N. An Incentive-based Quality of Service Aware Algorithm for Inter-AS Traffic Engineering

The Oxford 3000 wordlist▪a, an indefinite article ▪abandon v.▪abandoned adj.▪ability n.▪able adj.▪unable adj.▪about adv.,prep.▪above prep.,adv.▪abroad adv.▪absence n.▪absent adj.▪absolute adj.▪absolutely adv.▪absorb v.▪abuse n.,v.▪academic adj.▪accent n.▪accept v.▪acceptable adj.▪unacceptable adj.▪access n.▪accident n.▪by accident▪accidental adj.▪accidentally adv.▪accommodation n.▪accompany v.▪according to prep.▪account n.,v.▪accurate adj.▪accurately adv.▪accuse v.▪achieve v.▪achievement n.▪acid n.▪acknowledge v.▪acquire v.▪across adv.,prep.▪act n.,v.▪action n.▪take action▪active adj.▪actively adv.▪activity n.▪actor, actress n.▪actual adj.▪actually adv.▪ad advertisement▪adapt v.▪add v.▪addition n.▪in addition (to)▪additional adj.▪address n.,v.▪adequate adj.▪adequately adv.▪adjust v.▪admiration n.▪admire v.▪admit v.▪adopt v.▪adult n.,adj.▪advance n.,v.▪advanced adj.▪in advance▪advantage n.▪take advantage of▪adventure n.▪advertise v.▪advertising n.▪advertisement (also ad, advert) n.▪advice n.▪advise v.▪affair n.▪affect v.▪affection n.▪afford v.▪afraid adj.▪after prep.,conj.,adv.▪afternoon n.▪afterwards (especially BrE;NAmE usually afterward) adv.▪again adv.▪against prep.▪age n.▪aged adj.▪agency n.▪agent n.▪aggressive adj.▪ago adv.▪agree v.▪agreement n.▪ahead adv.▪aid n.,v.▪aim n.,v.▪air n.▪aircraft n.▪airport n.▪alarm n.,v.▪alarming adj.▪alarmed adj.▪alcohol n.▪alcoholic adj., n.▪alive adj.▪all det.,pron.,adv.▪allow v.▪all right adj.,adv.,exclamation▪ally n., v.▪allied adj.▪almost adv.▪alone adj.,adv.▪along prep.,adv.▪alongside prep.,adv.▪aloud adv.▪alphabet n.▪alphabetical adj.▪alphabetically adv.▪already adv.▪also adv.▪alter v.▪alternative n.,adj.▪alternatively adv.▪although conj.▪altogether adv.▪always adv.▪ a.m. (NAmE also A.M.) abbr.▪amaze v.▪amazing adj.▪amazed adj.▪ambition n.▪ambulance n.▪among (also amongst) prep.▪amount n., v.▪amuse v.▪amusing adj.▪amused adj.▪an a, an▪analyse (BrE) (NAmE analyze) v.▪analysis n.▪ancient adj.▪and conj.▪anger n.▪angle n.▪angry adj.▪angrily adv.▪animal n.▪ankle n.▪anniversary n.▪announce v.▪annoy v.▪annoying adj.▪annoyed adj.▪annual adj.▪annually adv.▪another det.,pron.▪answer n.,v.▪anti- prefix▪anticipate v.▪anxiety n.▪anxious adj.▪anxiously adv.▪any det.,pron.,adv.▪anyone (also anybody) pron.▪anything pron.▪anyway adv.▪anywhere adv.▪apart adv.▪apart from (also aside from especially in NAmE) prep.▪apartment n. (especially NAmE) ▪apologize (BrE also -ise) v.▪apparent adj.▪apparently adv.▪appeal n.,v.▪appear v.▪appearance n.▪apple n.▪application n.▪apply v.▪appoint v.▪appointment n.▪appreciate v.▪approach v.,n.▪appropriate adj.▪approval n.▪approve (of) v.▪approving adj.▪approximate adj.▪approximately adv.▪April n. (abbr. Apr.) ▪area n.▪argue v.▪argument n.▪arise v.▪arm n.,v.▪arms n.▪armed adj.▪army n.▪around adv.,prep.▪arrange v.▪arrangement n.▪arrest v.,n.▪arrival n.▪arrive v.▪arrow n.▪art n.▪article n.▪artificial adj.▪artificially adv.▪artist n.▪artistic adj.▪as prep.,adv.,conj.▪ashamed adj.▪aside adv.▪aside from apart from ▪ask v.▪asleep adj.▪fall asleep▪aspect n.▪assist v.▪assistance n.▪assistant n.,adj.▪associate v.▪associated with▪association n.▪assume v.▪assure v.▪at prep.▪atmosphere n.▪atom n.▪attach v.▪attached adj.▪attack n.,v.▪attempt n.,v.▪attempted adj.▪attend v.▪attention n.▪pay attention▪attitude n.▪attorney n. (especially NAmE) ▪attract v.▪attraction n.▪attractive adj.▪audience n.▪August n. (abbr. Aug.)▪aunt n.▪author n.▪authority n.▪automatic adj.▪automatically adv.▪autumn n. (especially BrE)▪available adj.▪average adj.,n.▪avoid v.▪awake adj.▪award n.,v.▪aware adj.▪away adv.▪awful adj.▪awfully adv.▪awkward adj.▪awkwardly adv.▪baby n.▪back n.,adj.,adv.,v.▪background n.▪backwards (also backward especially in NAmE) adv.▪backward adj.▪bacteria n.▪bad adj.▪go bad▪badly adv.▪bad-tempered adj.▪bag n.▪baggage n. (especially NAmE) ▪bake v.▪balance n.,v.▪ball n.▪ban v.,n.▪band n.▪bandage n., v.▪bank n.▪bar n.▪bargain n.▪barrier n.▪base n.,v.▪based on▪basic adj.▪basically adv.▪basis n.▪bath n.▪bathroom n.▪battery n.▪battle n.▪bay n.▪be v.,auxiliary v.▪beach n.▪beak n.▪bear v.▪beard n.▪beat n.,v.▪beautiful adj.▪beautifully adv.▪beauty n.▪because conj.▪because of prep.▪become v.▪bed n.▪bedroom n.▪beef n.▪beer n.▪before prep.,conj.,adv.▪begin v.▪beginning n.▪behalf n.: on behalf of sb, on sb’s behalf (BrE) (NAmE in behalf of sb, in sb’s behalf)▪behave v.▪behaviour (BrE) (NAmE behavior) n.▪behind prep.,adv.▪belief n.▪believe v.▪bell n.▪belong v.▪below prep.,adv.▪belt n.▪bend v.,n.▪bent adj.▪beneath prep.,adv.▪benefit n.,v.▪beside prep.▪bet v.,n.▪betting n.▪better, best good, well▪between prep.,adv.▪beyond prep.,adv.▪bicycle (also bike) n.▪bid v.,n.▪big adj.▪bill n.▪bin n. (BrE)▪biology n.▪bird n.▪birth n.▪give birth (to)▪birthday n.▪biscuit n. (BrE)▪bit n. (especially BrE)▪ a bit▪bite v.,n.▪bitter adj.▪bitterly adv.▪black adj.,n.▪blade n.▪blame v.,n.▪blank adj., n.▪blankly adv.▪blind adj.▪block n.,v.▪blonde adj., n., blond adj.▪blood n.▪blow v.,n.▪blue adj.,n.▪board n., v.▪on board▪boat n.▪body n.▪boil v.▪bomb n.,v.▪bone n.▪book n.,v.▪boot n.▪border n.▪bore v.▪boring adj.▪bored adj.▪born: be born v.▪borrow v.▪boss n.▪both det.,pron.▪bother v.▪bottle n.▪bottom n.,adj.▪bound adj.: bound to ▪bowl n.▪box n.▪boy n.▪boyfriend n.▪brain n.▪branch n.▪brand n.▪brave adj.▪bread n.▪break v.,n.▪broken adj.▪breakfast n.▪breast n.▪breath n.▪breathe v.▪breathing n.▪breed v.,n.▪brick n.▪bridge n.▪brief adj.▪briefly adv.▪bright adj.▪brightly adv.▪brilliant adj.▪bring v.▪broad adj.▪broadly adv.▪broadcast v.,n.▪broken break▪brother n.▪brown adj.,n.▪brush n.,v.▪bubble n.▪budget n.▪build v.▪building n.▪bullet n.▪bunch n.▪burn v.▪burnt adj.▪burst v.▪bury v.▪bus n.▪bush n.▪business n.▪businessman, businesswoman n.▪busy adj.▪but conj.▪butter n.▪button n.▪buy v.▪buyer n.▪by prep.,adv.▪bye exclamation▪ c abbr.cent▪cabinet n.▪cable n.▪cake n.▪calculate v.▪calculation n.▪call v.,n.▪be called▪calm adj.,v.,n.▪calmly adv.▪camera n.▪camp n.,v.▪camping n.▪campaign n.▪can modal v.,n.▪cannot▪could modal v.▪cancel v.▪cancer n.▪candidate n.▪candy n. (NAmE) ▪cap n.▪capable (of) adj.▪capacity n.▪capital n.,adj.▪captain n.▪capture v.,n.▪car n.▪card n.▪cardboard n.▪care n.,v.▪take care (of) ▪care for▪career n.▪careful adj.▪carefully adv.▪careless adj.▪carelessly adv.▪carpet n.▪carrot n.▪carry v.▪case n.▪in case (of)▪cash n.▪cast v.,n.▪castle n.▪cat n.▪catch v.▪category n.▪cause n.,v.▪CD n.▪cease v.▪ceiling n.▪celebrate v.▪celebration n.▪cell n.▪cellphone (also cellular phone) n. (especially NAmE)▪cent n. (abbr. c, ct)▪centimetre (BrE) (NAmEcentimeter) n. (abbr. cm)▪central adj.▪centre (BrE) (NAmE center) n.▪century n.▪ceremony n.▪certain adj.,pron.▪certainly adv.▪uncertain adj.▪certificate n.▪chain n., v.▪chair n.▪chairman, chairwoman n.▪challenge n.,v.▪chamber n.▪chance n.▪change v.,n.▪channel n.▪chapter n.▪character n.▪characteristic adj.,n.▪charge n.,v.▪in charge of▪charity n.▪chart n.,v.▪chase v.,n.▪chat v., n.▪cheap adj.▪cheaply adv.▪cheat v.,n.▪check v.,n.▪cheek n.▪cheerful adj.▪cheerfully adv.▪cheese n.▪chemical adj.,n.▪chemist n.▪chemist’s n. (BrE)▪chemistry n.▪cheque n. (BrE) (NAmE check) ▪chest n.▪chew v.▪chicken n.▪chief adj.,n.▪child n.▪chin n.▪chip n.▪chocolate n.▪choice n.▪choose v.▪chop v.▪church n.▪cigarette n.▪cinema n. (especially BrE) ▪circle n.▪circumstance n.▪citizen n.▪city n.▪civil adj.▪claim v.,n.▪clap v., n.▪class n.▪classic adj.,n.▪classroom n.▪clean adj.,v.▪clear adj.,v.▪clearly adv.▪clerk n.▪clever adj.▪click v., n.▪client n.▪climate n.▪climb v.▪climbing n.▪clock n.▪close /kl??s, NAmE klo?s/ adj.▪closely adv.▪close /kl??z, NAmE kl??z/ v.▪closed adj.▪closet n. (especially NAmE) ▪cloth n.▪clothes n.▪clothing n.▪cloud n.▪club n.▪cm abbr.centimetre▪coach n.▪coal n.▪coast n.▪coat n.▪code n.▪coffee n.▪coin n.▪cold adj.,n.▪coldly adv.▪collapse v.,n.▪colleague n.▪collect v.▪collection n.▪college n.▪colour (BrE) (NAmE color) n., v.▪coloured (BrE) (NAmE colored) adj.▪column n.▪combination n.▪combine v.▪come v.▪comedy n.▪comfort n.,v.▪comfortable adj.▪comfortably adv.▪uncomfortable adj.▪command v.,n.▪comment n.,v.▪commercial adj.▪commission n., v.▪commit v.▪commitment n.▪committee n.▪common adj.▪in common▪commonly adv.▪communicate v.▪communication n.▪community n.▪company n.▪compare v.▪comparison n.▪compete v.▪competition n.▪competitive adj.▪complain v.▪complaint n.▪complete adj.,v.▪completely adv.▪complex adj.▪complicate v.▪complicated adj.▪computer n.▪concentrate v.▪concentration n.▪concept n.▪concern v.,n.▪concerned adj.▪concerning prep.▪concert n.▪conclude v.▪conclusion n.▪concrete adj.,n.▪condition n.▪conduct v.,n.▪conference n.▪confidence n.▪confident adj.▪confidently adv.▪confine v.▪confined adj.▪confirm v.▪conflict n.,v.▪confront v.▪confuse v.▪confusing adj.▪confused adj.▪confusion n.▪congratulations n.▪congress n.▪connect v.▪connection n.▪conscious adj.▪unconscious adj.▪consequence n.▪conservative adj.▪consider v.▪considerable adj.▪considerably adv.▪consideration n.▪consist of v.▪constant adj.▪constantly adv.▪construct v.▪construction n.▪consult v.▪consumer n.▪contact n.,v.▪contain v.▪container n.▪contemporary adj.▪content n.▪contest n.▪context n.▪continent n.▪continue v.▪continuous adj.▪continuously adv.▪contract n.,v.▪contrast n.,v.▪contrasting adj.▪contribute v.▪contribution n.▪control n.,v.▪in control (of)▪under control▪controlled adj.▪uncontrolled adj.▪convenient adj.▪convention n.▪conventional adj.▪conversation n.▪convert v.▪convince v.▪cook v.,n.▪cooking n.▪cooker n. (BrE)▪cookie n. (especially NAmE) ▪cool adj.,v.▪cope (with) v.▪copy n.,v.▪core n.▪corner n.▪correct adj.,v.▪correctly adv.▪cost n.,v.▪cottage n.▪cotton n.▪cough v.,n.▪coughing n.▪could can▪council n.▪count v.▪counter n.▪country n.▪countryside n.▪county n.▪couple n.▪ a couple▪courage n.▪course n.▪of course▪court n.▪cousin n.▪cover v.,n.▪covered adj.▪covering n.▪cow n.▪crack n.,v.▪cracked adj.▪craft n.▪crash n.,v.▪crazy adj.▪cream n.,adj.▪create v.▪creature n.▪credit n.▪credit card n.▪crime n.▪criminal adj.,n.▪crisis n.▪crisp adj.▪criterion n.▪critical adj.▪criticism n.▪criticize (BrE also -ise) v.▪crop n.▪cross n.,v.▪crowd n.▪crowded adj.▪crown n.▪crucial adj.▪cruel adj.▪crush v.▪cry v.,n.▪ct abbr.cent▪cultural adj.▪culture n.▪cup n.▪cupboard n.▪curb v.▪cure v.,n.▪curious adj.▪curiously adv.▪curl v.,n.▪curly adj.▪current adj.,n.▪currently adv.▪curtain n.▪curve n.,v.▪curved adj.▪custom n.▪customer n.▪customs n.▪cut v.,n.▪cycle n.,v.▪cycling n.▪dad n.▪daily adj.▪damage n.,v.▪damp adj.▪dance n.,v.▪dancing n.▪dancer n.▪danger n.▪dangerous adj.▪dare v.▪dark adj.,n.▪data n.▪date n.,v.▪daughter n.▪day n.▪dead adj.▪deaf adj.▪deal v.,n.▪deal with▪dear adj.▪death n.▪debate n.,v.▪debt n.▪decade n.▪decay n.,v.▪December n. (abbr. Dec.)▪decide v.▪decision n.▪declare v.▪decline n.,v.▪decorate v.▪decoration n.▪decorative adj.▪decrease v.,n.▪deep adj.,adv.▪deeply adv.▪defeat v.,n.▪defence (BrE) (NAmE defense) n.▪defend v.▪define v.▪definite adj.▪definitely adv.▪definition n.▪degree n.▪delay n.,v.▪deliberate adj.▪deliberately adv.▪delicate adj.▪delight n.,v.▪delighted adj.▪deliver v.▪delivery n.▪demand n.,v.▪demonstrate v.▪dentist n.▪deny v.▪department n.▪departure n.▪depend (on) v.▪deposit n.,v.▪depress v.▪depressing adj.▪depressed adj.▪depth n.▪derive v.▪describe v.▪description n.▪desert n.,v.▪deserted adj.▪deserve v.▪design n.,v.▪desire n.,v.▪desk n.▪desperate adj.▪desperately adv.▪despite prep.▪destroy v.▪destruction n.▪detail n.▪in detail ▪detailed adj.▪determination n.▪determine v.▪determined adj.▪develop v.▪development n.▪device n.▪devote v.▪devoted adj.▪diagram n.▪diamond n.▪diary n.▪dictionary n.▪die v.▪dying adj.▪diet n.▪difference n.▪different adj.▪differently adv.▪difficult adj.▪difficulty n.▪dig v.▪dinner n.▪direct adj.,v.▪directly adv.▪direction n.▪director n.▪dirt n.▪dirty adj.▪disabled adj.▪disadvantage n.▪disagree v.▪disagreement n.▪disappear v.▪disappoint v.▪disappointing adj.▪disappointed adj.▪disappointment n.▪disapproval n.▪disapprove (of) v.▪disapproving adj.▪disaster n.▪disc (also disk, especially in NAmE) n.▪discipline n.▪discount n.▪discover v.▪discovery n.▪discuss v.▪discussion n.▪disease n.▪disgust v.,n.▪disgusting adj.▪disgusted adj.▪dish n.▪dishonest adj.▪dishonestly adv.▪disk n.▪dislike v.,n.▪dismiss v.▪display v.,n.▪dissolve v.▪distance n.▪distinguish v.▪distribute v.▪distribution n.▪district n.▪disturb v.▪disturbing adj.▪divide v.▪division n.▪divorce n.,v.▪divorced adj.▪do v.,auxiliary v.▪undo v.▪doctor n. (abbr. Dr, NAmE Dr.) ▪document n.▪dog n.▪dollar n.▪domestic adj.▪dominate v.▪door n.▪dot n.▪double adj.,det.,adv.,n.,v.▪doubt n.,v.▪down adv.,prep.▪downstairs adv.,adj., n.▪downwards (also downward especially in NAmE) adv.▪downward adj.▪dozen n.,det.▪Dr (BrE) (also Dr. NAmE, BrE) abbr.doctor▪draft n.,adj.,v.▪drag v.▪drama n.▪dramatic adj.▪dramatically adv.▪draw v.▪drawing n.▪drawer n.▪dream n.,v.▪dress n.,v.▪dressed adj.▪drink n.,v.▪drive v.,n.▪driving n.▪driver n.▪drop v.,n.▪drug n.▪drugstore n. (NAmE)▪drum n.▪drunk adj.▪dry adj.,v.▪due adj.▪due to▪dull adj.▪dump v.,n.▪during prep.▪dust n.,v.▪duty n.▪DVD n.▪each det.,pron.▪each other (also one another) pron.▪ear n.▪early adj.,adv.▪earn v.▪earth n.▪ease n.,v.▪east n.,adj.,adv.▪eastern adj.▪easy adj.▪easily adv.▪eat v.▪economic adj.▪economy n.▪edge n.▪edition n.▪editor n.▪educate v.▪educated adj.▪education n.▪effect n.▪effective adj.▪effectively adv.▪efficient adj.▪efficiently adv.▪effort n.▪ e.g. abbr.▪egg n.▪either det.,pron.,adv.▪elbow n.▪elderly adj.▪elect v.▪election n.▪electric adj.▪electrical adj.▪electricity n.▪electronic adj.▪elegant adj.▪element n.▪elevator n. (NAmE)▪else adv.▪elsewhere adv.▪email (also e-mail) n.,v.▪embarrass v.▪embarrassing adj.▪embarrassed adj.▪embarrassment n.▪emerge v.▪emergency n.▪emotion n.▪emotional adj.▪emotionally adv.▪emphasis n.▪emphasize (BrE also -ise) v.▪empire n.▪employ v.▪unemployed adj.▪employee n.▪employer n.▪employment n.▪unemployment n.▪empty adj.,v.▪enable v.▪encounter v.,n.▪encourage v.▪encouragement n.▪end n.,v.▪in the end▪ending n.▪enemy n.▪energy n.▪engage v.▪engaged adj.▪engine n.▪engineer n.▪engineering n.▪enjoy v.▪enjoyable adj.▪enjoyment n.▪enormous adj.▪enough det.,pron.,adv.▪enquiry (also inquiry especially in NAmE) n.▪ensure v.▪enter v.▪entertain v.▪entertaining adj.▪entertainer n.▪entertainment n.▪enthusiasm n.▪enthusiastic adj.▪entire adj.▪entirely adv.▪entitle v.▪entrance n.▪entry n.▪envelope n.▪environment n.▪environmental adj.▪equal adj.,n.,v.▪equally adv.▪equipment n.▪equivalent adj.,n.▪error n.▪escape v.,n.▪especially adv.▪essay n.▪essential adj.,n.▪essentially adv.▪establish v.▪estate n.▪estimate n.,v.▪etc. (full form et cetera)▪euro n.▪even adv.,adj.▪evening n.▪event n.▪eventually adv.▪ever adv.▪every det.▪everyone (also everybody) pron.▪everything pron.▪everywhere adv.▪evidence n.▪evil adj.,n.▪ex- prefix▪exact adj.▪exactly adv.▪exaggerate v.▪exaggerated adj.▪exam n.▪examination n.▪examine v.▪example n.▪excellent adj.▪except prep.,conj.▪exception n.▪exchange v.,n.▪in exchange (for)▪excite v.▪exciting adj.▪excited adj.▪excitement n.▪exclude v.▪excluding prep.▪excuse n.,v.▪executive n.,adj.▪exercise n.,v.▪exhibit v., n.▪exhibition n.▪exist v.▪existence n.▪exit n.▪expand v.▪expect v.▪expected adj.▪unexpected adj.▪unexpectedly adv.▪expectation n.▪expense n.▪expensive adj.▪experience n.,v.▪experienced adj.▪experiment n.,v.▪expert n.,adj.▪explain v.▪explanation n.▪explode v.▪explore v.▪explosion n.▪export v.,n.▪expose v.▪express v.,adj.▪expression n.▪extend v.▪extension n.▪extensive adj.▪extent n.▪extra adj.,n.,adv.▪extraordinary adj.▪extreme adj.,n.▪extremely adv.▪eye n.▪face n.,v.▪facility n.▪fact n.▪factor n.▪factory n.▪fail v.▪failure n.▪faint adj.▪faintly adv.▪fair adj.▪fairly adv.▪unfair adj.▪unfairly adv.▪faith n.▪faithful adj.▪faithfully adv.▪Yours faithfully (BrE) ▪fall v.,n.▪fall over▪false adj.▪fame n.▪familiar adj.▪family n.,adj.▪famous adj.▪fan n.▪fancy v.,adj.▪far adv.,adj.▪further adj.▪farm n.▪farming n.▪farmer n.▪farther, farthest far ▪fashion n.▪fashionable adj.▪fast adj.,adv.▪fasten v.▪fat adj.,n.▪father n.▪faucet n. (NAmE)▪fault n.▪favour (BrE) (NAmE favor) n.▪in favour/favor (of)▪favourite (BrE) (NAmE favorite) adj.,n.▪fear n.,v.▪feather n.▪feature n.,v.▪February n. (abbr. Feb.)▪federal adj.▪fee n.▪feed v.▪feel v.▪feeling n.▪fellow n.,adj.▪female adj.,n.▪fence n.▪festival n.▪fetch v.▪fever n.▪few det.,adj.,pron.▪ a few▪field n.▪fight v.,n.▪fighting n.▪figure n.,v.▪file n.▪fill v.▪film n.,v.▪final adj., n.▪finally adv.▪finance n.,v.▪financial adj.▪find v.▪find out sth ▪fine adj.▪finely adv.▪finger n.▪finish v.,n.▪finished adj.▪fire n.,v.▪set fire to▪firm n.,adj.,adv.▪firmly adv.▪first det.,ordinal number,adv., n.▪at first▪fish n.,v.▪fishing n.▪fit v.,adj.▪fix v.▪fixed adj.▪flag n.▪flame n.▪flash v.,n.▪flat adj.,n.▪flavour (BrE) (NAmE flavor) n., v.▪flesh n.▪flight n.▪float v.▪flood n.,v.▪floor n.▪flour n.▪flow n.,v.▪flower n.▪flu n.▪fly v.,n.▪flying adj.,n.▪focus v.,n.▪fold v.,n.▪folding adj.▪follow v.▪following adj.,n.,prep.▪food n.▪foot n.▪football n.▪for prep.▪force n.,v.▪forecast n., v.▪foreign adj.▪forest n.▪forever (BrE also for ever) adv.▪forget v.▪forgive v.▪fork n.▪form n.,v.▪formal adj.▪formally adv.▪former adj.▪formerly adv.▪formula n.▪fortune n.▪forward (also forwards) adv.▪forward adj.▪found v.▪foundation n.▪frame n.,v.▪free adj.,v.,adv.▪freely adv.▪freedom n.▪freeze v.▪frozen adj.▪frequent adj.▪frequently adv.▪fresh adj.▪freshly adv.▪Friday n. (abbr. Fri.)▪fridge n. (BrE)▪friend n.▪make friends (with) ▪friendly adj.▪unfriendly adj.▪friendship n.▪frighten v.▪frightening adj.▪frightened adj.▪from prep.▪front n.,adj.▪in front (of)▪frozen freeze▪fruit n.▪fry v., n.▪fuel n.▪full adj.▪fully adv.▪fun n.,adj.▪make fun of▪function n.,v.▪fund n.,v.▪fundamental adj.▪funeral n.▪funny adj.▪fur n.▪furniture n.▪further, furthest far▪future n.,adj.▪g abbr.gram▪gain v.,n.▪gallon n.▪gamble v.,n.▪gambling n.▪game n.▪gap n.▪garage n.▪garbage n. (especially NAmE) ▪garden n.▪gas n.▪gasoline n. (NAmE)▪gate n.▪gather v.▪gear n.▪general adj.▪generally adv.▪in general▪generate v.▪generation n.▪generous adj.▪generously adv.▪gentle adj.▪gently adv.▪gentleman n.▪genuine adj.▪genuinely adv.▪geography n.▪get v.▪get on▪get off▪giant n.,adj.▪gift n.▪girl n.▪girlfriend n.▪give v.▪give sth away ▪give sth out ▪give (sth) up ▪glad adj.▪glass n.▪glasses n.▪global adj.▪glove n.▪glue n.,v.▪gm abbr.gram ▪go v.▪go down▪go up▪be going to ▪goal n.▪god n.▪gold n.,adj.▪good adj.,n.▪good at▪good for▪goodbye exclamation,n.▪goods n.▪govern v.▪government n.▪governor n.▪grab v.▪grade n., v.▪gradual adj.▪gradually adv.▪grain n.▪gram (BrE also gramme) n.(abbr.g, gm)▪grammar n.▪grand adj.▪grandchild n.▪granddaughter n.▪grandfather n.▪grandmother n.▪grandparent n.▪grandson n.▪grant v.,n.▪grass n.▪grateful adj.▪grave n.,adj.▪gray (NAmE ) grey▪great adj.▪greatly adv.▪green adj.,n.▪grey (BrE) (NAmE usually gray) adj.,n.▪grocery (NAmE usually grocery store) n.▪groceries n.▪ground n.▪group n.▪grow v.▪grow up▪growth n.▪guarantee n.,v.▪guard n.,v.▪guess v.,n.▪guest n.▪guide n.,v.▪guilty adj.▪gun n.▪guy n.▪habit n.▪hair n.▪hairdresser n.▪half n.,det.,pron.,adv.▪hall n.▪hammer n.▪hand n.,v.▪handle v.,n.▪hang v.▪happen v.▪happiness n.▪unhappiness n.▪happy adj.▪happily adv.▪unhappy adj.▪hard adj.,adv.▪hardly adv.▪harm n.,v.▪harmful adj.▪harmless adj.▪hat n.▪hate v., n.▪hatred n.▪have v., auxiliary v.▪have to modal v.▪he pron.▪head n.,v.▪headache n.▪heal v.▪health n.▪healthy adj.▪hear v.▪hearing n.▪heart n.▪heat n.,v.▪heating n.▪heaven n.▪heavy adj.▪heavily adv.▪heel n.▪height n.▪hell n.▪hello exclamation,n.▪help v.,n.▪helpful adj.▪hence adv.▪her pron.,det.▪hers pron.▪here adv.▪hero n.▪herself pron.▪hesitate v.▪hi exclamation▪hide v.▪high adj.,adv.▪highly adv.▪highlight v.,n.▪highway n. (especially NAmE) ▪hill n.▪him pron.▪himself pron.▪hip n.▪hire v.,n.▪his det.,pron.▪historical adj.▪history n.▪hit v.,n.▪hobby n.▪hold v.,n.▪hole n.▪holiday n.▪hollow adj.▪holy adj.▪home n.,adv..▪homework n.▪honest adj.▪honestly adv.▪honour (BrE) (NAmE honor) n.▪in honour/honor of▪hook n.▪hope v.,n.▪horizontal adj.▪horn n.▪horror n.▪horse n.▪hospital n.▪host n.,v.▪hot adj.▪hotel n.▪hour n.▪house n.▪housing n.▪household n.,adj.▪how adv.▪however adv.▪huge adj.▪human adj.,n.▪humorous adj.▪humour (BrE) (NAmE humor) n.▪hungry adj.▪hunt v.▪hunting n.▪hurry v.,n.▪in a hurry▪hurt v.▪husband n.▪I pron.▪ice n.▪ice cream n.▪idea n.▪ideal adj.,n.▪ideally adv.▪identify v.▪identity n.▪i.e. abbr.▪if conj.▪ignore v.▪ill adj. (especially BrE) ▪illegal adj.▪illegally adv.▪illness n.▪illustrate v.▪image n.▪imaginary adj.▪imagination n.▪imagine v.▪immediate adj.▪immediately adv.▪immoral adj.▪impact n.▪impatient adj.▪impatiently adv.▪implication n.▪imply v.▪import n.,v.▪importance n.▪important adj.▪importantly adv.▪unimportant adj.▪impose v.▪impossible adj.▪impress v.▪impressed adj.▪impression n.▪impressive adj.▪improve v.▪improvement n.▪in prep.,adv.▪inability n.▪inch n.▪incident n.▪include v.▪including prep.▪income n.▪increase v.,n.▪increasingly adv.▪indeed adv.▪independence n.▪independent adj.▪independently adv.▪index n.▪indicate v.▪indication n.▪indirect adj.▪indirectly adv.▪individual adj.,n.▪indoors adv.▪indoor adj.▪industrial adj.▪industry n.▪inevitable adj.▪inevitably adv.▪infect v.▪infected adj.▪infection n.▪infectious adj.▪influence n.,v.▪inform v.▪informal adj.▪information n.▪ingredient n.▪initial adj.,n.▪initially adv.▪initiative n.▪injure v.▪injured adj.▪injury n.▪ink n.▪inner adj.▪innocent adj.▪inquiry enquiry▪insect n.▪insert v.▪inside prep.,adv.,n.,adj.▪insist (on) v.▪install v.▪instance n.▪for instance▪instead adv.▪instead of▪institute n.▪institution n.▪instruction n.▪instrument n.▪insult v.,n.▪insulting adj.▪insurance n.▪intelligence n.▪intelligent adj.▪intend v.▪intended adj.▪intention n.▪interest n.,v.▪interesting adj.▪interested adj.▪interior n.,adj.▪internal adj.▪international adj.▪Internet n.▪interpret v.▪interpretation n.▪interrupt v.▪interruption n.▪interval n.▪interview n.,v.▪into prep.▪introduce v.▪introduction n.▪invent v.▪invention n.▪invest v.▪investigate v.▪investigation n.▪investment n.▪invitation n.▪invite v.▪involve v.▪involved in▪involvement n.▪iron n.,v.▪irritate v.▪irritating adj.▪irritated adj.▪-ish suffix▪island n.▪issue n.,v.▪it pron.,det.▪its det.▪item n.▪itself pron.▪jacket n.▪jam n.▪January n. (abbr. Jan.)▪jealous adj.▪jeans n.▪jelly n.▪jewellery (BrE) (NAmE jewelry) n.▪job n.▪join v.▪joint adj.,n.▪jointly adv.▪joke n.,v.▪journalist n.▪journey n.▪joy n.▪judge n.,v.▪judgement (also judgment especially in NAmE) n.▪juice n.▪July n. (abbr. Jul.)▪jump v.,n.▪June n. (abbr. Jun.)▪junior adj.,n.▪just adv.▪justice n.▪justify v.▪justified adj.▪k abbr.kilometre▪keen adj.▪keen on▪keep v.▪key n.,adj.▪keyboard n.▪kick v.,n.▪kid n.▪kill v.▪killing n.▪kilogram (BrE also kilogramme) (also kilo) n. (abbr. kg)。

Financial crisis of 2007–2009From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about background financial market events dating from July 2007. For the financial market conditions of 2008 and 2009, see Global financial crisis of 2008–2009. For an overview of all economic problems during the late 2000s, see Late 2000s recession.The financial crisis of 2007–2009 has been called the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression by leading economists,[1] with its global effects characterized by the failure of key businesses, declines in consumer wealth estimated in the trillions of U.S. dollars, substantial financial commitments incurred by governments, and a significant decline in economic activity.[2] Many causes have been proposed, with varying weight assigned by experts.[3] Both market-based and regulatory solutions have been implemented or are under consideration,[4] while significant risks remain for the world economy.[5] [edit] BackgroundThe immediate cause or trigger of the crisis was the bursting of the United States housing bubble which peaked in approximately 2005–2006.[6][7] High default rates on "subprime" and adjustable rate mortgages (ARM), began to increase quickly thereafter. An increase in loan incentives such as easy initial terms and a long-term trend of rising housing prices had encouraged borrowers to assume difficult mortgages in the belief they would be able to quickly refinance at more favorable terms. However, once interest rates began to rise and housing prices started to drop moderately in 2006–2007 in many parts of the U.S., refinancing became more difficult. Defaults and foreclosure activity increased dramatically as easy initial terms expired, home prices failed to go up as anticipated, and ARM interest rates reset higher.Share in GDP of U.S. financial sector since 1860.[8]In the years leading up to the start of the crisis in 2007, significant amounts of foreign money flowed into the U.S. from fast-growing economies in Asia and oil-producing countries. This inflow of funds made it easier for the Federal Reserve to keep interest rates in the United States too low (by the Taylor rule) from 2002–2006 which contributed to easy credit conditions, leading to the United States housing bubble. Loans of various types (e.g., mortgage, credit card, and auto) were easy to obtain and consumers assumed an unprecedented debt load.[9][10] As part of the housing and credit booms, the amount of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities (MBS), which derive their value from mortgage payments and housing prices, greatly increased. Such financial innovation enabled institutions and investors around the world to invest in the U.S. housing market. As housing prices declined, major global financialFrom 2000 to 2003, the Federal Reserve lowered the federal funds rate target from 6.5% to 1.0%.[25] This was done to soften the effects of the collapse of the dot-com bubble and of the September 2001 terrorist attacks, and to combat the perceived risk of deflation.[26] The Fed then raised the Fed funds rate significantly between July 2004 and July 2006.[27] This contributed to an increase in 1-year and 5-year adjustable-rate mortgage (ARM) rates, making ARM interest rate resets more expensive for homeowners.[28] This may have also contributed to the deflating of the housing bubble, as asset prices generally move inversely to interest rates and it became riskier to speculate in housing.[29][30]U.S. Current Account or Trade DeficitIn 2005, Ben Bernanke addressed the implications of the USA's high and rising current account (trade) deficit, resulting from USA imports exceeding its exports.[31] Between 1996 and 2004, the USA current account deficit increased by $650 billion, from 1.5% to 5.8% of GDP. Financing these deficits required the USA to borrow large sums from abroad, much of it from countries running trade surpluses, mainly the emerging economies in Asia and oil-exporting nations. The balance of payments identity requires that a country (such as the USA) running a current account deficit also have a capital account (investment) surplus of the same amount. Hence large and growing amounts of foreign funds (capital) flowed into the USA to finance its imports. This created demand for various types of financial assets, raising the prices of those assets while lowering interest rates. Foreign investors had these funds to lend, either because they had very high personal savings rates (as high as 40% in China), or because of high oil prices. Bernanke referred to this as a "saving glut."[32] A "flood" of funds (capital or liquidity) reached the USA financial markets. Foreign governments supplied funds by purchasing USA Treasury bonds and thus avoided much of the direct impact of the crisis. USA households, on the other hand, used funds borrowed from foreigners to finance consumption or to bid up the prices of housing and financial assets. Financial institutions invested foreign funds in mortgage-backed securities. USA housing and financial assets dramatically declined in value after the housing bubble burst.[33][34][edit] Sub-prime lendingU.S. Subprime lending expanded dramatically 2004-2006In addition to easy credit conditions, there is evidence that both government and competitive pressures contributed to an increase in the amount of subprime lending during the years preceding the crisis. Major∙As early as 1997, Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan fought to keep the derivatives market unregulated.[citation needed] With the advice of the President's Working Group on Financial Markets,[62] the U.S. Congress and President allowed the self-regulation of the over-the-counter derivatives market when they enacted the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000. Derivatives such as credit default swaps (CDS) can be used to hedge or speculate against particular credit risks. The volume of CDS outstanding increased 100-fold from 1998 to 2008, with estimates of the debt covered by CDS contracts, as of November 2008, ranging from US$33 to $47 trillion. Total over-the-counter (OTC) derivative notional value rose to $683 trillion by June 2008.[63]Warren Buffett famously referred to derivatives as "financial weapons of mass destruction" in early 2003.[64][65][edit] Increased debt burden or over-leveragingLeverage Ratios of Investment Banks Increased Significantly 2003-2007U.S. households and financial institutions became increasingly indebted or overleveraged during the years preceding the crisis. This increased their vulnerability to the collapse of the housing bubble and worsened the ensuing economic downturn. Key statistics include:∙USA household debt as a percentage of annual disposable personal income was 127% at the end of 2007, versus 77% in 1990.[66]∙U.S. home mortgage debt relative to gross domestic product (GDP) increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion.[67]∙In 1981, U.S. private debt was 123% of GDP; by the third quarter of 2008, it was 290%.[68]∙From 2004-07, the top five U.S. investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage (see diagram), which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock. These five institutions reported over $4.1 trillion in debt for fiscal year 2007, about 30% of USA nominal GDP for 2007. Lehman Brothers was liquidated, Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch were sold at fire-sale prices, and Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley became commercial banks, subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation. With the exception of Lehman, these companies required or received government support.[69]∙Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, two U.S. Government sponsored enterprises, owned or guaranteed nearly $5 trillion in mortgage obligations at the time they were placed into conservatorship by the U.S. government in September 2008.[70][71]These seven entities were highly leveraged and had $9 trillion in debt or guarantee obligations, an enormous concentration of risk, yet were not subject to the same regulation as depository banks.[edit] Financial innovation and complexityA protester on Wall Street in the wake of the AIG bonus payments controversy is interviewed by news media.The term financial innovation refers to the ongoing development of financial products designed to achieve particular client objectives, such as offsetting a particular risk exposure (such as the default of a borrower) or to assist with obtaining financing. Examples pertinent to this crisis included: the adjustable-rate mortgage; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities (MBS) or collateralized debt obligations (CDO) for sale to investors, a type of securitization; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps(CDS). The usage of these products expanded dramatically in the years leading up to the crisis. These products vary in complexity and the ease with which they can be valued on the books of financial institutions.In a Peabody Award winning program, NPR correspondents argued that a "Giant Pool of Money" (represented by $70 trillion in worldwide fixed income investments) sought higher yields than those offered by U.S. Treasury bonds early in the decade. Further, this pool of money had roughly doubled in size from 2000 to 2007, yet the supply of relatively safe, income generating investments had not grown as fast. Investment banks on Wall Street answered this demand with the MBS and CDO, which were assigned safe ratings by the credit rating agencies. In effect, Wall Street connected this pool of money to the mortgage market in the U.S., with enormous fees accruing to those throughout the mortgage supply chain, from the mortgage broker selling the loans, to small banks that funded the brokers, to the giant investment banks behind them. By approximately 2003, the supply of mortgages originated at traditional lending standards had been exhausted. However, continued strong demand for MBS and CDO began to drive down lending standards, as long as mortgages could still be sold along the supply chain. Eventually, this speculative bubble proved unsustainable.[72]The CDO in particular enabled financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending, extending or increasing the housing bubble and generating large fees. A CDO essentially places cash payments from multiple mortgages or other debt obligations into a single pool, from which the cash is allocated to specific securities in a priority sequence. Those securities obtaining cash first received investment-grade ratings from rating agencies. Lower priority securities received cash thereafter, with lower credit ratings but theoretically a higher rate of return on the amount invested.[73][74]For a variety of reasons, market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with this innovation or understand its impact on the overall stability of the financial system.[75] For example, the pricing model for CDOs clearly did not reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system. The average recovery rate for "high quality" CDOs has been approximately 32 cents on the dollar, while the recovery rate for mezzanine CDO's has been approximately five cents for every dollar. These massive, practically unthinkable, losses have dramatically impacted the balance sheets of banks across the globe, leaving them with very little capital to continue operations.[76]Another example relates to AIG, which insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps. The basic CDS transaction involved AIG receiving a premium in exchangefor a promise to pay money to party A in the event party B defaulted. However, AIG did not have the financial strength to support its many CDS commitments as the crisis progressed and was taken over by the government in September 2008. U.S. taxpayers provided over $180 billion in government support to AIG during 2008 and early 2009, through which the money flowed to various counterparties to CDS transactions, including many large global financial institutions.[77][78]The limitations of a widely-used financial model also were not properly understood.[79][80] This formula assumed that the price of CDS was correlated with and could predict the correct price of mortgage backed securities. Because it was highly tractable, it rapidly came to be used by a huge percentage of CDO and CDS investors, issuers, and rating agencies.[80] According to one article[80]: "Then the model fell apart. Cracks started appearing early on, when financial markets began behaving in ways that users of Li's formula hadn't expected. The cracks became full-fledged canyons in 2008—when ruptures in the financial system's foundation swallowed up trillions of dollars and put the survival of the global banking system in serious peril... Li's Gaussian copula formula will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees."As financial assets became more and more complex, and harder and harder to value, investors were reassured by the fact that both the international bond rating agencies and bank regulators, who came to rely on them, accepted as valid some complex mathematical models which theoretically showed the risks were much smaller than they actually proved to be in practice [81]. George Soros commented that "The super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves. Similarly, the rating agencies relied on the information provided by the originators of synthetic products. It was a shocking abdication of responsibility." [82]Certain financial innovation may also have the effect of circumventing regulations, such as off-balance sheet financing that affects the leverage or capital cushion reported by major banks. For example, Martin Wolf wrote in June 2009: "...an enormous part of what banks did in the early part of this decade – theoff-balance-sheet vehicles, the derivatives and the 'shadow banking system' itself – was to find a way round regulation."[83][edit] Boom and collapse of the shadow banking systemIn a June 2008 speech, U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner, then President and CEO of the NY Federal Reserve Bank, placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a "run" on the entities in the "parallel" banking system, also called the shadow banking system. These entities became critical to the credit markets underpinning the financial system, but were not subject to the same regulatory controls. Further, these entities were vulnerable because they borrowed short-term in liquid markets to purchase long-term, illiquid and risky assets. This meant that disruptions in credit markets would make them subject to rapid deleveraging, selling their long-term assets at depressed prices. He described the significance of these entities: "In early 2007, asset-backed commercial paper conduits, in structured investment vehicles, in auction-rate preferred securities, tender option bonds and variable rate demand notes, had a combined asset size of roughly $2.2 trillion. Assets financed overnight in triparty repo grew to $2.5 trillion. Assets held in hedge funds grew to roughly $1.8 trillion. The combined balance sheets of the then five major investment banks totaled $4 trillion. In comparison, the total assets of the top five bank holding companies in the United States at that point were just over $6 trillion, and total assets of the entire banking system were about $10 trillion." He stated that the "combined effect of these factors was a financial system vulnerable to self-reinforcing asset price and credit cycles."[12]2007 bank run on Northern Rock, a UK bankOne of the first victims was Northern Rock, a medium-sized British bank.[98] The highly leveraged nature of its business led the bank to request security from the Bank of England. This in turn led to investor panic and a bank run in mid-September 2007. Calls by Liberal Democrat Shadow Chancellor Vince Cable to nationalise the institution were initially ignored; in February 2008, however, the British government (having failed to find a private sector buyer) relented, and the bank was taken into public hands. Northern Rock's problems proved to be an early indication of the troubles that would soon befall other banks and financial institutions.Initially the companies affected were those directly involved in home construction and mortgage lending such as Northern Rock and Countrywide Financial, as they could no longer obtain financing through the credit markets. Over 100 mortgage lenders went bankrupt during 2007 and 2008. Concerns that investment bank Bear Stearns would collapse in March 2008 resulted in its fire-sale to JP Morgan Chase. The crisis hit its peak in September and October 2008. Several major institutions either failed, were acquired under duress, or were subject to government takeover. These included Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and AIG.[99]See also: Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac[edit] Credit markets and the shadow banking systemTED spread and components during 2008During September 2008, the crisis hits its most critical stage. There was the equivalent of a bank run on the money market mutual funds, which frequently invest in commercial paper issued by corporations to fund their operations and payrolls. Withdrawal from money markets were $144.5 billion during one week, versus $7.1 billion the week prior. This interrupted the ability of corporations to rollover (replace) their short-term debt. The U.S. government responded by extending insurance for money market accounts analogous to bank deposit insurance via a temporary guarantee[100] and with Federal Reserve programs to purchase commercial paper. The TED spread, an indicator of perceived credit risk in the general economy, spiked up in July 2007, remained volatile for a year, then spiked even higher in September 2008,[101] reaching a record 4.65% on October 10, 2008.In a dramatic meeting on September 18, 2008 Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson and Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke met with key legislators to propose a $700 billion emergency bailout. Bernanke reportedly tells them: "If we don't do this, we may not have an economy on Monday."[102] The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act also called the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) is signed into law on October 3, 2008.[103]Economist Paul Krugman and U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner explain the credit crisis via the implosion of the shadow banking system, which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector as described above. Without the ability to obtain investor funds in exchange for most types of mortgage-backed securities or asset-backed commercial paper, investment banks and other entities in the shadow banking system could not provide funds to mortgage firms and other corporations.[12][58]This meant that nearly one-third of the U.S. lending mechanism was frozen and continued to be frozen into June 2009.[104] According to the Brookings Institution, the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of June 2009: "It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume." The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization are "likely to vanish forever, having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions." While traditional banks have raised their lending standards, it was the collapse of the shadow banking system that is the primary cause of the reduction in funds available for borrowing.[105][edit] Wealth effectsThere is a direct relationship between declines in wealth, and declines in consumption and business investment, which along with government spending represent the economic engine. Between June 2007 and November 2008, Americans lost an estimated average of more than a quarter of their collective net worth. By early November 2008, a broad U.S. stock index the S&P 500, was down 45 percent from its 2007 high. Housing prices had dropped 20% from their 2006 peak, with futures markets signaling a30-35% potential drop. Total home equity in the United States, which was valued at $13 trillion at its peak in 2006, had dropped to $8.8 trillion by mid-2008 and was still falling in late 2008. Total retirement assets, Americans' second-largest household asset, dropped by 22 percent, from $10.3 trillion in 2006 to $8 trillion in mid-2008. During the same period, savings and investment assets (apart from retirement savings) lost $1.2 trillion and pension assets lost $1.3 trillion. Taken together, these losses total a staggering $8.3 trillion.[106]Further, U.S. homeowners had extracted significant equity in their homes in the years leading up to the crisis, which they could no longer do once housing prices collapsed. Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction doubled from $627 billion in 2001 to $1,428 billion in 2005 as the housing bubble built, a total of nearly $5 trillion over the period.[16][107][108] U.S. home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion.[109]To offset this decline in consumption and lending capacity, the U.S. government and U.S. Federal Reserve have committed $13.9 trillion, of which $6.8 trillion has been invested or spent, as of June 2009.[110] In effect, the Fed has gone from being the "lender of last resort" to the "lender of only resort" for a significant portion of the economy. In some cases the Fed can now be considered the "buyer of last resort."The New York City headquarters of Lehman Brothers.Economist Dean Baker explained the reduction in the availability of credit this way:"Yes, consumers and businesses can't get credit as easily as they could a year ago. There is a really good reason for tighter credit. Tens of millions of homeowners who had substantial equity in their homes two years ago have little or nothing today. Businesses are facing the worst downturn since the Great Depression. This matters for credit decisions. A homeowner with equity in her home is very unlikely to default on a car loan or credit card debt. They will draw on this equity rather than lose their car and/or have a default placed on their credit record. On the other hand, a homeowner who has no equity is a serious default risk. In the case of businesses, their creditworthiness depends on their future profits. Profit prospects look much worse in November 2008 than they did in November 2007 (of course, to clear-eyed analysts, they didn't look too good a year ago either). While many banks are obviously at the brink, consumers and businesses would be facing a much harder time getting credit right now even if the financial system were rock solid. The problem with the economy is the loss of close to $6 trillion in housing wealth and an even larger amount of stock wealth. Economists, economic policy makers and economic reporters virtually all missed the housing bubble on the way up. If they still can't notice its impact as the collapse of the bubble throws into the worst recession in the post-war era, then they are in the wrong profession."[111]At the heart of the portfolios of many of these institutions were investments whose assets had been derived from bundled home mortgages. Exposure to these mortgage-backed securities, or to the credit derivatives used to insure them against failure, caused the collapse or takeover of several key firms such as Lehman Brothers, AIG, Merrill Lynch, and HBOS.[112][113][114][edit] Global contagionThe crisis rapidly developed and spread into a global economic shock, resulting in a number of European bank failures, declines in various stock indexes, and large reductions in the market value of equities[115] and commodities.[116] Moreover, the de-leveraging of financial institutions, as assets were sold to pay back obligations that could not be refinanced in frozen credit markets, further accelerated the liquidity crisis and caused a decrease in international trade.World political leaders, national ministers of finance and central bank directors coordinated theirefforts[117] to reduce fears, but the crisis continued. At the end of October 2008 a currency crisis developed, with investors transferring vast capital resources into stronger currencies such as the yen, the dollar and the Swiss franc, leading many emergent economies to seek aid from the International Monetary Fund.[118][119][edit] Effects on the global economy[edit] Official economic projectionsOn November 3, 2008, the EU-commission at Brussels predicted for 2009 an extremely weak growth of GDP, by 0.1 percent, for the countries of the Euro zone (France, Germany, Italy, etc.) and even negative number for the UK (-1.0 percent), Ireland and Spain. On November 6, the IMF at Washington, D.C., launched numbers predicting a worldwide recession by -0.3 percent for 2009, averaged over the developed economies. On the same day, the Bank of England and the Central Bank for the Euro zone, respectively, reduced their interest rates from 4.5 percent down to three percent, and from 3.75 percent down to 3.25 percent. Economically, mainly the car industry seems to be involved. As a consequence, starting from November 2008, several countries launched large "help packages" for their economies.The U.S. Federal Reserve Open Market Committee release in June 2009 stated: "...the pace of economic contraction is slowing. Conditions in financial markets have generally improved in recent months. Household spending has shown further signs of stabilizing but remains constrained by ongoing job losses, lower housing wealth, and tight credit. Businesses are cutting back on fixed investment and staffing but appear to be making progress in bringing inventory stocks into better alignment with sales. Although economic activity is likely to remain weak for a time, the Committee continues to anticipate that policy actions to stabilize financial markets and institutions, fiscal and monetary stimulus, and market forces will contribute to a gradual resumption of sustainable economic growth in a context of price stability."[136] Economic projections from the Federal Reserve and Reserve Bank Presidents include a return to typical growth levels (GDP) of 2-3% in 2010; an unemployment plateau in 2009 and 2010 around 10% with moderation in 2011; and inflation that remains at typical levels around 1-2%.[137][edit] Responses to financial crisis[edit] Emergency and short-term responsesMain article: Subprime mortgage crisis#ResponsesThe U.S. Federal Reserve and central banks around the world have taken steps to expand money supplies to avoid the risk of a deflationary spiral, in which lower wages and higher unemployment lead to aself-reinforcing decline in global consumption. In addition, governments have enacted large fiscal stimulus packages, by borrowing and spending to offset the reduction in private sector demand caused by the crisis. The U.S. executed two stimulus packages, totaling nearly $1 trillion during 2008 and 2009.[138] This credit freeze brought the global financial system to the brink of collapse. The response of the USA Federal Reserve, the European Central Bank, and other central banks was immediate and dramatic. During the last quarter of 2008, these central banks purchased US$2.5 trillion of government debt and troubled private assets from banks. This was the largest liquidity injection into the credit market, and the largest monetary policy action, in world history. The governments of European nations and the USA also raised the capital of their national banking systems by $1.5 trillion, by purchasing newly issued preferred stock in their major banks.[99]Governments have also bailed-out a variety of firms as discussed above, incurring large financial obligations. To date, various U.S. government agencies have committed or spent trillions of dollars in loans, asset purchases, guarantees, and direct spending. For a summary of U.S. government financial commitments and investments related to the crisis, see CNN - Bailout Scorecard.。

生产运作英文题TRUE/FALSE1.One reason to globalize is to learn to improve operations.True (A global view of operations, easy)1.The production process at Hard Rock Café is limited to meal preparation and servingcustomers.False (Global company profile, easy)2.Some of the operations-related activities of Hard Rock Café include designing meals andanalyzing them for ingredient cost and labor requirements.True (Global company profile, easy)3.Operations management is the set of activities that create value in the form of goods andservices by transforming inputs into outputs.True (What is operations management? easy)4.One reason to study operations management is to learn how people organize themselvesfor productive enterprise.True (Why study OM, easy)2.An organization's behavior will be optimized if each of its departments optimizes theirbehaviors independently.False (Developing missions and strategies, easy)5.The operations manager performs the management activities of planning, organizing,staffing, leading, and controlling of the OM function.True (What operations managers do, easy)6."How much inventory of this item should we have?" is within the critical decision area ofquality management.False (What operations managers do, easy)7.Henry Ford is known as the Father of Scientific Management.False (The heritage of operations management, easy)8.Students wanting to pursue a career in operations management will findmultidisciplinary knowledge beneficial.True (Where are the OM jobs? easy)9.Customer interaction is often high for manufacturing processes, but low for services.False (Operations in the service sector, moderate)10.Productivity is more difficult to improve in the service sector.True (The productivity challenge, moderate)11.In the past half-century, the number of people employed in manufacturing has risen onlymodestly, but each manufacturing employee is manufacturing about 20 times as much.True (Operations in the service sector, easy)12. A multinational corporation has extensive international business involvements.True (Global operations strategy options, easy)1.ISO 9000 has evolved from a set of quality assurance standards toward a qualitymanagement system.True (International quality standards, moderate)2.Quality is mostly the business of the quality control staff, not ordinary employees.False (Total quality management, moderate)3.Continuous improvement is based on the philosophy that any aspect of an organizationcan be improved.True (Total quality management, moderate)4.Quality circles empower employees to improve productivity by finding solutionsto work-related problems in their work area.True (Total quality management, moderate)5.Line employees need the knowledge of TQM tools.True (Total quality management, easy)6.The quality of services is more difficult to measure than the quality of goods becauseboth the intangible differences between service products and consumers' intangibleexpectations are poorly defined.True (TQM in services, moderate)1.The goal of a human resource strategy is to manage labor and design jobs so people areeffectively and efficiently utilized.True (Human resource strategy for competitive advantage, easy)2.Equitable pay alone cannot achieve a reasonable quality of work life in an organization.3.True (Human resource strategy for competitive advantage, moderate) Technology,location, and layout decisions are all possible constraints on the human resource strategy.True (Human resource strategy for competitive advantage, moderate)4.Flextime is a system that allows employees, within limits, to determine their own workschedules.True (Labor planning, moderate)5.Job rotation is an example of job enlargement.True (Job design, moderate)6.Job expansion can lead to increased labor cost because of the extra workers hired in theexpansion.False (Job design, moderate)Single choice1、Examples of response to the global environment includea. Boeing's worldwide sales and productionb. Benneton's flexibility in design, production, and distributionc. A Chinese manufacturer, Haier, opening plants in the United Statesd. Ford's partnerships with Volvo and Mazdae. All of the above are examples.e (Introduction, easy)3. A strategy is a(n)a. set of opportunities in the marketplaceb. broad statement of purposec. simulation used to test various product line optionsd. plan for cost reductione. action plan to achieve the missione (Achieving competitive advantage through operations, moderate)12.Which of the following is not an element of the management process?a. controllingb. leadingc. planningd. pricinge. staffingd (What do operations managers do? easy)4.The acronym MNC stands fora. Mexican National Committee (for international trade)b. Maquiladora Negates Competitionc. Maytag- Nestlé Corporationd. Multinational Corporatione. none of the aboved (Global operations strategy options, easy)13.All of the following decisions fall within the scope of operations managementexcept fora. financial analysisb. design of products and processesc. location of facilitiesd. quality managemente. All of the above fall within the scope of operations management.a (What do operations managers do? easy)14.The Ten Critical Decisions of Operations Management includea. Layout designb. Maintenancec. Process and capacity designd. Quality managemente. all of the abovee (Why study OM? easy)15.An operations manager is not likely to be involved ina. the design of products and services to satisfy customers' wants and needsb. the quality of products and services to satisfy customers' wants and needsc. the identification of customers' wants and needsd. work scheduling to meet the due dates promised to customerse. forecasting salesc (What do operations managers do? easy)16.The responsibilities of the operations manager includea. planning, organizing, staffing, procuring, and reviewingb. forecasting, designing, planning, organizing, and controllingc. forecasting, designing, operating, procuring, and reviewingd. planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controllinge. designing and operatingd (What do operations managers do? easy)17.Typical differences between goods and services do not includea. cost per unitb. ability to inventory itemsc. timing of production and consumptiond. customer interactione. knowledge contenta (Operations in the service sector, moderate)18.One new trend in operations management isa. global focusb. mass customizationc. empowered employeesd. rapid product developmente. All of the above are new trends in operations management.e (Exciting new trends in operations management, moderate)19.The Dulac Box plant produces 500 cypress packing boxes in two 10-hour shifts. What isthe productivity of the plant?a. 25 boxes/hrb. 50 boxes/hrc. 5000 boxes/hrd. none of the abovee. not enough data to determine productivitya (The productivity challenge, moderate)20.Which of the following inputs has the greatest potential to increase productivity?a. laborb. globalizationc. managementd. capitale. none of the abovec (The productivity challenge, moderate)7.Because various employment laws now require it, "equal pay for equal work" is nolonger an ethical concern in the work environment.False (Ethics and the w ork environment, moderate)8.The objective of a human resource strategy is toa. produce the demand forecast at lowest labor costb. match employment levels with demandc. achieve a reasonable quality of work life at low costd. manage labor and design jobs so people are effectively and efficiently utilizede. all of the aboved (Human resource strategy for competitive advantage, moderate)9.Job rotation is an example ofa. job enrichmentb. job schedulingc. job trainingd. job enlargemente. job incentived (Job design, moderate)10.When a worker has a say in the work methods that he/she wishes to utilize, his/her job ischaracterized bya. skill varietyb. job identityc. job significanced. feedbacke. autonomye (Job design, moderate)11.Which of the following statements describes job rotation?a. The job contains a larger number of similar tasks.b. The job includes some planning and control necessary for job accomplishment.c. The operator works on different shifts on a regular basis.d. The operator's schedule is flexible.e. The operator is allowed to move, for example, from one type of CNC machine to theother.e (Job design, moderate)12.The difference between job enrichment and job enlargement is thata. enlarged jobs involve vertical expansion, while enriched jobs involve horizontalexpansionb. enriched jobs enable an employee to do a number of boring jobs instead of just onec. job enlargement is more psychologically satisfying than job enrichmentd. job enrichment is suitable for all employees, whereas job enlargement is note. enriched jobs involve vertical expansion, while enlarged jobs involve horizontalexpansione (Job design, moderate)7."Making it right the first time" isa. an unrealistic definition of qualityb. a user-based definition of qualityc. a manufacturing-based definition of qualityd. a product-based definition of qualitye. the definition proposed by the American Society for Qualityc (Defining quality, moderate)8.Which of the following is not one of the major categories of costs associated withquality?a. prevention costsb. appraisal costsc. internal failuresd. external failurese. none of the above; they are all major categories of costs associated with qualitye (Defining quality, moderate)9.Inspection, scrap, and repair are examples ofa. internal costsb. external costsc. costs of dissatisfactiond. prevention costse. societal costsa (Defining quality, moderate)10.The philosophy of zero defects isa. the result of Deming's researchb. unrealisticc. prohibitively costlyd. an ultimate goal; in practice, 1 to 2% defects is acceptablee. consistent with the commitment to continuous improvemente (Total quality management, moderate)11.ISO 9000 seeks standardization in terms ofa. productsb. production proceduresc. suppliers' specificationsd. procedures to manage qualitye. all of the aboved (International quality standards, moderate)12.Which of the following is true about ISO 14000 certification?a. It is not a prerequisite for ISO 9000 certification.b. It deals with environmental management.c. It offers a good systematic approach to pollution prevention.d. One of its core elements is life-cycle assessment.e. All of the above are true.e (International quality standards, moderate)13.To become ISO 9000 certified, organizations musta. document quality proceduresb. have an onsite assessmentc. have an ongoing series of audits of their products or serviced. all of the abovee. none of the aboved (International quality standards, moderate)14.The goal of inspection is toa. detect a bad process immediatelyb. add value to a product or servicec. correct deficiencies in productsd. correct system deficienciese. all of the abovea (The role of inspection, moderate)SHORT ANSWER21.Why are organizations becoming more global?Organizations are becoming more global with the decline in the cost of communication and transportation. Additionally, resources--material, talent, and labor--are also becoming more global. (Exciting new trends in operations management)22.What is a knowledge society?A knowledge society is one in which much of the labor force has migrated frommanual work to work based on knowledge. (The productivity challenge,moderate)5.What is the difference between a firm's mission and its strategy?A firm's miss ion is its purpose or rationale for an organization’s existence, whereas a firm's strategy is how it expects to achieve its mission and goals. (Developing missions and strategies, moderate)6.How do goods and services differ with regard to handling the quality decision?There are many obj ective quality standards for goods, whereas there are many subjective quality standards for services. (Ten strategic OM decisions, moderate)7.What is the difference between goods and services in terms of their location selection? Manufacturers of goods may need to be located close to raw materials, or labor force. Services, on the other hand, typically are located close to the customer. (Ten Strategic OM decisions, moderate)8.What is SWOT analysis? List its four elements and describe its purpose.The four elements of SWOT are strengths, w eaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Its purpose is to maximize opportunities and minimize threats in the environment, while maximizing the advantages of the organization's strengths and minimizing the weaknesses. (Strategy development and implementation, moderate)Problem23.Susan has a part-time "cottage industry" producing seasonal plywood yard ornaments forresale at local craft fairs and bazaars. She currently works 8 hours per day to produce 16 ornaments.a. What is her productivity?b. She thinks that by redesigning the ornaments and switching from useof a wood glue to a hot-glue gun she can increase her totalproduction to 20 ornaments per day. What is her new productivity?c. What is her percentage increase in productivity?a. 16 ornaments/8 hours = 2 ornaments/hourb. 20 ornaments/8 hours = 2.5 ornaments/hourc. Change in productivity = 0.5 ornaments/hour; percent change = 0.5/2= 25%(The productivity challenge, moderate)。

n0611N0611: Understanding the Importance of Emotional Intelligence in Workplace SuccessIntroductionIn today's fast-paced and highly competitive corporate world, technical skills and qualifications alone are no longer sufficient for achieving workplace success. More and more emphasis is being placed on an individual's emotional intelligence (EI) to navigate through challenging situations, build effective relationships, and drive performance. This document aims to explore the concept of emotional intelligence, its relevance in the workplace, and strategies for enhancing emotional intelligence for personal and professional growth.What is Emotional Intelligence?Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, understand, and manage emotions - both our own and those of others. It involves a range of skills, including self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and effectivecommunication. Research has shown that emotional intelligence plays a critical role in various aspects of life, including relationships, decision-making, and overall well-being.The Relevance of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace1. Improved communication: Individuals with high emotional intelligence are adept at understanding others' perspectives, expressing their thoughts clearly, and listening actively. This leads to better communication and collaboration within teams, promoting a positive work environment.2. Effective leadership: Emotional intelligence is a prized quality in leaders. Leaders who possess emotional intelligence can inspire and motivate their teams, handle conflicts diplomatically, and make compassionate yet logical decisions. These leaders are more likely to gain the trust and respect of their subordinates.3. Conflict resolution: Workplace conflicts are inevitable, but individuals with high emotional intelligence can effectively manage conflicts by remaining calm, understanding different viewpoints, and finding common ground. By using empathyand effective communication skills, they can resolve conflicts in a way that preserves relationships and fosters teamwork.4. Adaptability and resilience: Emotional intelligence enables individuals to adapt to change and bounce back from setbacks. It helps employees stay productive and perform well even in challenging circumstances, demonstrating resilience and flexibility.Strategies for Enhancing Emotional Intelligence1. Self-awareness: Take time to reflect on your emotions, triggers, and reactions. Practice mindfulness and journaling to gain a deeper understanding of your emotional patterns. Self-awareness is the foundation of emotional intelligence and sets the stage for growth in other areas.2. Self-regulation: Develop strategies to manage your emotions effectively. This may involve techniques such as deep breathing exercises, taking breaks, or seeking feedback from trusted colleagues. By regulating your emotions, you can respond rather than react in high-pressure situations.3. Empathy: Cultivate empathy by actively listening to others, seeking to understand their perspectives, and showing genuine concern. Practice putting yourself in others' shoes to develop a greater understanding of their emotions and experiences.4. Social skills: Effective communication, collaboration, and relationship-building are crucial components of social skills. Practice active listening, assertiveness, and conflict resolution techniques to enhance your ability to connect with others on an emotional level.5. Continuous learning and feedback: Recognize that emotional intelligence is an ongoing journey. Seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or coaches to identify blind spots and areas for improvement. Engage in professional development opportunities that focus on emotional intelligence, such as workshops or training programs.ConclusionEmotional intelligence is a critical factor for personal and professional success in the modern workplace. By developing skills such as self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills, individuals can enhance their emotionalintelligence and navigate the complexities of workplace dynamics more effectively. By fostering emotional intelligence at both the individual and organizational level, companies can create a work environment that promotes collaboration, productivity, and overall well-being. Remember, emotional intelligence is not just a nice-to-have skill; it is a key driver of workplace success.。

What Are the Causes of Classroom Discipline Problems?Handling discipline issues is one of the most taxing parts of a teaching job. Unfortunately, each discipline problem, like every student, is individual, stemming from a set of circumstances directly related to the child causing the problem. The best way to respond to a discipline problem in your classroom is to understand the root of the issue.Problems at Homeo Issues and stresses at home are a major reason for students to act out in class. If students are abused or neglected at home, their anger can boil over and lead them todisrupt your classroom. Students who come from homes where the parents aredivorcing are also under duress and can act out in class as a way to deal with their fear and frustration. Acting out in class is a way students who feel helpless about their home situations feel like they still have some control.Peerso Students who are bullied by their peers are also prone to discipline issues in the classroom. Although many students who are bullied become withdrawn in theclassroom to prevent calling attention to themselves, others act out. Often students who bully are abused at home, leading them to lash out at their classmates. In rare cases,students lash out and attack their classmates in class or even their teacher. Perceptiono If your student feels you don't like him, you're not protecting him or supportive of him, he could become a discipline problem in the classroom. Feelings of abandonment, lack of voice and depression affect students who feel like you don't care about them. Somestudents could have issues adjusting to your teaching style. Many teachers nowdifferentiate lesson plans to include all types of learners. If you are not reaching astudent, he could shut down and act out in class.Disabilitieso Children with learning disabilities can also sometimes be disruptive in class. These disabilities can be classified anywhere from attention deficit disorder (ADD) to autismand dyslexia. In most cases, students with learning issues require a specializededucation plan to teach to their needs. Many students with learning disabilities are onmedication that helps them focus. Occasionally, students forget their medicine and act out in class on those days.How to Discipline Children in the ClassroomFor a teacher, disciplining children in the classroom has to begin on Day One. Here are some guidelines to help you with the process.Instructions1. On the first day of class, ask the children to devise some basic rules they feel arenecessary for a positive learning environment. This helps make them conscious of thebasic expectations the entire class must meet.2. Write down all the rules on the blackboard. Discuss why these rules are important. Addyour own guidelines as well. Explain each rule, making sure the students know theconsequences of breaking them. Have the rules posted in the classroom for everyone to see at all times, and give copies to the children's parents.3. Make a reward board for the children. The child who gets the most points every weekgets a prize. Give a healthy amount of attention to each child, but do not awardpreferential treatment.4. Make sure that when a child breaks a rule, he knows the consequences. Createproductive punishments that emphasize what he has done wrong while creating positive stimuli. For example, if a child has ripped a poster on purpose, keep him in detentionand have him create a replacement.5. It's important to be firm, especially at the beginning of term. Students will constantly tryto test your limits, so you have to give a clear message this will not be tolerated. Oncethere is trust and a certain level of discipline has been established, you can appearmore relaxed. The students must always have a level of respect toward their teacher. Methods of Discipline in the ClassroomDiscipline in the classroom helps teachers maintain a peaceful and respectful atmosphere where students can learn and grow.Discipline is a necessary part of a classroom environment. It helps teachers to create peaceful environments that help children learn by minimizing interruptions and distractions. Effective classroom discipline can eliminate problems caused by fooling around, lack of attention, uncooperative students, dawdling or talking back. More than that, discipline directs students toward more positive, acceptable behavior. Children learn in different ways, so it is important for teachers to implement a combination of discipline methods to manage their classrooms. System of Punishmentso A punishment-centered method of discipline involves a set of negative consequences, or punishments, for unwanted behavior. For example, an elementary school student that repeatedly interrupts a lesson with rude noises may be kept inside during recess. Older students might be given an extra writing assignment, explaining why they interruptedand what can be done to eliminate the problem in the future. The student should beinformed that this assignment will be part of their final grade. Many schools sendstudents to the principal's office as punishment for unwanted behavior. Punishment-centered methods of discipline focus on teaching students what not to do by showingthem that there are undesirable consequences associated with their actions.System of Incentiveso Unlike a punishment-based system, an incentive-based system of discipline focuses on rewarding good behavior, rather than punishing bad behavior. A teacher that usesincentives presents her students with a list of rewards. They can earn these rewards by following class rules. For elementary-aged students, incentives may include stickers or stars for completing assignments, being helpful or quiet in class and respecting otherstudents. When a student earns a certain number of stickers, he may be given a greater reward such as a treat. Incentives can be targeted to individual students or to the class as a whole. A teacher might allow a class that has been attentive to leave a few minutes early. This type of incentive encourages students to work together to earn the reward. It can be especially effective because pressure from other students, or the desire to notlet other students down, can prompt individual students to focus.Assertive Disciplineo The assertive discipline method uses a blend of punishments and incentives. This method encourages teachers to establish only five rules for their classroom. This small number is easier for students to remember. Rules should be given in a positive way,explaining what students are expected to do rather than telling them what they cannotdo. For example, "No talking in class" becomes "Students will be quiet in class."Students are recognized and rewarded for following the rules. There are, however,consequences for breaking rules, which get more serious each time a rule is broken. Discipline With Dignityo Discipline with dignity is a controversial method of discipline because it does not rely ona set system of punishments. Instead, students are often allowed to choose theconsequences of their action. Teachers who use this method believe that fair discipline does not mean that students will always be treated in the same way. Students shouldbe treated with dignity at all times, with teachers attempting to understand theirstudents' needs and points of view. This method of discipline is based on a contractbetween students and teachers in which rules and expectations are made clear tostudents. When rules are broken, the problem is addressed privately between theteacher and the student. During this discussion, the teacher and the student decide on a fair consequence.Classroom Discipline TechniquesCreate a pleasant and productive classroom by using effective classroom discipline techniques.For most teachers, and especially those who are new to the profession, classroom discipline (or behavior management, as it is often called) is of utmost concern. While most college classes focus on lesson planning, time management and student psychology, many classes skip how to handle the behavior of children. Luckily, classroom discipline is not difficult to master when you follow these techniques.1. Reward the Positiveo Search for, notice, and reward the positive things you see happening in your classroom.Verbally praise those students who follow the rules. When the class is working together in positive way, reward the entire class. Some teachers place marbles into a jar everytime they notice the whole class following the rules, and when the jar is full, the studentsearn a special treat such as extra recess time. You can also place stickers on a graph,apples on a pocket chart or anything else that the students can see (which keeps themmotivated). Start your day each morning by reinforcing the positive; doing this willreduce discipline issues.2. Establish Consequenceso Work with your students to establish consequences for bad choices. While the first technique in a classroom discipline plan should be to focus on the good, it is equallyimportant to have a firm game plan to follow when a student makes a poor choice.Establish clear consequences for bad behavior. Many teachers create a pocket chart,with one pocket for each student. Inside each student's pocket are colored cards. Agreen card means the student is having a great day. A yellow card means they havereceived one warning and a red card means that a punishment must occur. While some teachers have more than three cards per student, one warning is usually plenty for most students. Then list out the punishments. Perhaps the students can choose between acall home, writing sentences or missing a recess. Point out that you reserve the right to change a punishment if the misbehavior is severe.3. Follow Througho Follow through on both your positive promises and your consequences for bad behavior.If you fill up the marble jar, do not wait two weeks to give the students their reward,because they will then lose their motivation to behave. The same goes for misbehavior.While it is sometimes easier to ignore, this will only escalate the problem. Most students who do tend to misbehave will test a teacher early in the school year, so it is importantto be calm, firm and follow through. This will make the rest of the year go a lot moresmoothly. Finally, keep it impersonal. When students misbehave, shrug and note thatthey broke a rule and they are smart enough to know what the consequence is. On theother hand, when using positive reinforcement, be as personal as possible by praisingthat student's character, hard work ethic and commitment to following the rules. Difference Between Classroom Managing and DiscipliningA discipline procedure is part of effective classroom management.Classroom management and discipline go hand in hand. Teachers must establish classroom management procedures and routines to follow consistently so students know how to act and what to expect. Classroom expectations and consequences are part of a discipline system that must be taught explicitly and posted in the room. Teachers with management systems in place will be able to handle discipline problems proactively and efficiently.Classroom Managemento Managing a classroom includes everything, from how the classroom is set up to student routines and the overall appearance and atmosphere in the classroom. Teachers mustaddress many of these issues before the students even arrive. Students must be taught what to do when they arrive in class, where to access supplies, what to do when theyhave a question, where to sit, how to leave the classroom if necessary and theclassroom rules and consequences.Disciplineo Discipline is part of managing the classroom. Teachers must develop a clear set of rules and consequences and teach them to the students on day one. When a consistent andfair classroom environment is established, discipline problems will occur less. Tips toeffective classroom discipline include: be consistent, be proactive, give students onewarning and then discipline appropriately, and avoid reprimanding individuals in front of the rest of the class.Classroom Climateo Teachers must also establish a positive, comfortable learning environment. The climate of the classroom should be determined based on a teacher's personal preferences,teaching style and expectations. Teachers must determine how to seat the students,where to display the students' work, the general cleanliness of the room, which areas of the room students have access to and how to decorate.Efficiencyo An efficient classroom enables students to focus more time on their work and gives teachers more time to teach rather than address discipline problems. Routines andprocedures must be rehearsed by the students until they can perform themindependently. Depending on the age of the students, teachers might need to spend a lot of time on this at the beginning of the school year, but it will pay off in the end.。

剑桥商务英语高级-165(总分100,考试时间90分钟)Exercise 1Choose the correct answer from the acternatiues given1. What business document provides proof of payment for a business transaction?A. InvoiceB. ReceiptC. ClaimD. Debit note2. What is the purpose of crossing a cheque?A. To stop it being paid into an account other than the payee"s.B. To speed up the time it takes to go through the clearing system.C. To allow it to be paid into any account, not just the payee"s.D. To tell the bank to check that there is enough money in the account to pay.3. Which one of the following is an example of an internal stakeholder?A. ShareholderB. CustomerC. ManagerD. Supplier4. Which one of the following is a disadvantage of a computerized accounting system over a manual accounting system?A. Computerized system is more time consuming to operate.B. Operating costs of a computerized system are higher.C. Computerized system is more costly to set up.D. Computerized system is more error free.Exercise 2Choose the correct answer from the alternatives given1. Susan packs goods on an assembly fine. She is paid a different amount each month, depending on her output. By what method of remuneration is Susan paid?A. Piece workB. CommissionC. Hourly payD. Salary2. Which one of the following departments is NOT a service cost center in a **pany?A. AccountingB. AssemblyC. MaintenanceD. Personnel3. Which of the following is NOT an attribute of **munication?A. ClarityB. CompletenessC. ComplexityD. Relevance4. **municating information, which of the following determine(s) the choice of method used?(1) Comparative cost(2) Degree of confidentiality(3) Speed of deliveryFor your choice:A. (1) onlyB. (3) onlyC. (1) and (2) onlyD. (1), (2) and (3)Exercise 3Choose the correct answer from the alternatines given.1. Tax avoidance is a legal activity while tax evasion is an illegal activity.A. TrueB. False2. Which one of the following is consistent with a government"s policy objective to expand the level of economic activity?A. An increase in taxationB. An increase in interest rateC. An increase in personnel savingsD. An increase in public expenditure3. To whom is the external auditor primarily accountable?A. The directors of **panyB. The non-executive directors of **panyC. The shareholders of **panyD. The employees of **pany4. What is the primary responsibility of the external auditor?A. To verify all the financial transactions and supporting documentation of the client.B. To ensure the client"s financial statements are reasonably accurate and free from bias.C. To report all financial irregularities to the client"s shareholders.D. To ensure that all the client"s financial statements are submitted to the relevant authorities on-time.Exercise 4Choose the correct answer from the alternatines given.1. Which of the following are responsibilities of a department supervisor?(1) Planning the work(2) Allocating work to staff(3) Maintaining discipline in the department(4) Maintaining staff moraleA. (1), (2) and (3)B. (1), (2) and (4)C. (1), (3) and (4)D. All of the above2. Which of the following is not an advantage of delegating?A. Managers can spread the workloadB. Specialists are able to develop their skillsC. It facilitates performance evaluationD. It reduces staff costs3. Which document does a supplier usually send to a customer listing all the transactions between them during the month?A. InvoiceB. ReceiptC. StatementD. Credit noteExercise 51. Accountants act as business advisers to modem enterprises. Please elaborate on this topic. Answer, in English, in about 100 words. There is no right or wrong answer.2. Cost accounting plays a crucial role in business. Please elaborate on this topic.Answer, in English, in about 100 words. There is no right or wrong answer.3. Tax account plays a key role in business. Please elaborate on this topic.Answer, in English, in about 200 words. There is no right or wrong answer.Exercise 6Choose the correct answer from the alternatines given.1. What"s the best definition of a computer"s central processing unit (CPU)?A. It contains all **puter programsB. It is created by a computer programmerC. A **puter unitD. Equipment used for processing data2. Two statements follow about an e-mail system ______(1) Its purpose is to send and receive data a computer can work with(2) Its purpose is to send and receive massages quickly and cheaplyWhich of the following applies with regard to the above statements?A. Both are falseB. Both are trueC. Only (2) is trueD. Only (1) is true3. If a firm maintains a stock control database, which of the following is most likely to occur when suppliers cannot deliver goods on time?A. Customer demand will rise accordinglyB. Customer orders will not be metC. Stock levels will become too highD. Deliveries from suppliers will be lower4. Which of the following methods of remuneration is not an incentive-based scheme?A. Straight pieceworkB. Day rateC. Group bonusD. Differential pieceworkExercise 7Read this letter of complaint, and fill in the blanks with the correct verb taken from the list below.have not arrived found was torn have informed have contacted received were damaged have not had showed unpackedJune 21, 2007Dear Mr. Jackson,I am writing to complain about a shipment of tubular steel garden furniture we 1 yesterday against our invoice no. G 3190/1.The crates 2 on the outside, and looked as if they had been roughly handled. When we 3 them, we 4 that some of the chair legs were bent and rusty, and the fabric on the seating 5 , or 6 signs of wear.Two further crates from the consignment 7 yet, so we 8 the opportunity of inspecting them.I 9 the **pany that we cannot accept this assignment from you, and they 10 your insurers. As we will be unable to retail this consignment in our stores, we are returning the shipment to you carriage forward, and we shall expect a full refund.Yours sincerely,Hoover HowellManaging Director1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Exercise 8Read the following extracts from letters of complaint. Write out the verbs in either the simple past,(e.g. he worked) or the present perfect, (e.g. he has worked).1. Last year we (not/have) ______ any **plaints from our clients, but this year we (already/received) ______ over twenty.2. This is not the first time that we (have) ______ problems with the **pany. Three months ago they (lose) ______ a **pletely and they still (not/find) ______ out what happened to it.3. I (look) ______ into the problem, and appears that the catalogue (be) ______ out of date.4. I (receive) ______ a consignment of furniture from you last week which we (order) ______ on May 12.5. The error (be) ______ due to a fault in **puter system which we now (put) ______ right.6. Our engineers (recently/find) ______ a fault with the batch of hard disk drives that we (manufacture) ______ in June and July last year.7. I am writing to apologize for the defective items you (receive) ______ last month, and to informyou that we (credit) ______ the sum of $684.86 to your account.8. Our accounts department (inform) ______ me that we (not/yet/ receive) ______ payment for the items we (send)9. We (not have) ______ any business from Winston & Co. since we (make) ______ an error with an invoice.10. We (lose) ______ a number of orders since we (start) having problems with the switchboard.。

专利名称：INCENTIVE-BASED WASTE REDUCTIONSYSTEM AND METHOD THEREOF发明人：RON GONEN,Morley Ivers,David Wigder申请号：US12435619申请日：20090505公开号：US20090276299A1公开日：20091105专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：An incentive-based waste reduction system and method thereof are disclosed herein. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, an incentive-based waste reduction system comprises a collection means comprising at least a load-determining device, the collection means for obtaining a quantifiable measure of waste material from an entity, a value associated with the quantifiable measure of waste material, an adjustment factor for adjusting the value associated with the quantifiable measure of waste material, determined from an algorithm, the algorithm taking as an input at least a predetermined factor, a credit value associated with at least a quantifiable measure of deposited waste material, and a reward value associated with the credit value.申请人：RON GONEN,Morley Ivers,David Wigder地址：New York NY US,Toronto CA,Bronx NY US国籍：US,CA,US更多信息请下载全文后查看。

Low carbon living has become a popular concept in modern society,emphasizing the importance of reducing carbon emissions to protect the environment and combat climate change.Here is a sample essay on the topic of low carbon living,which you can use as a reference for your own writing.Title:Embracing a Low Carbon LifestyleIn recent years,the concept of a low carbon lifestyle has gained significant attention worldwide.As the global climate continues to change and natural resources become increasingly scarce,it is imperative that we adopt sustainable practices to reduce our carbon footprint.This essay will explore the reasons behind the push for low carbon living,the benefits it offers,and the practical steps individuals can take to contribute to this movement.Reasons for Low Carbon Livingbating Climate Change:The primary reason for embracing a low carbon lifestyle is to mitigate the effects of climate change.Excessive carbon emissions contribute to global warming,leading to rising sea levels,extreme weather events,and the destruction of ecosystems.2.Preserving Natural Resources:A low carbon lifestyle helps in conserving energy and natural resources,which are finite and essential for the survival of all life on Earth.3.Improving Public Health:Reducing carbon emissions can lead to better air quality, which in turn reduces respiratory illnesses and other health issues associated with pollution.Benefits of Low Carbon Living1.Environmental Sustainability:By choosing to live a low carbon lifestyle,we are ensuring the sustainability of our environment for future generations.2.Economic Savings:Adopting energyefficient practices can lead to significant savings on utility bills,making it a financially wise choice.3.Enhanced Quality of Life:A cleaner environment and better health outcomes contribute to an overall improved quality of life.Steps to Achieve Low Carbon Living1.Reducing Energy Consumption:Simple measures such as turning off lights when not in use,using energyefficient appliances,and insulating homes can significantly reduce energy consumption.ing Public Transportation:Opting for public transportation,cycling,or walking instead of driving personal vehicles can greatly reduce carbon emissions.3.Consuming Less and Recycling More:Reducing consumption and practicing recycling can decrease the demand for new products,which often involves energyintensive manufacturing processes.4.Supporting Renewable Energy:Encouraging the use of renewable energy sources like solar,wind,and hydroelectric power can help decrease reliance on fossil fuels.5.Eating a PlantBased Diet:The production of meat,particularly beef,is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.Adopting a plantbased diet can reduce this impact.cating Others:Spreading awareness about the importance of a low carbon lifestyle and encouraging others to adopt these practices can create a ripple effect of positive change.In conclusion,adopting a low carbon lifestyle is not only a personal choice but also a collective responsibility.By making conscious decisions in our daily lives,we can contribute to the global effort to reduce carbon emissions and protect our planet for generations to come.It is a small step for an individual but a giant leap for humanity in the fight against climate change.。

外文翻译--绿色垃圾车的天然气燃料卡车正在成为越来越多垃圾运输商的首选。

这些垃圾车使用天然气作为燃料，相比之下，柴油垃圾车排放更多有害废气和噪音。

据调查，柴油垃圾车排放的颗粒物和氮氧化物会对人体健康造成极大的威胁，而天然气燃料卡车则可以减少这些有害物质的排放。

除了天然气，还有其他的可供选择的燃料，例如生物柴油和电力。

生物柴油是由可再生的原料制成的，相比之下，使用传统柴油的垃圾车会排放更多的温室气体。

电力垃圾车则可以减少排放和噪音，但需要更多的电力基础设施支持。

除了燃料选择之外，先进的垃圾车技术也可以减少垃圾车对环境和健康的影响。

例如，一些垃圾车配备了先进的废气处理系统和噪音控制设备，可以减少废气和噪音的排放。

此外，一些垃圾车还配备了自动化控制系统，可以提高工作效率和安全性。

当然，将这些新技术和燃料引入垃圾车行业并不是一件容易的事情。

需要相应的基础设施支持，例如加气站和充电站，同时也需要职工的培训和教育。

此外，成本问题也需要考虑，一些新技术和燃料的成本可能会更高。

总的来说，绿色垃圾车的发展是一个复杂的过程，需要政府、企业和社会各方的共同努力。

通过引入新技术和燃料，我们可以减少垃圾车对环境和健康的影响，同时也为国家能源安全做出贡献。

用液化天然气，是因为它可以在较小的空间内存储更多的燃料。

建设天然气车队需要一定的投资，但是可以通过节省燃料费用和维护费用来回报这些投资。

同时，使用天然气燃料还可以减少排放和噪音，改善环境和社区健康。

除了使用天然气燃料，垃圾车队还可以通过其他方式来减少对环境的影响。

例如，使用电动车或混合动力车，或者在垃圾处理过程中采用更加环保的技术。

社区和政府可以采取措施来促进垃圾车队的绿色转型，例如提供财政支持或税收优惠，或者制定更加严格的排放标准和限制。

总之，建设天然气车队是一个可以减少污染、提高能源安全和促进可持续发展的重要举措。

虽然需要一定的投资和技术支持，但是这个转型已经在很多地方取得了成功，并且有越来越多的社区和企业加入到这个行列中来。

感知服务质量英语作文Title: Enhancing Service Quality Perception: Strategies and Importance。

In today's competitive business landscape, the perception of service quality plays a pivotal role in shaping customer satisfaction, loyalty, and overall business success. Whether in the realm of retail, hospitality, healthcare, or any other industry, providing exceptional service is essential for gaining a competitive edge. In this essay, we will delve into the significance of service quality perception and explore strategies to enhance it.Firstly, it's crucial to understand what servicequality perception entails. Service quality perception refers to customers' subjective assessment of the overall excellence or superiority of a service. It encompasses various factors such as reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and tangibles. Customers formperceptions based on their interactions with service providers, their expectations, and their comparisons with competitors.The importance of service quality perception cannot be overstated. Positive perceptions lead to increased customer satisfaction, which, in turn, fosters customer loyalty and advocacy. Satisfied customers are more likely to make repeat purchases, recommend the service to others, and contribute to positive word-of-mouth marketing. Conversely, negative perceptions can result in customer defection, tarnished reputation, and loss of business opportunities.To enhance service quality perception, organizations can adopt several strategies:1. Understand Customer Expectations: Conduct market research, surveys, and feedback mechanisms to gain insights into customer expectations. Understanding what customers value enables organizations to align their services accordingly and exceed expectations.2. Train and Empower Employees: Employees are frontline ambassadors of the brand and play a crucial role in shaping customer perceptions. Providing comprehensive training on customer service skills, empathy, and problem-solvingequips employees to deliver exceptional experiences. Empowering them to make decisions autonomously can alsolead to quicker resolution of issues and increased customer satisfaction.3. Consistent Communication: Clear and consistent communication is key to managing customer expectations and building trust. From marketing messages to service delivery, ensuring alignment and transparency fosters positive perceptions. Timely updates regarding service enhancements, promotions, or any changes can also demonstrate commitmentto customer satisfaction.4. Personalization: Tailoring services to meetindividual customer needs and preferences enhances the perception of personalized attention and care. Utilize customer data and technology to offer customized recommendations, exclusive offers, and personalizedinteractions. This not only enhances satisfaction but also strengthens the emotional connection with the brand.5. Continuous Improvement: Embrace a culture of continuous improvement by soliciting feedback, analyzing performance metrics, and implementing necessary changes. Demonstrating a commitment to excellence and proactively addressing issues signals responsiveness and dedication to customer satisfaction.6. Invest in Technology: Leveraging technology can streamline processes, enhance convenience, and elevate the overall service experience. Implementing self-service options, mobile applications, and digital platforms can empower customers and improve accessibility. Additionally, integrating artificial intelligence and data analytics enables personalized interactions and predictive service solutions.7. Service Recovery: Despite best efforts, service failures may occur. How organizations handle these instances can significantly impact customer perceptions.Promptly acknowledging mistakes, apologizing sincerely, and offering appropriate remedies can turn a negative experience into a positive one, thereby strengthening customer loyalty.In conclusion, enhancing service quality perception is essential for organizations striving to thrive in today's competitive marketplace. By understanding customer expectations, empowering employees, fostering clear communication, embracing personalization, prioritizing continuous improvement, leveraging technology, and mastering service recovery, organizations can cultivate positive perceptions that drive customer satisfaction, loyalty, and business success.。

英语翻译CATTI备考：2021政府报告常用词-基础的译法”基础“的几个译法1.固定搭配：基础设施 infrastructure2.短语：在...基础上on the basis of , based on， with the principle of如：based on what we had done to在相互尊重基础上: on the basis of equality and mutual respect, with the principle of mutual respect3.basic, base基础养老金：basic pension基础研究：basic research产业基础: industrial base5.underlying基础制度：the underlying system5.foundation基础地位: the foundational role of发展是基础: Development is the foundation经济恢复基础: The foundation for achieving our country’s economic recovery提取的与“基础”有关的双语句子面对历史罕见的冲击，我们在“六稳”工作基础上，明确提出“六保”任务，特别是保就业保民生保市场主体，Facing shocks of a severity rarely seen before, based on what we had done to ensure stability on six key fronts, we carried out the task of maintaining security in six key areas —particularly job security, basic living needs, and the operations of market entities.完善资本市场基础制度。

Themed “strengthening leading role ofstandards and suppor ting role of qualit y,accelerating development of new qualit yproductive forces”, the lecture on quality andstandardization of private economy was held bythe Standardization Working Committee of All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce onApril 19 in Beijing.The lecture aims to thoroughly implementChinese President Xi Jinping’s directions onstandardization work, implement the Outline ofBoosting China’s Quality Strength and NationalStandardization Development Outline in all respects,and assist private enterprises in raising the awareness of quality and standardization, as well as realizing the quality- and efficiency-oriented development.To accelerate the development of new quality productive forces, it is necessary to give full play to the role of private enterprises as the key subject, said An Lijia, Vice Chair of All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce. Private enterprises and chambers of commerce should grasp the opportunity of large-scale equipment renewals and trade-in of consumer goods, actively participated in the digital transformation and green low-carbon actions, and promote industrial transformation and upgrading to meet people’s demands for a better life.SAMR will work together with All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce to enhance standardization promotion and communication, optimize standard information service, support the participation of private enterprises in international standardization activities, and improve the working mechanisms of enterprise standards, said Fu Wenbiao, First-class Inspector of Standards Innovative Management Department of SAMR.Zhang Xiaogang, Director of the Standardization Working Committee of the All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce and former ISO President, gave a keynote speech entitled “Standardization facilitates new quality productive forces to realize high-quality development”.Representatives from private enterprises and chambers of commerce such as CATL, Gree, Novel Optics, International Logistics Chamber of Shanghai Federation of Industry and Commerce, and Wuxi Sensing China IoT Chamber of Commerce, exchanged experiences at the event.Lecture on quality and standardization of privateeconomy convened in Beijing9 2024 May / June CHINA STANDARDIZATION。

Job Description – Chief Operating Officer1)Company DescriptionAgora Microfinance India Limited is a new urban microfinance institution based in Mumbai that aims to become a significant player in urban microfinance. Its approach is to develop an in-depth understanding of the needs of low income households, and to use flexible approaches and delivery mechanisms to provide increased financial access to such families. Our mission is to provide affordable, convenient and timely financial services to low income urban clientele in a financially sustainable manner.2)PositionThe Chief Operating Officer will be part of the senior management of the company and will be responsible for the operation strategies and business growth. The Chief Operating Officer will develop, refine and implement Operations strategy including aspects such as area selection, product design and delivery, portfolio quality management, Client outreach and communications. S/he will be responsible for the management of the overall quality and efficiency of operations. S/he will ensure that the company delivers an outstanding service that is client focused and efficient at all times.3)LocationHead Office, Mumbai4)Reports toChief Executive Officer5)Supervisory/Line Management ResponsibilitiesRegional Managers in the Operations Department6)Qualifications, Experience and SkillsA Master’s degree in business administration, finance or economics, or commerce from areputable institution;A minimum of 10 years experience of operations in a microfinance institution in a seniorposition, or a relevant financial institution; experience in an urban setting will be a plus;Flexible and resourceful; the ability to work in a start-up and willingness to be responsible for a varied set of tasks that will support the company’s growth and expansion;Excellent team skills as the job requires working in large teams;Requisite computer skills for presentations, communication and data analysis;Acquaintance with the MIS & Accounting systems for day to day microfinance operationsA thorough understanding of microfinance performance metrics/indicators and the ability tointerpret and process operations data;Excellent verbal and written communication and interpersonal skills;The capacity to work under pressure, prioritize multiple tasks and meet deadlines;Fluency in English and Hindi; Knowledge of Marathi will be an added advantageThe commitments and enthusiasm to work in a challenging environment, and the ability to display sensitivity to the diverse needs of urban low income families and be highly motivated to work with slum households to improve their opportunities and outcomes.7)Description of RoleLead role in the creation of the company’s operations plans;Management of lending (microfinance) operations to a high standardManagement of Operations’ goals, objectives, and budget to support the achievement of the overall organizational mission;Analysis of competition, products and processes on an ongoing basisAct as the main quality controller in client selection, portfolio quality management, product and processes, client protection, area selection and other aspects of operations Ensure full compliance with the existing policies of the company, especially the Operations PoliciesDevelop new cost effective marketing strategies to improve outreach.Oversee credit and risk control’s policy adherence in operational areas.Support recruitment function for operations team.8)CompensationCompensation will be competitive and commensurate with the skills of the candidate. The package will consist of about a 20%-25% performance based incentive component which will apply on the completion of the probation period.9)To Apply:Please send a CV & a one page cover letter detailing how you meet the eligibility requirements to **********.in. The closing date for applications is 15th February 2015. Please clearly state the role that you are applying for in the email subject line. Candidates who do not submit a cover letter will not be shortlisted. For further details please visit www.amil.co.in.。

Chapter 1 – Introduction(1) Indicate whether each of the following statement is consistent with an organic view or mechanistic view of government:答A与政府有机论一致，社会凌驾于个人之上。

b.与政府机械论一致个人主义高于一切。

(2)Explain how you would expect a libertarian, a social democrat, and someone with an organic conception of the state to react to the following laws :a. A law prohibiting gambling b. A law mandating seat belt use 请你假设并解释一下自由主义者、社会民主主义者和持有国家有机观的人对下列法律会做出的反应a禁止赌博b强制使用安全带答；.a. 自由主义者反对禁赌法律，社会民主主义者赞成，持国家有机观的人在这个问题上首先会考虑赌博是否会有助于实现社会目标，如果赌博抑制人们的积极性，持有机论的人将赞成禁赌法，但是如果赌博被看做是一种为社会带来更多收益的方式，那么他们就会反对禁毒法。

b自由主义者反对强制使用安全带法律，社会民主主义者认为安全带能够保护生命，并且最终对个人有益。

持国家有机观的人将会赞成，因为它能降低由更少的交通事故而产生的医疗成本，从而有益于社会。

Chapter 2 – Tools of Positive Analysis(3) In 2006,president George proposed a cut in marginal income tax why it is difficult to predict the impact of such a tax cut upon labor supply on the basia of theory there were no political or legal impediments to doing so,how could you design an experimental study to estimate the impact of lower marginal tax rates on labor supply 2006年，乔治W布什总统提议降低边际所得税率。