3. 细胞传代（Passage）：细胞传代是指将细胞从一个培养瓶转移到另一个培养瓶中，使细胞继续生长和繁殖。

细胞传代可分为原代培养、一代传代、二代传代等，每代细胞数量逐渐增多。

4. 细胞凋亡（Apoptosis）：细胞凋亡是一种自我调节的细胞死亡过程，通过激活细胞内一系列特定的信号通路来实现。

细胞凋亡在细胞培养中可能会发生，影响细胞的生长和繁殖。

5. 细胞凝集（Cell aggregation）：细胞凝集指的是培养基中的细胞聚集在一起形成团块的现象。

细胞凝聚可能会对细胞培养产生负面影响，如影响细胞的生长速度和细胞间相互作用的研究。

6. 细胞冻存（Cell cryopreservation）：细胞冻存是将细胞保存在极低温下的过程，使细胞处于休眠状态。

细胞冻存可以延长细胞的保存时间，并在需要时重新变活。

7. 细胞培养污染（Cell culture contamination）：细胞培养污染是指培养基中存在不应存在的微生物，如细菌、真菌、病毒等。

细胞培养污染会影响实验结果和细胞的健康。

细胞培养是生物医学研究中重要的实验技术，通过细胞培养可以深入研究细胞的生理学、生物化学和分子生物学等方面的问题，为疾病的研究和新药的开发提供重要依据。

细胞培养技术 - 概述 引言 过去三十年已经见证了细胞培养的重大发展技术。该领域发展显着，成为生物技术的重要组成部分（1） 。在其进化，细胞培养技术成功地整合各种显示ciplines ，包括细胞生物学，基因工程，蛋白质化学，基因组学和化学工程。细胞培养技术是目前建立亲的方法ducing一些重要的蛋白质，尤其是那些大的，复杂的，并糖基化（2） 。 细胞培养技术衍生的产品是目前用作药物来预防和治疗严重的疾病，例如癌症，病毒感

染，遗传deficien-资本投资者入境计划，以及各种慢性疾病。该产品被证明是安全，有效，和经济的。的能力要求，这些产品和市场它们产生的超出最初的估计。一些细胞的培养衍生的产物具有500公斤=一年的需求产生1-2美元十亿的收入。 通过从它的起源一个显著变化，以细胞培养技术去其商业化。细胞培养技术最初是作为研究工具， inves-体外tigate细胞和组织的行为和功能（3,4） 。细胞培养的利用用于治疗目的的开始与利用细胞生产疫苗。尽头捕获的原始图像的细胞成功地用作宿主生长的病毒，打开的字段大型疫苗生产。 细胞培养技术的下一个大步骤是连续的验收细胞系由监管机构。连续细胞系可以无限增

长，较少有严格增长的要求，并且，最重要的是，它们可以是在可持培养养老金。消除在悬浮培养中的固体基材的允许通过放大体积，并允许细胞利用良好确立的方法在生物反应器中生长类似于那些用于微生物系统。 遗传工程和利用重组DNA技术制成它POS- sible生产的产品在细胞培养广大。一些矢量现在用在多种细胞系，以产生天然的和修饰的人proteins.Engineering细胞的机械还允许的蛋白产物为稳定性，功效和生物活性的修饰。在细胞培养技术的并行发展导致在组织工程中，其中细胞被制成产品的组织替代和基因治疗。 进步和细胞培养技术的发展需要一个interdis - ciplinary方法。作为密切协作和细胞生

物学和生物化学工程之间的紧密集成的结果，细胞系具有优良的生产率，现在可以种植在大规模生物反应器和以非常高的细胞密度。剪切敏感性，曝气和生物反应器中的混合相关的问题基本得到解决。的处理可以成功地按比例增加和细胞可始终在20,000L生物反应器中培养的。在培养基中发育和细胞保留技术相结合的进步导致了在生物反应器中非常高的细胞密度。除了enhan - CING在生物反应器的生产率，在细胞培养过程的成本被显著通过消除血清和其他高成本的蛋白质从培养基的减弱。现在，化学成分确定的培养基是一个现实。这一进展CON-贡品显著，以生产生物制品的安全性和原材料的可靠性。最后，该技术现在使用导致在高度纯化的，有效的，安全的产品有效的分离，纯化和灭活病毒的方法。 本章概述从历史的角度发展和细胞培养TECHNOL -术演变，回顾了细胞培养科技大厂的

C HAPTER 1I NTRODUCTION T O T HE S TUDY O F C ELL &M OLECULARB IOLOGYO BJECTIVESPresent a brief outline of the early history of Cell Biology.Familiarize students with the basic properties of all cells.Describe the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.Specify the types of prokaryotic cells.Emphasize cell specialization as it relates to eukaryotic cells.Discuss the relevance of multicellularity and the significance of cellular differentiation.Review the dimensions important to Cell Biology (micrometer, nanometers, Ångstroms).Clarify the structure and function of the different types of viruses.Define the mechanisms by which viral infections proceed.Explain the traits that distinguish viroids from viruses.L ECTURE O UTLINEThe Discovery of CellsI. Robert Hooke (1665), English microscopist (at age 27, became curator of the Royal Society)A. Described chambers in cork; called them cells (cellulae) since they reminded him of cells occupiedby monks living in a monasteryB. Found them while trying to explain why cork stoppers could hold air in a bottle so effectivelyC. Was looking at empty cell walls, the remains of dead cells; no internal structureII. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1665-1675), Dutch seller of clothes & buttons – in spare time, he was first to describe living single cells; results were checked and confirmed by HookeA. Saw “animalcules” in pond water using the scopes of remarkable quality that he madeB. Described various forms of bacteria from tooth scrapings & water in which pepper was soakedC. Eventually, became celebrity visited by Russia's Peter the Great & the queen of EnglandIII. 1830s - full & widespread importance of cells realizedA. Matthias Schleiden, botanist (1838) - all plant tissues composed of cells; plant embryos arise fromsingle cellB. Theodor Schwann, zoologist (1839) - same conclusion about animals; plants & animals similarC. Schwann then proposed first two tenets of Cell Theory1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.2. The cell is the structural unit of life for all organisms.D. However, the Schleiden-Schwann view of the origin of cells was less insightful since both agreedthat cells could arise from noncellular materials -> eventually disproved by othersE. Rudolf Virchow, German pathologist (1855) - added third tenet of Cell Theory derived from his celldivision observations; it ran counter to Schleiden-Schwann view of cell origins1. Cells can arise only by division from a preexisting cell.Basic Properties of CellsI. Life – most basic property of cells; they are the smallest units to exhibit this property; plant or animalcells can be removed from organism & cultured in laboratoryA. Can grow and reproduce for a long time in culture, unlike their parts which soon deteriorateB. George Gey, Johns Hopkins Univ. (1951) - first human cell culture (HeLa cells); donor wasHe nrietta La cks (from her malignant tumor); still grown in laboratories todayC. Cultured cells are simpler to study than cells in body; cells grown in vitro (in culture, outside body)are essential tool of cell & molecular biologistsII. Cells are highly complex and organizedA. Each level of structure in cells is consistent from cell to cell – each cell has consistent appearance inEM; organelles have particular shape & location in individuals of a speciesB. Organelles have consistent macromolecular composition arranged in a predictable patternC. Cell structure similar organism to organism despite differences in higher anatomical featuresIII. Cells possess genetic program & the means to use it (a blueprint); encoded in collection of genesA. Blueprint for constructing cellular structures & ultimately organismsB. Directions for running cell activitiesC. Program for making more cellsIV. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves - mitosis and meiosisA. Contents of “mother” cell distributed to 2 “daughter” cellsB. Before division, genetic material is faithfully copied; each daughter cell gets complete & equal shareof genetic informationC. Usually, daughter cells have roughly equal volume; during egg production, one cell gets most ofcytoplasm & half of genetic materialV. Cells acquire & utilize energy to develop & maintain complexity - photosynthesis & respirationA. Virtually all energy needed by life arrives from sunB. This energy is trapped by light-absorbing pigments in photosynthetic cellsC. Light energy turned to chemical energy by photosynthesis; stored in energy-rich carbohydratesD. Animals get energy prepackaged usually in form of glucoseE. Once in cell, glucose disassembled; most energy is stored as ATP & used to run cell activitiesVI. Cells carry out many chemical reactions - sum total of chemical reactions in cells (metabolism); to do this, cells require enzymes (molecules that greatly increase rate of chemical reactions)VII. Cells engage in numerous mechanical activities based on dynamic, mechanical changes in cell:A. Material moved from place to placeB. Structures assembled and disassembledC. Cells move from place to placeVIII. Cells able to respond to stimuli whether cells are uni- or multicellular - have receptors that sense environment & initiate responses (move away from object in path or toward nutrient source)A. Most cells covered with receptors that interact in specific ways with substances in environment1. Receptors bind to hormones, growth factors, extracellular materials, surfaces of other cells2. Allow ways for external agents to evoke specific responses in target cellsB. Cells may respond to specific stimuli by:1. Altering metabolic activities2. Preparing for cell division3. Moving from one place to another, or4. Even committing suicideIX. Cells are capable of self-regulationA. Importance of regulatory mechanisms most evident when they break down1. Failure of cell to correct error in DNA replication -> may lead to debilitating mutation2. Breakdown in growth control -> may lead to cancer cell & maybe death of whole organismB. Example: Hans Driesch, German embryologist (1891) - separate first 2 or 4 cells in sea urchinembryo -> each produces normal embryoTwo Fundamentally Different Classes of Cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes I. With advent of EM, 2 cell types were distinguished by size & types of internal structures (organelles);exhibited a large fundamental evolutionary discontinuity (no known intermediates)A. Prokaryotes (pro - before; karyon - nucleus) – all bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae);structurally simpler1. Prokaryotes now living very similar to those fossilized in >3.5 billion year old rocks(Australia, S. Africa); sole life on planet for nearly 2 billion years before first eukaryoteB. Eukaryotes (eu - true) - structurally more complex; protists, fungi, plants, animalsII. Similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes - reflect fact that eukaryotes almost certainly evolved from prokaryotic ancestorsA. Both types of cells share an identical genetic languageB. Both types of cells share a common set of metabolic pathwaysC. Both types of cells share common structural features - cell membrane, cell walls (same function,different structure)III. Characteristics that distinguish prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells - eukaryotic cells are internally much more complex (structurally and functionally)A. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound nucleus with complex nuclear envelope & other organelles1. Prokaryotes have nucleoid (poorly demarcated cell region)[ no membrane-bound organellesB. Prokaryotes - relatively little DNA (0.25 - ~3 mm) coding for several hundred to several thousandproteins (1 mm of DNA = ~3 x 106 base pairs)1. Simplest eukaryotes (4.6 mm in yeast encoding ~6200 proteins) have slightly more DNA thanprokaryotes; most eukaryotes have an order of magnitude more DNAC. Eukaryotic chromosomes numerous; contain linear DNA tightly associated with protein; prokaryoteshave single, circular chromosome with DNA that is nearly nakedD. Cytoplasmic structures - eukaryotes have many; prokaryotes mostly devoid of such structures (exceptfor infolded bacterial mesosomes & cyanobacteria photosynthetic membranes)1. Intracytoplasmic communication smaller issue in prokaryotes due to size (diffusion works); ineukaryotes, interconnected channels/vesicles transport stuff around cell & out of cell2. Eukaryotes have cytoskeletal elements generally lacking in prokaryotes – cell contractility,movement, support3. Ribosomes of prokaryotes smaller than those of eukaryotes (essentially same function)4. Both eukaryotes & prokaryotes may be surrounded by rigid, nonliving cell wall that protects,but their chemical composition is very different5. Eukaryotes have more complex locomotor mechanisms – prokaryotes have rotating flagella;eukaryotes have more complex flagella with different mechanism (also cilia & pseudopodia)E. No mitosis or meiosis in prokaryotes (binary fission instead); prokaryotes proliferate faster (doublein 20 - 40 minutes; exchange genetic information via conjugation)1. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are compacted & separated by mitotic spindle which allows eachdaughter cell to get equal genetic material2. In prokaryotes, no chromosome compaction & no spindle; DNA copies separated by growth ofintervening cell membrane3. In conjugation, recipient almost never gets whole chromosome from donor; cell soon reverts tosingle chromosomeF. Examples of some eukaryotic organelles and their functions – divide the cytoplasm intocompartments within which specialized activities take place1. Mitochondria (plants & animals) – make chemical energy available to fuel cell activities2. Endoplasmic reticulum (plants & animals) – where many cell lipids & proteins are made3. Golgi complexes (plants & animals) – sorts, modifies, transports stuff to specific locations4. Variety of simple membrane-bound vesicles of varying dimensions plants & animals)5. Chloroplasts (plants) – sites of photosynthesis6. Single large vacuole (plants) – occupies most of cell volumeIV. Prokaryotes not inferior - metabolically very sophisticated & highly evolvedA. Have remained on Earth more than 3 billion yearsB. They live on and in eukaryotic organisms, including humansC. Make almost everything they need; need only simple carbon (only 1 or 2 low MW organiccompounds), nitrogen source(s) & some inorganic ions; some live on only inorganic substances1. One species found in wells >1000 m below Earth's surface; live on basalt rock & H2 made byinorganic reactions2. Even most versatile cells in human require a variety of organic compounds (vitamins, etc.)D. Bacteria in our large intestine even make some essential dietary ingredients for usTypes of Prokaryotic CellsI. Divided into two major groups or domains – Archaea & BacteriaII. Archaea (archaeons or archaebacteria) - groups of primitive bacteria (related DNA sequences); closest relatives of first cells; live in extremely inhospitable environments (extremophiles)A. Methanogens - capable of converting CO2 & H2 gases into methane (CH4) gasB. Halophiles - live in extremely salty environments (Dead Sea & Great Salt Lake)C. Acidophiles – acid-loving prokaryotes that live at pHs as low as 0D. Thermophiles - live at very high temperatures1. Hyperthermophiles (ex.: Pyrolobus fumaril) - live in hydrothermal vents of ocean floor; reproduceat temperatures above 109°C & won't grow below 90°CIII. Bacteria (eubacteria)A. Bacteria are present in every conceivable habitat on earth – permanent Antarctic ice shelf to driestAfrican deserts to internal confines of plants & animals, rock layers several km deep1. Some of these bacteria cut off from life on surface for >100,000,000 yearsB. Example: Mycoplasma - smallest living cells (0.2 µm dia); only prokaryotes lacking cell wallC. Example: Cyanobacteria (formerly blue-green algae) - most complex; elaborate cytoplasmicmembrane arrays which are sites of photosynthesis; similar to membranes in chloroplasts1. Filled world with O2; need few resources to survive2. Some do N2 fixation - convert N2 gas into reduced nitrogen forms (e. g. NH3) used tomake amino acids & nucleotidesD. Those species capable of both photosynthesis & nitrogen fixation survive on barest resources – light,N2, CO2, H2O1. Not surprising that cyanobacteria are the first to colonize bare rocks left lifeless by volcanoIV. Prokaryotic diversityA. To study prokaryotic diversity, cells can be concentrated, their DNA extracted & DNA sequencesanalyzed1. All organisms share certain genes (genes for rRNAs or some metabolic pathway enzymes)2. Sequences of these genes vary species to species3. Carefully analyze variety of sequences for particular gene in habitat -> tells you the number ofspecies living in the habitatB. By carefully analyzing sequences in extracted DNA & comparing sequences to those in knownorganisms, one can learn about phylogenetic relationships of these organisms1. Prokaryotes living in single Yellowstone National Park pool – 30% of sequences were frombacteria that could not be grouped into any of the 14 known divisions in the domain Bacteria2. Based on such differences, the previously unidentified bacteria were put in 12 new divisionsC. Most habitats on earth teeming with previously unidentified prokaryotic life1. Archaea once thought to be restricted to harshest environments2. Now found to be common & abundant members of non-extreme habitats (oceans, lakes, soil)3. >90% of these organisms now thought to live in subsurface sediments well beneath oceans & uppersoil layers; not long ago, deeper sediments thought to be only sparsely populated4. Carbon sequestered in world's prokaryotes is roughly comparable to total carbon in plantsTypes of Eukaryotic CellsI. Unicellularity vs. multicellularity - most complex eukaryotic cells are among single-celled protistsA. Protists - must do everything an organism must do to survive; one evolutionary pathwayB. Multicellular organisms exhibit differentiation - different activities conducted by different types ofspecialized cellsII. Example of multicellularity & differentiation - cellular slime mold Dictyostelium shows advantages provided by division of labor among cellsA. During most of life, they are independent amoebas, each a complete, self-sufficient organismB. If food scarce, stream toward each other & form sluglike aggregate (pseudoplasmodium or slug)1. Slug migrates slowly over substratum leaving slime trail2. Previously single organisms now small part of larger, multicellular individualC. Cells are no longer a homogeneous population1. Cells differentiate into prestalk cells of anterior third of slug and posterior prespore cellsD. Soon, slug stops moving, rounds up on substratum & extends upward into air1. Forms elongated fruiting body (sporangium)2. Sporangium has slender stalk supporting rounded mass of dormant, encapsulated spores3. Stalk (from prestalk cells) supports spore mass (from prespore cells) above substratum4. Spores scatter and give rise to next generation of amoebasIII. Differentiation – process by which a relatively unspecialized cell becomes highly specializedA. Fertilized egg develops into many cell types (hundreds) in mature organism1. Cells specialized for varied functions, have distinctive appearance, carry unique materials2. Cells have similar organelles but their number, appearance & location may differ &correlate with cell activitiesB. Differentiation of each eukaryotic cell depends primarily on signals received from environment1. Signals, in turn, depend on position of cell within embryo2. As a result, different cell types acquire distinctive appearance & contain unique materialsC. Despite differences, various cells of multicellular plant or animal are made of similar organelles1. Mitochondria are found in all cell types, but they may change shape (rounded or highlyelongated & threadlike)2. Brown adipose cell (main function is generation of heat from chemical energy stored in fat);has numerous fat droplets & lots of mitochondria where energy conversion occurs3. Plasma cell specialized for antibody production – have relatively small number ofmitochondria but extensive rough endoplasmic where protein synthesis occurs4. Number, appearance & location of organelles can be correlated with activities of particularcell typeIV. Cell & molecular biology research focuses on small number of representative or model organismsA. Saccharomycese cerevisiae, a budding yeastB. Arabadopsis thaliana– a mustard plantC. Caenorhabditis elegans– a nematodeD. Drosophila melanogaster– a fruit flyE. Mus musculus– a mouseThe Sizes of Cells and Their ComponentsI. Units of linear measure most often used to describe cell structuresA. Micrometers (µm; 10-6 m), nanometers (nm; 10-9 m)B. Ångstroms (Å; 10-10 m) – often used by molecular biologists for atomic dimensions although no longerformally accepted in metric nomenclature); ~1 Å = diameter of H atomII. Examples of dimensions of cells and cell componentsA. Typical globular protein (myoglobin) - ~ 4.5 nm x 3.5 nm x 2.5 nmB. Highly elongated proteins (collagen, myosin) - over 100 nm in lengthC. DNA - ~2 nm in widthD. Large molecular complexes (ribosomes, microtubules, microfilaments); 5 - 25 nm dia.E. Nuclei - about 10 µm diameter; mitochondria - about 2 µm in lengthF. Bacteria - 1 to 5 µm in length; eukaryotic cells - 10 to 30 µm in lengthIII. Why are most cells so small?A. Most eukaryotic cells have single nucleus with only 2 copies of most genes1. Thus, cells can only produce limited number of mRNAs in a given amount of time2. The larger a cell's volume, the longer it takes to make the number of mRNAs the cell needsB. As a cell increases in size, the surface area/volume ratio decreases1. If surface area/volume ratio gets too small, surface area not sufficient to take up substancesneeded to support metabolism (oxygen, nutrients, etc.) or get rid of wastesC. As cell gets larger, takes too long for diffusion to move substances in and out of active cell1. Time required for diffusion is proportional to the square of the distance traversed2. O2 required 100 µsec to diffuse 1 µm, but 106 times as long to diffuse 1 mm3. As cell becomes larger, distance from surface to interior gets larger; diffusion time to movethings in & out of metabolically active cell becomes prohibitively longIV. How do large cells get around the surface area/volume problems? - examplesA. Ostrich egg & others - little living protoplasm spread over top of lots of inert yolk nutrientB. Giraffe (and other large animal) nerve cells - very long but very small diameterC. Plant cell interior filled with large fluid-filled vacuole; needs no support, unlike cytoplasmD. Intestinal epithelium specialized for absorption with microvilli to increase surface areaVirusesI. Pathogens smaller and, presumably, simpler than smallest bacteria; called virusesA. Late 1800s - thought infectious diseases caused by bacteria but other agent soon found1. Sap from sick tobacco plant found to infect other plants while containing no bacteria2. Sap still infective if forced through filter with pores smaller than smallest known bacteria3. Infectious agent could not be grown in culture unless living plant cells also presentB. Wendell Stanley, Rockefeller Institute (1935) - tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a rod-shaped particlewas crystallized & found to be infective; thought to be protein1. Now know it is a single RNA molecule surrounded by helical shell of protein subunitsC. Viruses responsible for many human diseases, some cancers - come in different shapes, sizes &constructions – AIDS, polio, influenza, cold sores, measles, a few types of cancersII. Common virus properties - not considered living since need host to reproduce, metabolize, etc.A. All are obligatory intracellular parasites (must reproduce in host cell [plant, animal, bacteria])1. Alone, they are unable to reproduce, metabolize or carry on other life-associated activities2. Thus, they are not considered to be organisms & not considered to be alive3. Once it has attached & passed through membrane, it can alter host cell activitiesB. Outside of living cell, it exists as particle or virion, essentially a macromolecular packageC. Has genetic material (single/double stranded DNA or RNA); 3 or 4 genes up to several 1001. The fewer the genes, the more it relies on enzymes & other proteins encoded by host genesD. Genetic material surrounded by protein capsule (capsid) usually made up of a specific number ofsubunits; efficient (need only a few genes to make capsid)1. Capsid subunits often organized into polyhedron with planar faces (ex.: 20-sided icosahedron) likeadenovirus which causes mammalian respiratory infectionsE. Many animal viruses have capsid surrounded by lipid-containing outer envelope derived frommodified host cell membrane as virus buds from host cell surface (ex.: HIV)F. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) are among most complex – T bacteriophages polyhedral head(contains DNA), cylindrical stalk (injects DNA) & tail fibers (attach to bacteria)1. Used in key experiments that revealed genetic material structure & propertiesG. Viruses have surface proteins that bind to particular host cell surface component (specificity)1. HIV - glycoprotein of 120,000 dalton MW (gp120) interacts with specific protein (CD4) onsurface of certain white blood cells facilitating virus entry into host cell2. Viral & host protein interaction determines virus specificity, the hosts it can enter & infectH. Most viruses have relatively narrow host range (certain cells of certain host like human cold &influenza viruses, which are only able to infect human respiratory epithelium cells1. But some can have wide host range, infecting cells from a variety of organs or species - rabiesinfects variety of mammalian host species (bats, dogs, humans)2. Host cell specificity change can have dramatic effect – 1918 influenza epidemic killed >20million people; flu strain may have been so virulent because it infected many cell typesIII. Two basic types of viral infectionA. Lytic infection - virus usually arrests normal host activities, redirects cell to make new viralnucleic acids & proteins that self-assemble into new virions1. Cell lyses to release new viral particles & infect neighboring cellsB. Formation of provirus - integrates its DNA into host DNA, but no immediate host cell deathIV. Effects of integrated provirus depend on type of virus & host cell - up to 1% of human DNA is DNA from proviruses that infected our ancestors (now just genetic garbage transmitted passively)A. Bacterial cells with provirus behave normally until exposed to some stimulus (e. g. UV radiation) thatactivates dormant viral DNA1. Then cells make new virions & lyse releasing viral progeny - bacterial lambda ( ) virusB. Animal cells with provirus may make new viruses by cell surface budding without lysis – HIV1. Infected cell may stay alive for a period acting as a factory for production of new virionsC. Animal cells with provirus may lose growth & division control -> malignant (tumor viruses)V. Viral originA. Unlikely that viruses present before hosts since they need hosts for reproduction, etc.B. Since have same genetic language as hosts, they could not have arisen independently as primitiveform after other cells had evolvedC. Probably a degenerate form derived from more complex cellular organism - maybe evolved fromsmall cell chromosome fragments able to maintain a type of autonomous existence in cellD. Over time, these autonomous genetic elements acquired protein coat, became infective agentsE. Different viruses likely arose independently from various organisms (genes similar to host genes)1. Corroboration – genes present in each group of viruses are different from those of other groups butsimilar to genes within host cells they infect2. Difficult to find drugs not harmful to human host since viruses use host enzymesVI. Viruses have virtues - research tool to study host DNA replication/gene expression, insect-killing viruses (pest control), used to introduce foreign genes into human cells as treatment (gene therapy)ViroidsI. T. O. Diener, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (1971) - discovered an agent causing potato spindle-tuberdisease; potatoes get gnarled, crackedA. Infectious agent was small circular RNA lacking protein coat (viroids)B. Viroid traits1. RNAs range from about 240 to 600 nucleotides (10% size of smaller viruses)2. No evidence that RNA codes for proteins; viroids use host enzymes & proteins completely; ex.:duplication of viroid RNA in infected cell uses host RNA polymerase IIC. May cause disease by interfering with cell's normal path of gene expression (e. g. monopolize RNApolymerase II to duplicate viroid RNA)II. Viroid diseases can have serious effects on cropsA. Cadang-cadang - devastated coconut palm groves of PhilippinesB. Another has wreaked havoc on chrysanthemum industry in U. S.L ECTURE H INTSDiscovery of CellsIt is useful to give an historical background to the discipline of Cell Biology at the beginning of the course. It sets the stage for what is to follow. The story of the connection between Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek described by Karp is a good one and should be related. Too often, Hooke's and van Leeuwenhoek's accomplishments are described without any mention of such a connection. It is instructive about the level of communication in science that existed in the 1600s and from which science will continue to benefit today if it is not stifled. It may also be useful to mention the quality of van Leeuwenhoek's single lens microscopes. They were examples of superior craftsmanship capable of 300-fold magnification. They were, however, limited in resolution and, therefore, limited in what discoveries they would allow.The origin of the Cell Theory is equally valuable. I have found the following quote from E. B. Wilson which I have used when teaching General Biology to be useful in this lecture as well. Wilson stated, less than 75 years after the Cell Theory became widely accepted, that "Long ago it became evident that the key to every biological problem must finally be sought in the cell; for every living organism is, or at some time, has been a cell."I usually end this section of my lecture by mentioning the biological disciplines which have given rise to modern Cell Biology: cytology, biochemistry and genetics. I also stress the importance of molecular techniques and molecular biology to the study of Cell Biology nowadays.Leeuwenhoek and SpermAmong the cells discovered by Anton van Leeuwenhoek (along with his co-discoverer Stephen Hamm) were sperm. According to The People's Almanac #2, upon the discovery in 1677, Leeuwenhoek described the cells he saw as moving "forward with a snakelike motion of the tail". Given the era in which the observation was made, he felt moved to include a disclaimer in his report stating that he had not obtained the sample by "any sinful contrivance" but that his "observations were made upon the excess with which Nature provided [him] in [his] conjugal relations". Despite this, few scientists at the time made the connection between the cells he had observed and conception. Some felt they were parasites. Later, when the connection had been made, some investigators thought that miniature organisms resided in the sperm head and that they expanded slowly upon entering the female. One investigator claimed to see microscopic roosters and horses in the heads of sperm from roosters and horses, respectively. It was even reported later that a tiny human could be seen in the fetal position in the head of human sperm. The tiny figure was called an homunculus.Basic Properties of CellsFor most students, a restatement of properties common to all cells is a review. However, experience reveals that such reviews are important. These common features are listed in Karp's text.Prokaryotes vs. EukaryotesSpend some time on the distinctions between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Deal with any potential vocabulary problems by defining the roots for prokaryote and eukaryote (kary - nucleus, pro- before, eu-true). Students sometimes have difficulty distinguishing between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Stress the differences and make sure, as much as possible, that they are understood. It might also be a good idea in this section to summarize briefly the major organelles of both types of cells. It serves as a brief reintroduction to terms that the students will hear later.The Sizes of Cells and Their ComponentsThe sizes of cells and their organelles are often hard for students to grasp and a brief review of these units of measure is advisable. I do not require my students to memorize the sizes of these cells and organelles, however. These are facts that can be looked up easily in a number of reference books. As a general rule, I。

細胞培養學名詞翻譯解釋(原文請參考Freshney,R.I.2005.Culture of animal cells.5th ed.John Wiley&Sons,New Jersey.譯者:長榮大學生物科技系)1.Adaptation-適應性調節；在一刺激反應下，誘導或抑制一個大分子如蛋白質的合成。

例如enzyme adaptation–受到誘導子或抑制子刺激而改變酵素合成或分解速率。

2.Allograft-同種異體移植(homograft：同種移植片；自體移植片)3.Amniocentesis-羊膜穿刺術，在懷孕期間取出子宮內圍繞胎兒附近的流體，據以分析是否有染色體異常。

4.Anchorage dependent-貼附依賴性，細胞的生長須貼附在固體受質始能存活生長。

5.Anemometer-風速表，測量空氣流動速率的儀器。

6.Aneuploid-非正常數染色體的(比正常數目多或少)，在單套染色體數中，不是一個精確的染色體倍數。

7.Apoptosis-因為細胞內部生存機制發生變化而導致細胞凋亡，現象包含DNA斷裂、細胞核片段化與細胞死亡。

8.Aseptic-無菌的，沒有受到微生物的感染9.Autocrine-自體內分泌作用，由一細胞分泌一個訊息分子並由同型細胞接受並產生反應的作用。

10.Autograft-自體移植物，從一個個體移植轉移回到同一個個體。

11.Autoradiography-自動射線照相術，以感光攝影方式偵測放射性同位素存在於細胞或組織區域之位置，或是透過電泳後對放射性同位素定位分析。

12.Balanced salt solution-平衡的鹽類溶液，等滲透壓的無機鹽類溶液，鹽的比例相近於正確的生理濃度，可能包含葡萄糖，但通常不含其他的有機營養物。

13.Bioreactor-生物反應器，大量培養生產細胞的容器，可以培養貼附型細胞或懸浮細胞。

14.Biostat-細胞培養的裝置，可以維持穩定的物理化學、生理環境以及細胞濃度，通常藉由灌注進行監控和回饋。