Stylistic

Brief Summary of StylisticsGeneralStylisticsis the sciencewhich exploreshow readers interact with the languages oftexts in order to explain how weunderstand and are affected by texts whenwe read them. The stylistic mainly通述concerns about the examination of文体学是为一门教我们怎么更好的grammar, lexis, semantics, as well as使用语言的一门学科，主要关注语法，phonological properties and discursive词汇，语义，语音特征和表达手段。

devices. It’s developing and not come文体学目前是不完善的，处于发展阶to maturity now.段。

According to different standards,thestylistics mainly divide into two majortypes ：linguistic stylistics and literarystylistics. And there are many school ofstylistics such as lingvo-stylistics,literarystylistics, applied stylistics, contrastive根据不同的标准，文体学分为两大stylistics, applied stylistics and so on.类：普通文体学和文学文体学.并且文体学有许多不同的学派，如形式文体In the basic notions of stylistics, the学，话语文体学，文学文体学，应用文体学，社会文体学，认知文体学，related Prague School of the early 比较文体学等。

文体与修辞课程论文A Brief Stylistic Analysis of “The Gettysburg Address”Delivered by Abraham Lincoln姓名班级学号Contents摘要 (i)Abstract (ii)1. Introduction (1)2. A Stylistic Analysis of the Speech (2)2.1 At Phonological Level (2)2.1.1 Repetition (2)2.1.2 Pause (2)2.1.3 Rhyme (3)2.2 At Lexical Level (3)2.2.1 Diction (3)2.2.2 First Person Pronouns (4)2.3 At Syntactical/Grammatical Level (4)2.3.1 The Sentence Structure (4)2.3.2 The Sentence Type (5)2.4 At Semantic Level (5)2.4.1 Parallelism (5)2.4.2Metaphor＆Personification (5)2.4.3 Repetition (6)3. Conclusion (6)Appendix (7)摘要公众演讲在社会活动中扮演着十分重要的角色。

它在表现正式书面语的特点时也展现出口语的特征。

这篇论文的主要目的是探索由亚伯拉罕·林肯总统在宾夕法尼亚州葛底斯堡国家公墓发表的葛底斯堡演说的文体特征。

它分别从语音特征、词汇特征、句法特征和语义特征四个方面分析。

通过这篇论文，我们能更好的了解公众演讲。

关键词：亚伯拉罕·林肯，葛底斯堡演说，文体分析AbstractPublic speech plays a very important role in social activities. It presents the features of formal written language while exhibiting characteristics of the spoken. The primary goal of this thesis is exploring stylistic features of The Gettysburg Address which was delivered by President Abraham Lincoln at the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It analysis the speech in four aspects: phonological level, lexical level, syntactical level and semantic level. Through the essay, we can have a better understanding of the public speech.Key words: Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, stylistic analysis1. IntroductionStylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/ linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels. Stylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text; that is, what it is that is peculiar to the uses of language in a literary text for delivering the message. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity that is highly comparative in nature.Public speech are speeches delivered in public for a special purpose, such as open-class lectures or seminars in a university, religious preaches in the church, speeches delivered at a meeting or conference, the inaugural address of the president elect, etc. Public speech are delivered orally, but they are often well prepared in writing and delivered on formal occasions. So they are strongly influenced by the characteristics of the written languages. Generally speaking, the language used in public speeches is formal in style, clear and vivid in tone, and persuasive in purpose.The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, one of the best-known in American history. It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War, on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, four and a half months after the Union armies defeated those of the Confederacy at the Battle of Gettysburg. Abraham Lincoln's carefully crafted address, secondary to other presentations that day, came to be regarded as one of the greatest speeches in American history. In just over two minutes, Lincoln reiterated the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed the Civil War as a struggle for the preservation of the Union sundered by the secession crisis, with "a new birth of freedom," that would bring true equality to all of its citizens. Reviewing the whole speech in such context, we find out many stylistic features that are rare in other general speeches. Therefore, it deserves our exploration to exhibit what the stylistic characteristics of eulogistic speech are. The examination will be carriedout in four perspectives, namely, phonological, lexical, syntactical and semantic analyses.2. A Stylistic Analysis of the Speech2.1 At Phonological LevelPhonological devices play a very important role in public speeches, since they are delivered orally. Therefore, we can’t ignore the phonological features of this speech. Here, the main focus puts on repetition, pause and rhyme.2.1.1 RepetitionIn this speech, the most remarkable figure of speech is repetition, and it concludes alliteration, consonance and epanalepsis. Alliteration is repetition of an initial sound in two or more words that occur close together. For example, a. “Four score and seven years ago” replace s eighty-seven years ago. “four score” has two long vowels [ɔ:], so the repetition is resounding, overwhelming and well known by people, and can draw audience’s attention effectively. b. “We are met...We have come to ...”c. “It is for us the living ...It is rather for us...”The author used that to stress the purpose they were gathering on the ground, and to put a new light on the great task they were confronted with.Consonance is partial or total identity of consonants in successive words or syllables whose main vowels differ. E.g.:a. “... what we say here, but... what they did here.” b. “... Government of the people, by the people, for the people.” Epanalepsis is the repetition of a word after other words. It helps to organize the discourse, making the whole speech an inseparable entirely. Take the repetition of the word “nation”for example, Lincoln emphasized that the honored dead had fought for the equality of the whole nation rather than for any states, and that he wanted the Union to cover the whole nation rather than only the northern states.2.1.2 PausePause is necessary in public speech. What’s more, the audiences were come from different class and motley community or group including statesman, military officer, journalist and thefamily of martyr and other grassroots, among these people are either lowbrow or highbrow. So Lincoln had to make sure everyone at presence totally understand the content of his speech. Besides, he makes use of “pause”skillfully, for instance, the “pause”after “now”leads to a thought of current missions and conditions; the “pause” after God make people image what will happen the next moment.2.1.3 RhythmThe total address is 264 words. The speaker spent about 3 minutes to finish it. And the average speed od public speech is usually within the range of 120 words and 150 words per minute. So, we can figure out that the speed of Lincoln is medium. It’s benefit to everyone at present to understand clearly and totally. And it’s good for the speaker to reach his goal.2.2 At Lexical LevelLexis is used here to refer to the choice of words. In other words, Lexis is proper words in proper places. And here, we will focus our attention on diction and first personal pronouns.2.2.1 DictionOne of the most conspicuous features of public speeches at this level is the employment of big words (words with more than 6 letters). In Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, the whole text has 264 words while the number of big words is 38, which make up 14% of the total. By the way, the proportion of big word in daily language or advertisements is often less than 20%. It not only to show stability but also would make the audience feel the speaker is serious in politics. For example, at the beginning of the speech, he use “fourscore and seven years ago” instead of “eighty-seven years ago”, and “the proposition”instead of “the belief”, which have a literary flavor and tone, creating a solemn atmosphere for the whole delivery.The other conspicuous feature in this speech is the use of foreign words. In the short passage of 264 words, there are Romance Words and words of French origin, such as “proposition”, “engaged”; and words of Latin origin, such as “conceive” and “resolve”. The use of Romancewords created an ambiance of solemnity and dignity, which facilitated the speaker to convey his ideas smoothly. However, most of these romance words such as “nation”, “brave”, “poor”, “power” are not difficult to understand. Because it was a once-delivered speech. The choice of simple words enabled the large audience of all walks of life to understand the essence of it, and to reduce their memory burden. Besides, he used many short words, which made the address rather forceful and rhythmical.2.2.2 First Person PronounsAs far as pronouns are concerned, the frequently used pronouns are the first person pronouns and the second person pronouns, the third person pronouns are used much less. Because the first person would help speaker to state his viewpoint and strike a chord with his listeners. The first person pronouns “we”, “us”, “our”are used for 14 times. These words cause the audience resonance, make them feel that they are on equal terms with the president. Thus it is easier for the speaker to win the support of the listeners, who immediately feel close to the speaker when hearing the expression “we” or “our”. Lincoln involves all the audience and makes them feel that they are the ones whom he is speaking to. By the conversion of personal pronouns, he manages to make the speech flexible and rousing.2.3 At Syntactical/Grammatical LevelSyntax refers to the rules of ordering words into sentences. As far as sentence type is concerned, in most public speeches, we can find that almost all the sentences are major sentences. In this paper, we mostly focus on the sentence structure and the sentence type.2.3.1 The Sentence StructureAs far as sentence length is concerned, most speakers in public speeches tend to use long sentences, since long sentences can convey complicated ideas and make the speech more serious and reliable. This address was delivered on a solemn and serious occasion, so the composition of the long sentences was rather fitting and proper for the atmosphere. Especially the last sentence,which is extraordinarily long with 78 words, expresses Lincoln’s series of resolute determination. The length forced the audience to pay more attention and to concentrate their effort on digesting the meaning that the speaker intended to convey; meanwhile it made the idea most convincing.2.3.2 The Sentence TypeThe sentences of this speech are most are complete declarative sentences without a few questions. Because the aim of speech is to deliver the massage of “the lament to the sacrificed soldiers”, he utilizes affirmative tone to emphasize his and American people’s feelings. The application of command also helps to enhance the interaction of the addresser and the addresses.2.4 At Semantic LevelPublic speech is usually well prepared in written form in advance in order to achieve a good result. This makes it possible for the speaker to employ figurative language, which can effectively engage the audience. The semantic effect is mainly achieved by the employment of different kinds of figures of speech. Here, we will concentrate on parallelism, metaphor, personification and repetition.2.4.1 ParallelismParallelism is very often used in public speech. Because the use of it reinforces the meaning and helps to build up an emotional climax and therefore very effective. In this speech, there are two parallelism: a.“We can not dedicate--we can not consecrate--and we can not hallow--this ground.” b. “The government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” Those sentences create a strong rhythm to help the audience line up his ideas.2.4.2 Metaphor ＆PersonificationMetaphor refers to the use of words to indicate something different from their literal meaning. And personification is a figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are represented with human qualities or form. But sometimes, these two figures will be used in thesame sentence. For example, “our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation，conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”Lincoln used this metaphor to express the establishment of a country. It means that this country has life just like people, and it is a young baby who is growing and learning and need of help.2.4.3 RepetitionWe can see repetition in this speech everywhere. For example, “It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us...” There are two functions in this way. Firstly, the speaker emphasis “here”, it also is the land under everyone’s feet. Secondly, he emphasis revolution has not yet been successful, it’s needed for us to do the things which have not being done. This repetition helps to achieve the function of coherence in discourse and the function of reinforcement in mood and emotion, expressing the speaker’s strong emotion of longing for freedom and justice.3.ConclusionFrom analyzed The Gettysburg Address in ways of linguistic description in terms of the phonological features, the lexical features, the syntactic/grammatical features and the semantic features, a deeper understanding of this public speech is achieved. And we can see that Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is concise and plain in language, effective in instigation and persuasion, strong in rhythm, tight in organization and coherent in idea, which effectively influenced the economies of the audience and mentally prepared them for the military mission.Appendix6。

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Chapter1 Introduction1. What do we mean by stylistics?Stylistics is the study of that variation in language (style) which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or learner. Stylistics is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. In addition, we can separate “Stylistic” into two pieces: “style”, is a component relating stylistics to literary criticism: “istics”, is component relation stylistics to linguistic. Frankly speaking, stylistics has close relationship with linguistic, language, literary criticism and literature.2. What does style refer to in the study of stylistics?Style is the variation in a person’s speech or writing. Style usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed the location, the topic discussed. Style has both general sense and specific sense. Its general sense is also called “the present day sense”, is the variety of language. Its specific sense is referred to the literary style.3. How did the study of stylistics come into being?Stylistics developed on the basis of traditional rhetoric. In ancient Greece, rhetoric came into being. Later on the skills for speech and writing were developed into the figures of speech. Examples werecollected from the different writers’ works. In the early 20th century, some linguists studied the different types of writings according to the linguistic theories. Thus, stylistics first appeared on horizon. It has 3 revolutions, first, modernist movement in art and literature, lasting from 1890 to the beginning of WWII. Second, literary criticism having profound and radical influence on stylistic. The last one initiated by the works of Noam Chomsky and Michal Halliady.4. What’s the importance of learning stylistics?Learning stylistics can help us to use the right English in a right situation; help us to learn about the linguistic feature of each style; help us to know more about different elements of a language; help us with literary criticism; help us to translate better.Chapter2 Stylistic Function of Phonology1.What is the phonetic function to stylistics?The stylistic function of phonetics lies in is assistance to us in our adjustment and employment of different phonetic means to exploit the musical aestheticism of language in order to improve linguistic artistic charm.2.What aspects of phonetics influence stylistics?Phonetics involves several elements: stress, length and intonation. In English, there are word stress and sentence stress, which are used to express a special connection. Stress can be used for emphasis or fordistinction of parts of speech and senses. The length of sound in the connected speech is relative. And the lengthening of a sound may have rhetoric effect. However, the pitch has a very specific feature in stylistics.(1) The semantic function of intonation. By the semantic function of intonation, we mean that intonation may differentiate the meaning of an utterance. (2) The attitude to other people. The tone we use can tell people about our feelings, circumstance or surroundings. (3) Grammatical function of intonation. Intonation is closely related to grammar or, we might say, a part of grammar in much the same way, as punctuation is in the written language. (4) The accentual function of intonation. The intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed. (5) The discourse functions of intonation. One role of intonation is to help lubricate and regulate this interaction by signaling certain feature of discourse.3.How do you understand the humorous function of puns?Pun is the humorous use of a word that has two meanings or different words that sound the same. They tried to reach the humorous effect by using polysemy and homonymy. Such as, “DARWIN IS RIGHT-INSIDE”. Darwin can refer to the English naturalist or to the shop owner, while right can mean correct or directly. So when one pauses before the dash, the sign means Darwin (the naturalist) is correct; when you read the whole sign in a breath, it means the shopowner is directly inside. It indicates that pun play with the form and meaning of words and thus give us a way of thinking and imagining.4.How important is pause in speech? Give an example.Pause has both specific sense and general sense. The general sense is lengthening or shortening the voiced or unvoiced sound, while the specific sense is the interruption of flow of speech sound. Silent pause has both grammar function and stylistic feature. V oiced pause has only stylistic feature, but no grammatical function. For example, the boy repairs the bicycle in the house. If we pause before “in the house”, it means the location is in the house. If we pause after “repairs”, it denotes the bicycle’s location is in the house.Chapter3 Stylistic Feature of Lexicon1.What function does diction serve in stylistics?We are told by teachers to be cautious in using: non-standard, colloquial, literacy, formal, slang, archaism. We now advocate that the properties lie in the harmonies of speaker, subject, audience and purpose. Just as Jonathan Swift once said, people should use the right word in a right pace. So dictions of a style show the character of it and are closely related to each other.2.How does semantics influence style?Semantics is the study of word meaning. Considering how the meanings of words in a language relate to each other. It is the system ofmeanings into which words fit and by taking their place in the system, acquire their meanings. Here are some examples, pool, pond, lake, sea and ocean; village, town, city, and metropolis. These words referred to similar things, but different in styles. That is to say, they appear on different situations.3.What style of language does slang represent?Slang is ranked as non-standard English. However, it is very popular in English speaking countries, not only in daily life, but also in many popular literatures. The average American grasps about 2,000 words. Slang’s stylistic function is very important for it occupies for 10%.。

Poems on the perspective of stylistics----a different way to appreciate the poem Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, which is a branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style in texts, especially (but not exclusively) in literary works.The goal of most stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for their own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation of the text; or in order to relate literary effects to linguistic 'causes' where these are felt to be relevant.Different ways are implied to the analysis and appreciation of poems, including the analysis of background, of the poet's experience,also the stylistic analysis, which affords a rational way to appreciate the emotion of the poets,by the skills used in the poems . The lively words need the better way to make them easily understood by reeder. The followings are to show the poems on the perspective of stylistics.The EagleHe clasps /the crag/with crooked handsClose to the sun in lonely landsRinged with the azure world,/he stands//The winkled sea beneath him crawlsHe watches from his mountain wallsAnd like a thunderbolt he fallsThis poem has two stanzas, six lines and each line contains 8 syllables,from which we can see this poem is very short but very neat. The iambic foot of this poem is tetrameter,after each weak sound, a stressed sound is exactly followed,making the reading powerful.The rhyme sche me of this poem is “aaa, bbb”. And the rhyming words are “hands,lands ,stand, crawls,walls,falls”, expressing a stronger feeling and a greater strength. And the most of the words in this poem are monosyllables,no more than three syllables,except the word “thunderbolt’,which has three syllables.So those words are te nse, short but forceful.Also,Tennyson personify the eagle with the word "hands",and the expression of the eagle`s speediness and strength can be deeply left.As for phonetic devices,we can see it consists many kinds of phonetic devices, which picture out the prominent image of the eagle,and make the poem full of musical effect and full of melody.(1)Alliteration（头韵）is used many times in this poem, such as “claps , crag, crooked’in the first l ine of the first stanza. Those words show the vitality and the masculinity of the eagle by the powerful pronounce /k/. And "lonely , lands"," with , world" and “ watches, walls” are also belongs to alliteration.(2)Assonance（半谐韵）also can be seen here, suc h as “claps, crag,,hands”, “close , lonely”, “sea, beneath” and “wrinkle , him”. They provide this poem the beauty of sound.(3)Consonance（辅音）is an important phonetic device in this poem, such as “claps, hands”, “ringed , world”, “wrinkled , crawl” and “watches, his , walls”.They also give this poem a good coherence in sound.(4)There is another special phonetic device in thispoem---Onomatopoeia. In the poem we can see, the short but loud vowels such as /æ/ ,and the plosive sound,such as / k/ , /p/ , / g/ , / d/, make an impression of tough of the eagle. Then , with the sound / i :/,/ l/ and / n/ ,it describes the waves of the ocean.These special phonic sounds make the eagle seems more powerful and bring the readers the impact of mightiness hearing feeling.By the stylistic analysis, the image of eagle has been lifelike in our mind, and we can know the indomitable also the ferocious quality of eagle. Besides,the right way to read the poem is very important for understand the theme.The right place to pause and stress make the poem more powerful,which leaves the reader the impression of the static stateof first stanza , the dynamic of the second.The lake Isle of InnisfreeI will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles maden ine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for the honey-bee;And live alone in t hebe e-loud glade.And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow, Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings; There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,And evening full of the linnet's wings.I will arise and go now, for always night and dayI hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore;While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey,I hear it in the deep heart's core.This lyric poem has three stanzas, each of which has the rhyme "abab", and the whole poem has the iambic hexameter,so when we read it smoothly, but without boringness.In the initial stanza, the first line uses the repetition,showing the poet's wish for doing to Innisfree directly,which attract the reader deeply. The first and third line line ends with the sound"i:",and second and fourth with "eid",which give the quiet feeling, echoing to the peaceful life of the island.The word "peace" and "dropping "in the middle stanza use the repetition, having the effect of emphasise and beautiful sound. The consonance of "morning "and "evening" forms the contrast of time.And"glimmer"and "purple glow" are metaphors,but they do not just mean the "sun"and "moon",also give the mysterious feeling, which is Y eats's style.There is the comparison between "slow" and "glow",one means quiet and the other movement，but both of them echo to the things described in the lines they lie in."S"of the words "sings ""wings" create the expression of cricket's song and linnet's dance,which is the onomatopoeia.At the beginning of the last stanza, repetition is used again ,which is the same phrase of the poem's staring, describing the poet's longing for the beautiful island.Also deep impression is left to reader. The word "lapping" is the onomatopoeia,having the function of making us seemly hear the the sound of lake water, just like the poet can do, and letting the beauty of the island impressed us vividly. The words "day"and "grey" are rhythm ,the function of which not only for rhyming ,also the former emphasizing the poet's around-the-clock longing for the island ,and latter echoing to the boring and painful life of city. The repetition for the second and third lines has the effect of emphasis, letting us know what is the poet's truly pursuit, not only the natural beautiful things ,like "the bee-loud glade","the veils of morning",the songs of "cricket"and the sound of"lake water lapping "etc.,but also the sound of heart, namely, the freedom of the poet's heart.Through the stylistic analysis of the two poems, the functionand importance of this way to appreciate the poems are clear, which is an overall means to understand the innate things in the poetry, by presenting the form of poem clearly ,the meaning of words vividly and the emotion of poet impressively.。

北京理工大学珠海学院外国语学院课程学期论文Stylistic Analysis of O.Henry's The Gift of the Magi姓名：许颖淑班级：11级英语10班学号：111002101009Stylistic Analysis of O.Henry's The Gift of the MagiIntroductionAs one of the three masters of short stories in the literature history, 0.Henry was an outstanding American writer who is very familiar to and is popular with readers around the world.O. Henry's short stories are known for their wit, wordplay, warm characterization, and clever twist ending.Those his great works must have their own characteristics, which are shown in vocabulary, sentence and grammar, etc. In this thesis, I will select one of the famous short stories of 0.Henry and try to analyze it from the angle of stylistics and to describe the most significant stylistic features of it.The Gift of the Magi is one of the most famous one among O.Henry's short stories. I will make an analysis of it based on the stylistic theory and mainly discuss the following aspects: graphology, lexicon, syntax and semantics.I At the Lexical Level1. V ocabularyV ocabulary is one of most important aspects in influencing the difficulty and the acceptance of the story. It is known that 0.Henry is good at and famous for writing short stories. One of the reasons why he and his works are popular is that the stories are simple and easy to read and understand. It is hardly found there are difficult and elusive words in his works so that they are welcomed by all kinds of readers around the world. We can find that most words in this text are common words we often use.2. Word LengthWord length is an important stylistic marker. The longer and more complicated the words are, the more formal the texts are. 0.Henry uses more short words to make the stories more vivid, which also help the readers to understand what the writer tends to convey. On the other hand, due to the familiar and conversational words are employed among characters dialogues, a wide use of colloquial worddecrease the mean word length to a certain degree. Since the great storyteller depicts the daily life of common people，the short words can help to make the story more living and closer to the real situation, and at the same time, can also attract the readers to go on reading with ease.3. Word Class0.Henry makes a quantity of description of environment and people，which needs a lot of nouns during writing such as names of characters and places. More employment of nouns can also help the writers to convey the idea more explicitly, and reducing the possibility of confusion and misunderstanding. For example：Suddenly Della turned from the window and stood before the glass mirror and looked at herself.Her eyes were shining, but her face had lost its color within twenty seconds.Quickly she pulled down her hair and let it fall to its full length.The use of nouns in the examples he1ps the stolyteller with the clearness of the environment and characters, and meanwhile the misunderstanding and confusion is reduced when the readers appreciate the narrative.II At the Graphological Level1. PunctuationPunctuation is "the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading, both silently and aloud, of handwritten and printed texts."[1] Another description is: "The practice, action, or system of inserting points or other small marks into texts, in order to aid interpretation; division of text into sentences, clauses, etc., by means of such marks."[2].Much question marks and exclamation marks are used in the story to express the feeling of the characters. "If Jim does not kill me before he takes a second look at me," she said to herself, "he'll say I look like a song girl. But what could I do--oh! what could I do with a dollar and eighty-seven cents?" But she held the combs to herself, and soon she was able to look up with a smile and say, "My hair grows so fast, Jim!" \Then Della jumped up like a little burned cat and cried, "Oh, oh!". Through the use of exclamation mark and question mark，the example above reflects the heroin Della's complicated mood and feeling after she cut off her hair and sells it, as well as her astonishment after seeing the gift that is given by her husband.Therefore,we can know punctuation is used as one of the visual connective devices that helpto communicate grammatical and other distinctions in written English. Much question marks and exclamation marks are used in the story to express the feeling of the characters.2. ParagraphingParagraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs (consisting of one or more sentences). A paragraph has,on the one hand a relatively strong and tight sense of internal coherence and on the other hand a relatively loose linkage with the textual material before and after it. The paragraph length of The Gift of the Magi is relatively short compared to some other short stories, for there are many paragraphs consisting of the communication between the couple by speech. "You have cut off your hair?" asked Jim, slowly, as if he had not accepted the information even after his mind worked very hard."Cut it off and sold it," said Della. "Do you not like me just as well? I am the same person without my hair, right?Jim looked about the room as if he were looking for something."You say your hair is gone?" he asked.The paragraphs look simple and concise, and it is easy to understand and readers seem to be in the real context when they read the stories.III At the Syntactic Level.1. Sentence LengthThe average sentence length of different variety is different. Generally speaking the longer the sentence is, the more difficult it is to be understood and the more formal the variety. Academic writing tends to use long sentences to achieve seriousness and preciseness. In literary works, long sentences are employed to describe detail and events while short sentences contain simpler grammatical structures and are quite easy to understand. O.Henry prefers to use short sentences in this selected story. In fact, many conversations exist in the short stories, and speakers tend to utter simple and short words in communication, and it is proper to describe the simple life of poor people at the bottom of the society with short and simple sentences in short stories.The employment of short sentence can reduce the difficulty of understanding and lead to popularity of the works. The related examples can be seen in the discussion of paragraphing.2. Use of Sentence FragmentSentence fragment refers to the incomplete sentence which lacks sentence component. A noun or a phrase beeomes a sentence due to some specific demand. It can be seen that there are such sentence fragments as mentioned in this work. 0.Henry achieves felicitous effects by breaking grammar. The stories are narrated as if someone were telling it to you face to face. There are some examples:One dollar and eighty-seven cents.A furnished flat at $8 per week.Only $1.87 to buy a present for Jim.HerJim.These are not complete sentences but noun phrases and the readers can easily catch what the author wants to tell us from such sentence fragments.IV At the Semantic LevelRhetorical DeviceIn short stories, in order to better convey meanings, figurative language is often employed. We can find the use of different figures of speech in this short story.1) SimileO’Henry pays more attention to the simile. O’Henry uses simile not only in the frequency of usage but also in other aspects.Of all kinds of figures,colorful and varied in scenery,common things and phenomenon in daily life which always having simile only enter the story world of O’Henr.It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the as or like.And them Della leaped up like a little singed cat and cried，“Oh，oh!”Jim stopped inside the door, as immovable as a setter at the scent of quail.So now Della's beautiful hair fell about her rippling and shining like a cascade of brown waters.In the above three examples the things of different categories are compared: a woman and a little singe cat, a man and a setter which smells the scent of quail，a woman's long and beautiful hair and a cascade of brown waters. The description can make the scene in the stories more vivid and striking and help readers to further understand.2) MetaphorIn O’Henry’s writing,metaphor is another feature which is worth mention.”A symbol differs from ametaphor in that its application is left open as an unstated suggestion.It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison, but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word as or like.It reached below her knee and made itself almost a garment for her.Down rippled the brown cascade.In the examples, a woman's long hair is compared to her garment and the brown cascade,which tells readers how beautiful the hair is.3) HyperboleHyperbole is a type of exaggeration that is used in literature. It is a figure ofspeech, in which the diction exaggerates the subject.In the vestibule below was a letter-box into which no letter would go，and an electric button from which no mortal finger could coax a ring.The example means that the flat is very shabby and poor. Obviously the hero and heroin living in such a place can not afford to buy luxurious gifts for each other. But they want to give their lovers satisfying and surprising Christmas gifts, so it is reasonable to sell the most precious possessions of the family.4)O’Henry uses Soapy as the typical figure in the novel. The Gift of the Magi and takes Ameriscan New York as an example reflects truly the poor people’s hard life at that time and uses ironic mannter to criticize the unfair of society and shows the strong5) AllusionAn allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference or representation of or to awell-known person，place，event，literary work，myth, or work of art.In The Gift of the Magi, 0.Henry tells a story of a couple who sacrifice their very valuable hair and watch in order to buy Christmas gifts for each other. At the end of the story, the author praises them with the words "the wisest", and "they are Magi". In Christian tradition, the Magi refers to as the Three Wise Men, three kings ,or kings from the East, who are said to have visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, myrrh and frankincense. Gold symbolized Christ's kingship on earth. Frankincense (an incense) symbolized Christ's role as priest. Myrrh，which was commonly used as an embalming substance，symbolized Jesus' death on the cross. The story ends with the narrator comparing the couple's mutually sacrificial gifts of love with those of the Biblical Magi. The mostprecious they possess are their love for each other. The readers are moved by the true love, and at the same time they can learn from the hero and heroin the real meaning of giving gifts.ConclusionWe can see from the analysis above that O.Henry uses more question marks and exclamation marks than the other punctuation marks in the text. He is good at using very short items, such as the simple words, the short sentences, and the sentence fragments, all these can reduce the difficulty of understanding and lead to vividness and popularity of the work. And also some rhetorical devices are applied to achieve brevity and vividness in this text. All those together had made The Gift of the Magi notable and wellknown around the world.BibliographyJump up ^Encyclopaedia BritannicaJump up ^Oxford English Dictionary, definition 2a.Noam Chomsky .(1957). Syntactic structures[M].TheHague:Mouton University Press.O.Hellry.(1995).O.Henry 100 Selected stories[M]. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth.Wang Shouyuan.(2000).A Course in English Stylistics[M].Shandong:Shandong Education Press. ChengYumin.(1988).Readings in Stylistics[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.曹佳源.(2007).对情景喜剧《老友记》的文体学分析[J].北京:首都师范大学.胡曙中.(2002)英语修辞学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.夏立娟.(2007).简·奥斯丁作品的文体学分析[J].大连:大连海事大学.。

西南大学《英语文体学引论》复习思考题及答案(0099) 《英语文体学引论》复习思考题I. Explain in brief the following terms. (10 points; in test it contains 10 terms)1. stylistics2. style3. dialect4. morpheme5. phoneme6. language7. register 8. acoustic phonetics 9. auditory phonetics10. syllable 11. general stylistics 12. literary stylistics13. form 14. content 15. phonological analysis16. lexical analysis 17. syntactical analysis 18. discoursal analysis19. paralinguistic features 20. social dialect 21. taboo22. whispery voice 23. breathy voice 24. creaky voice25. falsetto 26. common core words 27. technical words28. standard words 29. non- standard words 30. spoken words31. literary words 32. extension 33. specialization34. elevation 35. degradation 36. metaphor37. litotes 38. irony 39. compound sentence40. periodic sentence 41. loose sentence 42. elliptical sentence43. inverted sentence 44. antithesis 45. parallelism46. repetition 47. deviation 48. cataphora49. progressive conjunction 50. field of discourseII. Answer the following questions. (50 points; in test itcontains 5 questions)1. What is the relationship between form and content?2. What are the differences between language and speech?3. What is the methodology of stylistic analysis? What are the levels of stylistic analysis?4. Define paralinguistic features. What are they?5. What are the three ways of studying the sound of language?6. What are the four typical meters in English poetry?7. What is the relationship between sound and meaning?8. What is the relationship between style and the choice of words, according to thestylisticians?9. How many kinds of word meanings may be classified? And what are they?10. What are the three basic components of the English vocabulary?11. Functionally speaking, what are the four types of English sentences?12. What are the conjunctions used in combining English sentences?13. What are the gestures may be used in a casual conversation?14. What are the three types of substitution? Can you give some examples?15. What is the relationship between dialect and register?16. Name at least five kinds of figures of speech in English.17. Can you give some examples of rhetorical questions?18. What are the stylistic features of the Bible?19. What are the five kinds of reference in the English language?20. What are the three factors of register?21. Give examples to illustrate power relationship and solidarity relationship.22. What are the non-linguistic features of casual conversation?23. What are the linguistic features of the language of news reporting?24 .What are the linguistic features of the language of advertisement?25. What is the relationship between literary language and ordinary language?III. Stylistic analysis (20 points):1. Explain the connotative meaning of the italicized words or expressions in the followingsentences (12 points; in test it may or may not appear; it contains 3 words or expressions):.1) Don’t trust her; she is a snake i n the grass.2) The enemy will attack us tomorrow morning, but we are still not well prepared. TheDa mocles’ sword is hanging over us.3) We have to consult him, you know, he is the real Titan in our class.4) News from Pentagon today says …5) She knows nothing about the cruelty of the world. She isa lily.6) Hamlet, according to some psycho-analysis theory, is a character who has theOedipus complex.7) He is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. Don’t believe what he says.8) The doctor told him it is not cancer, however, it is only a white lie.9) He is always ready to help people when they are in need. He’s a real Robin Hood.10) Their policy is all sticks and no carrots.11) 0China never stands on the side of Chauvinism.12) Children are flowers of our country.2. What possible social relationships exist between the participants in the followingsentences? (12 points; in test it may or may not appear)1) Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?2) What time is it, please?3) What’ the time?3. Indicate what kind of figures of speech is used in the following examples? (8 points; intest it may or may not appear; it contains 2 items)The young hunter was as strong as a lion.Life is but a brief candle.from the cradle to the graveMany hands make light work.She’s as old as a mountain.A victorious defeatHe is a fool. He never knows where his personal interest lies. His whole heart is concerned about the interest of other people.Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay.The drunkard loves his bottle better than his wife.My love is a red, red rose.4. Try to analyze the following sentence and point out its stylistic value (12 points; it mayor may not appear in test; if it appears, it contains onesentence)1) It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a fortunemust be in want of a wife. (J. Austin. Pride and Prejudice)2) I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)3) O, my luve is like a red, red roseThat’s newly sprung in June;O, my luve is like the melodieTha t’s sweetly play’d in tune.(Robert Burns, A Red, Red Rose)4) A grief ago (Dylan Thomas)5) “Don’t be such a harsh parent, father!”“Don’t father me!”(0099) 《英语文体学引论》复习思考题答案I. Explain in brief the following terms (10 points; in test it contains 10 terms):1. stylistics: the study or the investigation of style.2. style: the linguistic habit of a particular person(s) or characteristic of typical situations.3. dialect: a subtype of language which may be determined by geographical locality orparticular social groupings.4. morpheme: the smallest unit in a language that carries meaning.5. phoneme: the smallest sound unit in a specific language capable of semantic distinction.6. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7. register: language determined by situation.8. acoustic phonetics: a branch of phonetics dealing with thephysical properties of thespeech sounds of a language.9. auditory phonetics: the study of how the sound of speech is received by the hearer.10. syllable: a vowel sound either with or without a consonant or consonants in clusters.11. general stylistics:the investigation of the linguistic features of all kinds of language use.12. literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features of literature in particular, such asthose of poetry, novels and dramas.13. form: the particular way of expressing the message.14. content: the message or information or the communicative value that is encoded orloaded in a linguistic expression.15. phonological analysis: it is chiefly concerned about the sound patterns of a piece ofliterature, especially those of poetry.16. lexical analysis: it is chiefly concerned about the internal structure and the stylisticcoloring and the semantic relationship of the words in the text.17. syntactical analysis: it is chiefly concerned about how the words in a text are puttogether to produce meaning and other kinds of message.18. discoursal analysis: it is concerned about how sentences are joined together to produce acohesive and coherent text.19. paralinguistic features: the vocal effects caused by different shaping of the vocal cordsand openings20. social dialect: it is determined by the social groupings that a person belongs to.21. taboo: words forbidden to be used in public because of their being dirty or offensive22. whispery voice: utterance without any vocal cord vibration at all. Emphasizing contrast.23. breathy voice: utterance where there is too much breath for the needs of the articulation.24. creaky voice: a slow crackle of vocal cord vibrations at a low pitch, like a stick being runalong a fence.25. falsetto: a switch of the voice from one vocal register toa higher one; usually found onlyin males.26. common core words: refer to those words used in everyday life.27. technical words: refer to those words used in special professions.28. standard words: words that are used in the standard dialect.29. non-standard words: words labeled as slangs, vulgarisms and colloquialisms in thedictionary. the cultural and social implications of a word simile: a comparison between two things with emphasis on the similarity or likeness between them30. spoken words: words that most often used in face-to- face, casual and everydayconversations.31. literary words: words used in formal writings or literature.32. extension: a specific word comes to mean a general idea.33. specialization: the change of the word meaning may move in the opposite direction, aword with general reference is narrowed to a specific reference.34. elevation: words of derogatory association become words of favorable association.35. degradation: neutral words or words of favorable association degenerated intoderogatory words.36. metaphor: a covert comparison37. litotes: understatement38. irony: a figure of speech that takes the form of saying or implying the opposite of whatone feels to be the case39. compound sentence: a sentence made up of two or more simple sentences, joinedtogether by conjunctions or punctuations40. periodic sentence: one that is not grammatically complete until the end is reached41. loose sentence: one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached42. elliptical sentence: one in which either the subject or the predicate or part of thepredicate is missing43. inverted sentence: one in which the subject position is filled by other sentence elements44. antithesis: a figure of speech in the formula of X conj. Y with a contrast between them45. parallelism: a rhetorical device in which two or more thantwo similar syntacticstructures with different words are placed side by side46. repetition: a rhetorical device in which identical words are used but not necessarily inidentical position47. deviation: violation of standard use of the language48. cataphora: If the referred item comes after the referring item in a text, then it is a case ofcataphora.49. progressive conjunction: one sentence that joined by the use of conjunctive words ofaddition or progression50. field of discourse: the topic under discussion or the nature of the activity in whichlanguage is involvedII. Answer the following questions (50 points; in test it contains 5 questions):1. What is the relationship between form and content?One way of talking about style is to make a distinction between form and content.Content is the message or information or the communicative value that is encoded or loaded in a linguistic expression. Form is the particular way of expressing the message.The form is the style which may be different from case to case although the meaning may remain the same. For example, the Chinese term 开始may be expressed indifferent English words, such as start, begin and commence, but each suggests a different style.2. What are the differences between language and speech?Another way of talking about style is to make a distinctionbetween language and speech, which may be translated in Chinese as 语言and 言语. This distinction was first proposed by Saussure, the founder of the modern linguistics. According to Saussure, there are four major differences between language and speech.A. Language is abstract whereas speech is concrete. Language is abstract in the sensethat it has only psychological instead of physical existence. Language is notsomething that you can bring to the classroom and examine under the microscope,not something you can hear, see, smell , touch or taste. Speech is concrete in thesense that it has physical properties. Either can be heard in the spoken form or seenin the written form.B. Language is potential whereas speech is actual. Language is potential in the sensethat it is a kind of can-mean system, while speech is something that has an actualmeaning.C. Language is code whereas speech is message(语言是一个代码系统，言语才是信息). Language is a set of symbols that can be used to transmit information. Speechis the actual use of the language in an act of communication in a particular situationfor a particular purpose. It carries a real message.D. Language is stable and systematic whereas speech is subject to personal andsituational constraint. For example, the word book in the English language alwaysrefers to some printed matter. But in speech it may be used to refer to anything thatthe speaker wants to refer to by the use of it as long as it is understandable. Thecommon example is the sentence: He is a walking dictionary(a kind of book)meaning that he is very knowledgeable.3. What is the methodology of stylistic analysis? What are the levels of stylistic analysis?The major methodology for stylistic analysis is linguistic analysis. It tries to be objective or scientific in its analysis. According to the advocates of this methodology, anyone using this methodology to analyze a given text of literature will reach roughly the same conclusion.Levels of analysisSince stylistic analysis is a kind of linguistic analysis, naturally, how many levels of structure we have in a language correspondingly how many levels of structure at which we may do stylistic analysis.1) PhonologicalPhonological analysis is chiefly concerned about the sound patterns of a piece of literature, especially those of poetry.2) LexicalLexical analysis is chiefly concerned about the internal structure and the stylistic coloring and the semantic relationship of the words in the text.3) SyntacticalSyntactical analysis is chiefly concerned about how the wordsin a text are put together to produce meaning and other kinds of message.4) DiscoursalDiscoursal analysis is concerned about how sentences are joined together to producea cohesive and coherent text.4. Define paralinguistic features. What are they?Definition: the vocal effects caused by different shaping of the vocal cords and openings.Kinds and the corresponding stylistic effects.1) Whispery voice: utterance without any vocal cord vibration at all. Emphasizingcontrast.2) Breathy voice: utterance where there is too much breath for the needs of thearticulation, the effect being one of mild ‘puffing and blowing’. Expressing surprise and astonishment.3) Creaky voice: a slow crackle of vocal cord vibrations at a low pitch, like a stickbeing run along a fence.4) Falsetto: a switch of the voice from one vocal register to a higher one; usually foundonly in males.5. What are the three ways of studying the sound of language?A. articulatory phoneticsThe study of the sounds of a language with special attention to the speaker: the movement of the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, the lips and other organs which produce and control the noisy outward breathing.B. acoustic phoneticsThe study of the physical properties of the sound waves in the air when being transmitted from the speaker to the hearer.C. auditory phoneticsThe study of how the sound of speech is received by the hearer6. What are the four typical meters in English poetry?In English poetry, stress is usually used in the realization of meter. The followings arethe four most typical meters.1) Iamb: Iamb is a metric foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by astressed syllable.2) Trochee: Trochee is a metric foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by anunstressed syllable.3) Anapest: Anapest is a metric foot composed of two unstressed syllables followed byone stressed one.4) Dactyl: Dactyl is a metric foot composed of one stressed syllable followed by twounstressed ones7. What is the relationship between sound and meaning?According to Saussure, the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary in the sense that why a certain meaning takes a particular sound has no reason and it is completely accident. But in literature, the writers always try to arrange the words in sucha way as to make the patterns of sound to directly suggest the meaning.8. What is the relationship between style and the choice ofwords, according to thestylisticians?The stylisticians’ attitude: they lay emphasis on the adaptability to the sit uation.Standard, non-standard, black, dialectal, slang, archaisms are equally good in their expressiveness. There is no distinction of one being superior and other being inferior.9. How many kinds of word meanings may be classified? And what are they?According to the linguists, a word has various kinds of meaning. The first kind of meaning is denotative meaning.1) Denotative (概念意义)The kind of meaning we can get from the dictionary. It can also be termed as dictionary meaning, conceptual meaning, logical meaning and referential meaning.This is the most basic meaning that we understand a word has.2) Stylistic = social (社会意义)The kind of meaning associated with a particular social situation in which a particular word is often used. e.g begin, start, commence3) Affective meaning(情感意义)It is the emotional, attitudinal and evaluative coloring of a word. e.g. cunning and clever. Both mean the skillful handling of a delicate or difficult situation. But they reveal different attitudes and evaluation of the speaker.4) Collocative (搭配意义)Some words may have the same dictionary meaning, but they collocate withdifferent words, as shown by the pair or synonyms of prettyand handsome.5) Connotative (内涵意义)the cultural and social implications of a word.10. What are the three basic components of the English vocabulary?The three basic components of the English vocabularyA Anglo-Saxona. Members of the familyb. Parts of the bodyc. Natured. Timee. One-syllabled verbsB Frencha. Government and Lawb. Army and military activitiesc. Religiond. CostumesC Latina. Medicineb. Lawc. Theologyd. Sciencee. Literature11. Functionally speaking, what are the four types of English sentences?1) Declarative 2) Interrogative3) Exclamatory 4) Imperative12. What are the conjunctions used in combining English sentences?1) Progressive conjunction (推进性连接): by the use ofconjunctive words of additionor progression, such as and, furthermore, moreover, etc.2) Contrastive conjunction (对照性连接): by the use of conjunctive words of contrastor transition, such as but, whereas, while, on the contrary, on the other hand, etc.3) Temporal conjunction (时间性连接): by the use of conjunctive words of temporalsequence, such as then, later, afterwards, at last, or finally, etc13. What are the gestures may be used in a casual conversation?Facial expressions, eye-contact, body positions, distance, physical touch, soundmodification, clothing, and environment14. What are the three types of substitution? Can you give some examples?A. Nominal substitution (名词性替代)1) The meaning of one/ones e.g. You bought a red pencil, I’d like a blue one.2) The use of the “same”Example:A: I want a cup of teaB: The same.3) T he use of “kind, sort”. e.g. American food is not t he same as the English kind.B. Verbal substitution (动词性替代)Do you like Chinese food?Yes, I do.He likes Chinese food. So do I.C. Clausal substitution (分句性替代)1) The use of “so” “not”Example: A: Do you think he will come tomorrow?B: Yes, I think so./ No, I think not.2) LimitationClausal substitution applies only to sentences, where the predicate verb of amain clause is one of the following verbs:believe, be afraid, expect, fear, hope, imagine, say, tell, think, suppose.15. What is the relationship between dialect and register?Another way of talking about style, is to make a distinction between dialects and registers.A: Speaker orientedDialects are speaker oriented. What kind of speaker speaks what kind of dialect.Dialects may be regional or social. Regional dialect (地域方言)is determined by the geographical locality the speaker lives in. The social dialect is determined by the social groupings that a person belongs to.B: Situation orientedRegister is situational oriented. Register is the language determined by situation, and because of this we have such registers as formal English, informal English, classroom English, legal English, etc.16. Name at least five kinds of figures of speech in English.Simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, overstatement, etc.17. Can you give some examples of rhetorical questions?Idea: a rhetorical question is one which does not really need an answer, or the answer is obviousExamples:Is that a reason for despair?Can any one doubt the wisdom of this action?Is no one going to defend me?What difference does it make then?18. What are the stylistic features of the Bible?1. 1. Biblical simplicity2. Full of balanced sentences3. The use of concrete words4. Short paragraphs5. Heavy use of and to begin a new paragraph6. Syntactical features1) simple and complete sentences2) the use of old forms of personal pronouns3) the second personal pronoun take the verb of –est as in shouldest,gavest,etc.,and the third person doth and hath which are absent in other styles of writing4) negation takes the form of“verb+not” without the use of auxiliaries19. What are the five kinds of reference in the English language?According to relative positions of the referring item and the referred item, reference may be classified into the following kinds.1) Anaphora(后照应)In a case of reference, if the referred item (a word or a phrase) come before the referring item in a text, then it is a case of anaphora.Example: Mr. Wang is an engineer, he graduated from Beijing University.2) Cataphora(前照应)On the other hand, if the referred item comes after the referring item in a text, then it is a case of cataphora. As in the example:I was introduced to them; it was John Leathwall and his wife.3) Exophora(外照应)If the interpretation of an item in a text depends on something in the immediate environment, then it is a case of exophora.Example: Did the gardener water those plants?4) Paraphora(平行照应)An item which refers to something in another text.Example: He is the Shylock Holmes in our class.5) Homophora(自照应)When the class is composed of only one member, then any mention of it is a case of homophora.Example: The moon moves around the earth.20. What are the three factors of register?1) Field of discourse —the topic under discussion or the nature of the activity inwhich language is involved.2) Tenor of discourse —the kind of social relationships between the participants in aconversation.3) Mode of discourse —the medium along which the message is being transmitted.21. Give examples to illustrate power relationship and solidarity relationship.Power relationship is a kind of vertical relationship in the sense that the two participants in the conversation hold unequalauthority. For example, the relations between boss and employee, or between parents and children, or between teacher and students.Solidarity relationship is a horizontal relationship in that participants in a conversation hold equal authority. For example, the relations between playmates, classmates, friends, etc.22. What are the non-linguistic features of casual conversation?1) Unpreparedness or low degree of preparedness2) Frequent change of roles3) Monitoring4) Simultaneity in space and time5) Topic drifting6) Channel limitation7) Gestures23. What are the linguistic features of the language of news reporting?In news reporting one can find some characteristics in syntax, lexis, and textual structure.A. SyntaxThere is a heavy use of complex sentences and a heavy use of non-finite verb phrases. The subjects of sentences are usually very complicated. Compared with the verb phrases in the previous discussed varieties, the composition of the verb phrases in newspaper reporting is even simpler, mainly simple present or past tense. The structure of the noun phrases in news reporting is very complicated. There is a remarkable increase in the number of modifiers for an average sentence in the variety of newspaper reporting. And the modifiers themselves tend to be more complicatedly structured.B. LexisThere is rare use of pronouns, but by contrast, there is a remarkable increase of the use of proper nouns. The degree of complication in the aspect of word structure is about the same as that in public speech. Both in terms of the number of letters in an average word and the number of morphemes in an average word. Although the word structure in the style of newspaper reporting tends to be complicated, it is ever ready to use short instead of big word wherever possible, especially in headlines.Compound words are used frequently. Moreover, non phrases which actually express actions or state and heavily used, and they are derived from verb phrases in order to make the sentences more compact and save space without lowering the amount of information conveyed.C. Textual structureIn textual structure, one of the most outstanding characteristic is straightforwardness.24. What are the linguistic features of the language of advertisement?A. Syntax:In terms of syntax, the language of advertisement is simple in structure for easy understanding, and colloquial in style for familiarity, intimacy and solidarity. There is a higher frequency of imperative and interrogatives. As to structure, according to statistics, we have the lowest rate of occurrence of passive in comedies, the second lowest is in ads. There is also a heavy use of pre-modifiers, possessive’s, comparative and superlative adjectivesB. Lexis:There is a heavy use of compounds. Simple, short, innerstructure and a high percentage of active, affirmative, commendatory and large quantities of proper names could be found in the vocabulary of advertisement.C. Rhetorical devices:One can easily find a lot of parallelism, reiteration and alliteration.25. What is the relationship between literary language and ordinary language?1) The kind of language people use in daily conversation is the ultimate source of thelanguage of literature.2) Ordinary language follows the norm of convention, and the purpose is to beunderstood fully.3) Literary language is not the mechanical copy of ordinary language, but refined andprocessed.4) Literary language has some linguistic deviation.III. Stylistic analysis (20 points):1. Explain the connotative meaning of the italicized words or expressions in the followingsentences (12 points; in test it may or may not appear; it contains 3 words or expressions):1) Don’t trust her; she is a snake in the grass.Snake is a kind of animal, because of prejudice and cultural conventions now oftenused to refer to a person who is cunning and untrustworthy2) The enemy will attack us tomorrow morning, but we are still not well prepared. TheDamocles’ sword is hanging over us.Damocles’ sword is an allusion to Greek mythology. Damocles was invited to abanquet in the court. In the midst of the entertainment, Damocles looked up and sawsuspended above his head by a single thread a naked sword. By extension, it comesto mean an immediate danger.3) We have to consult him, you know, he is the real Titan in our class.Titan is a name used to refer to a class of gods huge in physical size. By extension,it comes to mean a person of great strength or influence.4) News from Pentagon today says …Pentagon is a huge building in Washington in which the U.S. Department ofDefense exercises its functions, now often used to refer to the ministry itself5) She knows nothing about the cruelty of the world. She isa lily.Lily is a flower and by cultural conventions a symbol of purity and innocence in thewest.6) Hamlet, according to some psycho-analysis theory, is a character who has theOedipus complex.According to psycho-analysis theory, Oedipus complex refers to the sexual love ofan infant for the parent of the opposite sex, with jealousy of the other parent, oftenin an unconscious way. In this play, Hamlet is believed to have。

第一章1.1 Definition of StylisticsStylistics has long been considered as a highly significant but very discussible branch of learning. It is concerned with various disciplines such as linguistics, semantics, pragmatics and literature. The word stylistics( ‘styl’ component relates stylistic to literary criticism, and the ‘istics’ component to linguistics). So stylistics is the bridge of linguistics and literature. Stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation.” (文体学是从语言学的角度研究文学语篇)Stylistics is an interdisciplined branch of learning which studies various differences between formal and informal, between deviant and normal, between magnificent and plain, between professional and popular, between foreign and domestic, between this and that individual.1.2 The Development of StylisticsThe date when stylistics became a field of academic inquiry is difficult to determine. However stylistics is often considered as both an old and a young branch of learning. It is old, because it orig inated from the ancient “rhetoric”. The famous ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all contributed a lot to this branch of learning. It is young ,because the word “stylistics” first appeared only in 1882, and the first book on stylistics was written by a French scholar Charles Bally in 1902 and was published in 1909: Traite de Stylistique Francaise. This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics. Consequently, a number of more coherent and systematic works of both a theoretical and a practical nature were published in the field.The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse. Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker4, there was usually an “overtone” which indicated differ ent “feelings”, and the task of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.Later , the German scholar L.Spitzer(1887-1960), began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view, and therefore, Spitzer if often co nsider4ed as the “father of literary stylistics”.From the beginning of the 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to the European continent. From the end of the 1950s to the present time, modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.1.3 Definitions of StyleSo style is an integral part of meaning. It gives us additional information about the speaker’s/writer’s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the his/her reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes. Without a sense of style we cannot arrive at a better understanding of an utterance1）.Written---spoken in terms of channel2）The Differences between Formal and Informal Language3）modern----archaic in terms of time4）normal----deviated in terms of degree of novelty5）. common---professional in terms of technique（专业）Homework:1.What’s stylistics?2.What does stylistics study?3.Say something about the development of stylistics.4.Give examples to explain “Proper words in proper places makes the true definition of a style.”5.What does style study?6.Give example to illustrate the differences between spoken-- written,formal–informal, modern–archaic, norm—deviated, common---professional.第二章1. Definition of meanings of meaningAccording to Leech (1974 English linguists), meanings of meaning can be broken into seven kinds:1).Denotative meaningIt refers to literal meaning, refers to diction meaning.(super meaning) 词的概念意义。