文体学 The Stylistic Analysis of News Report

原文：China Signs Mega East Africa Rail DealNairobi (AFP) - China on Sunday signed a deal to build a $3.8 billion rail link between Kenya’s Indian Ocean port of Mombasa and Nairobi, the first stage of a line that will eventually link Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan.Under the terms of the agreement, Exim Bank of China will provide 90 percent of the cost to replace the crumbling British colonial-era line with a 609.3 kilometer (379 mile) standard-gauge link and Kenya the remaining 10 percent.Construction is due to start in October and take three-and-a-half years to complete, with China Communications Construction Co. as the main contractor.Once the Mombasa-Nairobi line is completed, construction would begin to link east Africa’s largest economy wi th Kampala, Kigali, Bujumbura and Juba.The deal was signed at State House in Nairobi and witnessed by presidents Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya, Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, Paul Kagame of Rwanda and Salva Kiir of South Sudan.“This project demonstrates that there is equal cooperation and mutual benefit between China and the East African countries, and the railway is a very important part of transport infrastructure development,” Chinese Premier Li Keqiang said.Li has been on a four-country tour of Africa, his first since taking office last year, with the world’s second-biggest economy keen to boost its presence on the continent to find new markets and opportunities.Kenyatta hailed the booming relationship with China, calling it one “based on mutual trust” and saying Kenya “has found an honourable partner in China”.Museveni also took a swipe at Western donors who have been critical of his leadership—including government corruption and his recent signing of draconian anti-gay legislation.“We are happy to see that China is concentrating on the real issues of development,” Museveni said."They don't give lectures on how to run local governments and other issues I don't want to mention," he said.译文：中国签署大型东非铁路协议内罗毕（法新社）——星期日，中国签署了一项协议，在肯尼亚的印度洋港口蒙巴萨和内罗毕间建造一条38亿美元的铁路线，这条铁路线的第一阶段最终会连接乌干达，卢旺达，布隆迪和苏丹南部。

Stylistic Analysis of Daily ConversationI. IntroductionDaily conversation, the representation of spoken English, is an important part of the study of discourse. This paper is going to analyze the daily conversation, which excerpts from Gossip Girl, one of the most popular American soap opera. It is well known that Gossip Girl mainly talks about the story of Manhattan's upper social class, and shows the lives of the rich kids. In this soap opera, what attracts the audience attention is not only the fashion, but also the ups and downs of friendship, love, family, and so on.The conversation, which I am going to analyze, between Blair and Serena, the two main characters in Gossip Girl, focuses on their friendships. Blair and Serena used to be best friends, but a year ago, Serena’s leaving without notice completely broke Blair’s heart, now her return is absolutely a threat to Blair’s queen status. At the same time, the unusual relationship between Blair's boyfriend, Nate and Serena makes Blair more sensitive. So, at the beginning, Blair is hostile to Serena. Can Serena fix their friendship succeful The conversation centers around this issue.II. Textual Analysis1. At the Phonological Level1) Using stressThrough the overall analysis of the conversation, the stress is frequently used at beginning of the sentence. For example: In [Appendix A]Blair：You can go now. Sorry.Serena：No, that's okay. I got a lot of stuff to do anyway.Serena：No, go ahead. Blair! Think we could meet tonightIn [Appendix C]Blair：I must have totally blanked on the part where I invited you over.Serena：I called you. Blair, it's Sunday morning. Coffee, croissants. "Breakfast at Tiffany's." It's our tradition.Blair：I have new traditions now.In the above examples, the marked words are stress words. Frequently using the stress can attract the audience attention. Also, the strong emotions are expressed by these stress words. Here, Blair uses you and I to indicate that their friendship has been changed, expressing her unhappiness. While Serena affects not to care about not being invited by saying No. Certainly, the changing emotion is a bright spot to attract the audience.2) Using quick tempoThe overall tempo of the speakers trends to very quick. They make the tempo go fast by using elision, such as in the above examples, blanked,invited ,called. More to the point, because of the fast tempo, the contractions are frequently used, such as in [Appendix A], when's, you're, we're, that's, I'd, in [Appendix B]how's, I'm, didn't, don't, Let's, it's. In real life, the pace of life is always very fast. So to reflect the life truly, quick tempo is used.3) Normal non-fluencyThe normal non-fluency appears in the conversation. For example, in [Appendix B]Serena: No, I-I know, I was just...Boarding school is like...Serena: I just...I-I had to go. I just…I need to get away from everything. Please, just trust me.Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it. I-I don't want to take any of that away from you...Serena: No, that... That's not what I mean. I...I miss you.As I have mentioned at the introduction, Blair is hostile to Serena. Facing Blair’ doubt, Serena is trying to explain and fix their friendship. But maybe because of her nervousness or anxiety, her words are not well planned. That is the normal non-fluency, Like I was just... like... I just... with... that... you... I...I miss.2. At the Graphological LevelFrom the viewpoint of graphological, the features of daily conversation are not obvious. In general, the conversation are arranged in the flush-left. Moreover, occurring in the daily life, between two good friends, the conversation is full of randomness and spontaneity. so the choice of punctuation is not strict. Periods , commas, apostrophes and ellipsis, are frequent used.3. At the Lexical Level1) Short and simple Anglo-Saxon wordsMost of the words are short and simple Anglo-Saxon words, and most of them are informal, monosyllabic. Such as , in [Appendix A], can go, got, do, meet, but; in [Appendix B], for, call, write, need, me, fix , take, have, keep. These words are very good to read and easy understand. Because Gossip Girl, as a popular soap opera, should be geared to the needs of public audience, who come from the different social background. So to help the audience understand the story better, simple words are used.2) Colloquial words and slangsSome colloquial words and slangs are used in the conversation. For example, kinda, okay ,Yeah , Well, Hmm,um, are colloquial words. While, In [Appendix C] Serena：Hey, I got two bone-dry caps and Audrey.Gossip Girl：Serena's visit was short and apparently not very sweet. But you know what is Revenge is a dish best served cold.Here, the mark words are slangs. Bone-dry caps refers to the non-milk cappuccino, and Audrey refers to the film starred by Audrey Hepburn. These thing are well known by average people. All the scenes in the Gossip Girl are of daily life, and the speakers are good friend, thus deciding that it is no need to use those formal and official words.4. At the Grammatical Level1) Simple sentences, using active voice and direct speechTypically, most of the sentences are simple sentences, using active voice and direct speech. Also, the tense are mostly past tense and simple present tense. For example: in [Appendix A]Serena：Hi. So...When's the partyBlair：You can go now. Sorry.Serena：No, that's okay. I got a lot of stuff to do anyway.Serena：No, go ahead. Blair! Think we could meet tonightUsing the simple sentences, on one hand, make the plot easy to understand. On the other hand, it sounds more like the dialogue in daily life, very casual, rather than the art of theater Performances. This is the reason why Gossip Girl is so popular.2) Incomplete, loosely coordinated sentencesThere are some incomplete, loosely coordinated sentences, such as:Serena：The palace. 8:00 Nate will wait.Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it.Serena: …You know, and with our families...We need each other.Serena：I called you. Blair, it's Sunday morning. Coffee, croissants, "Breakfast at Tiffany's." It's our tradition.The marked sentences are incomplete, which do not square with the accepted rules of grammar. But here, this conversation occurs mainly between two friends, that is, the atmosphere is very easy and casually. So the speaker do not need to pay much attention to the grammar. More to the point, such loose sentences are closed to our daily life.5. At the Semantic Level1) Exophoric expressionsThere are some exophoric expressions in this conversation, such as:Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is, and I-I get it. I-I don't want to take any of that away from you...Serena: Blair, how can I fix thisIn the example, that refers to Serena left without notice, and this refers to Serena hided her affair with Blair’s boyfriend. All these things are known by themselves, and they do not need to speak out. Using these exophoric expressions implies their intimate relationship.2) Randomness of subject matterThe subject matter they are talking about is changing randomly, such as: in [Appendix B]Serena: So how's your mom doing with the divorce and everything…Serena: No, I-I know, I was just...Boarding school is like...Blair: I don't even know why you went, to boarding school to being with. Do you know how it felt, …Serena: Let's fix that. I saw you at school with... With Katy and is,…Serena: I just want things to go back to the way they used to be... Blair: You missed some classic Eleanor Waldorf meltdowns.…In this conversation, the marked phrases are the subjects the two speakers have talked, which are changing in high frequency. By changing the subject constantly, they make an in-depth communication and gain a good understanding of each other, thus helping to fix their friendship. For the audience, the randomness of subject matter brings them the sense of reality and homely.III. ConclusionThrough the stylistic analysis of the daily conversation in Gossip Girl, we can draw a conclusion that, in the overall, this conversation shows the features of socialization, filling with colloquialism, realism.Though I have been exposed to the concept of stylistics nearly a semester, I find that my understanding just rests on the theoretical level. So this paper is definite good chance for me to put the theory into practice. But obviously, the analysis of this paper is not comprehensive enough, because to some extent, I just select those aspects in Gossip Girl, which are more representative in stylistics, and try my best to make the analysis intensive, from a well-grounded understanding of Gossip Girl. During this process of analyzing, I gain a better comprehension of daily conversation. And more importantly, it make me know that our study should be thorough, in-depth and systematic, instead remaining at the theoretical level. Especially to those theoretical courses, it is preferable for us to have our own notions of the theory and try to make our judgments.References[1]张德禄. 英语文体学教程[M]. 高等教育出版社2021.2[2012/6/12][2] 邓小丽.从文体学角度分析电影对白中的随意会话[J]. 2021.07[2012/6/12].[3]朱曼.从文体学角度看<<老友记>> 台词的文体特征[J]. 2021.03[2012/6/12]。

Questions for English Stylistics1.What does general stylistics study?2.Why should we learn stylistics?3.What are the three steps of stylistic analysis?4.What are the functions of stress? Give examples.5.In what varieties of English the exclamation mark is most or least frequent?Why?6.Explain the functions of long and short paragraphs, and indicate in what varietiesof English short/long paragraphs are most frequently found.7.Give examples to illustrate the differences in pronunciation between standardBritish and American English.8.Give examples to illustrate the spelling differences between British and AmericanEnglish.9.Which of the two terms, American English and the American language, is moreappropriate, and why?10.What are the main differences between spoken English and written English?11.What is the danger if you use too much formal language in your dailyconversation?12.Can you use some colloquial words in writing? If so, what kind of writing shouldit be?13.What factors affect the degrees of formality?14.What is the effect of impersonal language?bel the following sentences according to the five degrees of formality:Would you be so good?Your silence is requested.Do shut up!Quiet, please.Put a sock in it!16.Are you speaking differently from or the same from your parents? Give examplesto illustrate your points.17.How did African American English come into being?18.Give examples of taboo and euphemisms.19.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the lexical level?20.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the semantic level?21.What are the most noticeable features of the vocabulary of casual conversation?22.How many types of public speeches are there?23.How do you make an effective public speech?24.What are the general stylistic features of public speeches?25.What are the general stylistic features of news reports?26.What are the general stylistic features and function of newspaper headlines?27.What types of variety may possibly co-occur with journalistic language? Why?28.What is the function of advertising language?29.How many parts does an advertisement usually consist of? And what are thefunctions of each part?30.Find some interesting advertisements from the Internet and present them to theclass with you own explanations.31.What is generally required of EST? Why?32.Tell how and why EST prefers impersonal sentence patterns?33.Why are the present tense and passive voice often used in EST?34.Why do we say that legal English appears extremely conservative and even oddin form? What archaic words are often found in legal documents?35.What punctuation marks occur the least frequently in legal documents?36.What is your favorite type of novel? Why?37.What are the general stylistic features of the language of a novel?38.What is the difference between poetry and prose?39.What are the commonly found stanzas in English?40.How does a poem appeal aesthetically to the reader?41.What is the function of lexical repetition? And what is the function of syntacticalrepetition?42.What effects are achieved through the manipulation of sounds?43.EST and Legal English are two widely different varieties, but there seem to existsome common features in style. Point them out.ment on how the author’s selection of details of description and choice ofwords contributed to the atmosphere of the novel.“The Bottoms” succeeded to “Hell Row.” Hell Row was a block of thatched, bulging cottages that stood by the brookside on Greenhill lane.There lived the colliers who worked in the little gin-pits two fields away. The brook ran under the alder trees, scarcely soiled by these small mines, whose coal was drawn to the surface by donkeys that plodded wearily in a circle round a gin, and all over the countryside were these same pits, some of which had been worked in the time of Charles II, the few colliers and the donkeys burrowing down like ants into the earth, making queer mounds and little black places among the corn-fields and the meadow. And the cottages of these coalminers, in blocks and pairs here and there, together with odd farms and homes of the stockingers, straying over the parish, formed the village of Bestwood.Then, some sixty years ago, a sudden change took place. The gin-pits were elbowed aside by the large mines of the financiers. The coal and iron field of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire was discovered. Carston, Waite and Co. appeared. Amid excitement, Lord Palmerston formally opened the company’s first mine at Spinney Park, on the edge of Sherwood Forest.D. H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers45.Analyze the metrics of the following poem by W. B Yeats:When you are old and gray and full of sleep, And nodding by the fires, take down this book, And slowly read, and dream of the soft look Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep; How many loved your moments of glad grace, And loved your beauty with love false and true, But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you, And loved the sorrows of your changing face;。

苏州大学硕士学位论文从文体学和叙述学的视点看《围城》中自由间接引语的翻译姓名：***申请学位级别：硕士专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：***201105摘要叙述学和文体学在当代叙事小说中占有非常重要的位置。

两个学科都具有旺盛的生命力，且都属于跨学科研究，二者通过利用语言学的模式来研究文学。

由于二者重视文本并将文学作品视为自成一体的艺术品，所以归为形式批评主义下的两个分支。

随着２０世纪形式主义的兴起，叙述视点成为学者激烈探讨的话题。

其作为叙述技巧，对文本描写叙述起着非常重要的作用。

本文采用视点理论来研究文体学和叙述学框架下的自由间接引语翻译。

虽然文体学和叙述学在研究主题、研究方向和研究目的侧重不同，但在视点理论上二者有重合之处，皆可应用于小说叙事分析。

叙述学通过结构主义和形式主义分析，着重研究叙述形式及其对特定语境的影响。

通过分析，叙述学家可以了解到原文是否很好地再现与译文中，译文的叙事效果是否与原文一致。

在叙事小说及叙事小说翻译研究中，叙述学能够帮助研究者考察源语文本中的叙事形式能否在译语文本中得到准确的重现。

文体学家侧重研究语言表达方式对文学效果的影响。

在文学翻译研究中，文学文体学可以通过阐述文学文体学的本质、功能和有效性，来探讨表达人物语言和思想的词句的作用及其对文本自身的影响。

本文通过对文体学和叙述学理论的整合，对小说《围城》中的自由间接引语的翻译进行研究，同时探讨了译文中译者的痕迹对译文的影响，为自由间接引语的汉英翻译提供了参考。

文章立足于文体和叙述两大领域，结合翻译研究中的视点理论，对比分析了自由间接引用原文和译文，探索了引起译文变化的原因。

关键词：视点；自由间接引语；文体学；叙述学ＡＢＳＴＲＡＣＴＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｂｅｉｎｇｉｎｔｅｒｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎａｒｙｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｗｉｔｈｇｒｅａｔｖｉｔａｌｉｔｙ，ｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｌｏｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｍｏｄｅｌｓｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ．Ｔｈｅｙｐａｙａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｒｅｇａｒｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｗｏｒｋｓａｓｓｅｌｆ－ｃｏｎｔａｉｎｅｄａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃｗｏｒｋｓ．ｔｈｕｓｂｅｌｏｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅｔｗｏｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｉｎｔｈｅｆａｍｉｌｙｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｉｎｇｔｈｅｒｉｓｅｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍｉｎ２０ｍｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｂｅｃａｍｅａｌｉｖｅｔｏｐｉｃ．Ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｉｔｐｌａｙｅｄａｎｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｄｏｐｔｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｓｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉｎｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓ，ｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓ，ｔｈｅｙｇｅｔｓｏｍｅｈｏｗｏｖｅｒｌａｐｐｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．ＢｏｔｈＣａｎｂｅａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｎａｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｉｓｍａｎｄｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｋｎｏｗｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔｉｓｗｅｌｌｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔａｎｄｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｓｉｄｅａｌ．ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＣａｎｈｅｌｐｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｔｏｅｘａｍｉｎｅｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｒｅｗｅｌｌｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃｅｎｔｅｒｓｏｎｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｅｆｆｅｃｔｓａｒｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｂｙｍｅａｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｆｏｒｍ．Ｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｉｎｇｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｓａｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＣａｎｂｅｕｓｅｄｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎａｎｄｓｙｎｔａｘｆｏｒｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｍｂｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｏｌｏｇｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｗｏｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｋｅｓａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｎｏｖｅｌＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄａｎｄｔｈｅｃｈａｎｇｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｉｎｔｏＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｐｌａｃｅｓｉｔｓｅｌｆｉｎｔｈｅｔｗｏｆｉｅｌｄｓ，ｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｗｉｔｈｉｎａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｏｎｅｈａｎｄａｎｄｆｏｃｕｓｉｎｇｏｎｔｈｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔａｎｄｉｔｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ；ｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ；ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ；ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＡＣＫＮＯＷＬＥＤＧＥＭＥＮＴＳ１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｔｈａｎｋｍｙｔｕｔｏｒａｎｄｆｒｉｅｎｄｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｉｎｖａｌｕａｂｌｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅｇｉｖｅｎｍｅｉｎｗｒｉｔｉｎｇｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｍｙａｃａｄｅｍｉｃａｄｖｉｓｏｒ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＨｏｎｇｈａｓｅｘｃｈａｎｇｅｄｗｉｔｈｍｅｉｄｅａｓｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｓｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄｂｅｆｏｒｅＩｓｔａｒｔｅｄｔｏｗｒｉｔｅ，ａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｉｍｐｒｏｖｅｍｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｒｅａｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｍａｎｕｓｃｒｉｐｔｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｈｉｓｐａｔｉｅｎｔｉｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ，ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｏｕｓｉｎｓｐｉｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｉｎｃｉｓｉｖｅｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｓｈｅｌｐｅｄｍｅａｌｏｔ．ＢｕｔｗｈａｔＩｌｅａｒｎｅｄｆｒｏｍｈｉｍｉＳｕｎｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｃａｄｅｍｉｃｆｉｅｌｄ．Ｔｈｅｎ，１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｍｙｄｅｅｐｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＲｏｎｇｐｅｉ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＦａｎｇＨｕａｗｅｎ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＤｕＺｈｅｎｇｍｉｎｇ，ａｎｄＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＨｏｎｇＱｉｎｇｆｕ．Ｉｔｈａｎｋｔｈｅｍａｌｏｔｆｏｒｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇｍｅｔｈｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｓａｂｏｕｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｌａｓｔｂｕｔｎｏｔｔｈｅｌｅａｓｔ，１ｗａｎｔｔｏｓａｙｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｓｆｒｏｍｗｈｏｓｅｗｏｒｋｓＩｈａｖｅｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔａｎｄｌｅａｒｎｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔｉｎｍｙｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ｌ．Ｘ．ＬｉｓｔｏｆＴａｂｌｅｓＴａｂｌｅ２．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗ……………………………………………………………·１５Ｔａｂｌｅ３．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦｒｅｅＩｎｄｉｒｅｃｔＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ………………………………………………·２１ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅＩｎｔｒＯｄｕＣｔｉｏｎＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｉｓｔｏｇｉｖｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｉｔｈｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓｏｆｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｏｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．１．１ＲａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄＳｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＡｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅｂｅｃｏｍｅａｗｉｄｅｌｙｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｔｏｐｉｃｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｉｒｓｕｂｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅ，ｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｈａｓｒｅｍａｉｎｅｄｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｕｎｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｄ．Ｂｕｔｓｉｍｉｌａｒｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｃｏｍｉｎｇｃｌｏｓｅｓｔｔｏａｌｌｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｔｈｏｓｅ，ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ｂｙＢｒｉａｎＭｏｓｓｏｐ（１９８３），ｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｍｏｓｓｏｐｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｓｔｈａｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ（ＴＴ）ｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔ（ＳＴ）ｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ．Ｔｈｉｓｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｔｙｐｅｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｖｉｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｍｏｒｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｅ１９９６，ｗｈｅｎＴｈｅｏＨｅｒｍａｎｓ（１９９６）ｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｖｏｉｃｅｉｎａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｐｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｔｈｅ‘ｏｔｈｅｒ’ｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｒｐｕｓ·ｂａｓｅｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｖｅａｌｓｏｆｏｃｕｓｅｄｏｎｒｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ，ａｎｄｃｏｒｐｕｓｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓａｎｄｔｏｏｌｓａｒｅｂｅｉｎｇｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｌｙｔｏｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓ“ｓｔｙｌｅ”ｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ（Ｂａｋｅｒ２０００）．Ａｌｌｔｈｅｓｅａｒｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｓｅｅｋｓｔｏｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｄｉｓｃｕｒｓｉｖｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅｂｙｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｃｅｒｔａｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｌｓｏｔｈａｔｉｓｗｈｅｒｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｒｏｍｗｈａｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ／ｗｒｉｔｅｒａｄｏｐｔｓｉｎａｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｖｅｓｔｏｒｙ·ｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｏｆｃｏｎｃｅｍｏｆｎａｎ＇ａｔｏｌｏｇｉｓｔｓ．Ｉｔａｌｓｏａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓｗｈｏａｒｇｕｅｔｈａｔｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｇｅｔｓｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎ２０ｔ｝ｌｃｅｎｔｕｒｙｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｔｈｅｒｅａｌｍｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍａｎｄｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｔｅｘｔ’Ｓｅｎｔｉｒｅｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｉｎｇ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｔｈｅｔｗｏｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｏｆｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｌａｙｅｍｐｈａｓｉｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｌｙ．Ｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｅｒｈａｖｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｔｔｒａｃｔｅｄｎｏｖｅｌｉｓｔｓ’ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｔａｎｄｐｒａｃｔｉｃａｌｃｏｎｃｅｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｓｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｂｅｃｏｍｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｉｏｒｉｔｙ．Ｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｗｉｔｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｉｎｇｆｉｎｄｉｎｇａｂａｌａｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｉｎｏｔｈｅｒｗｏｒｄｓ，ｔｈｉｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＳＯａｓｔｏｇｅｔａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｏｆｂｏｔｈｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｃａｎｈｅｌｐｂｅｔｔｅｒｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｂｏｔｈａｕｔｈｏｒ’Ｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｓｔａｎｃｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｎａｒｒａｔｏｒ，ｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒａｎｄｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ａｎｄｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ，ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｔｈａｔｅｍｂｏｄｙｔｈｅｉｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｌｕｅｓ，ｌｉｋｅｔｏｎｅａｎｄａｔｔｉｔｕｄｅ，ａｒｅａｌｓｏｃｏｎｄｕｃｉｖｅｔｏｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｔｈｅａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｕｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．１．２ＳｐｅｃｉｆｉｃＲｅｓｅａｒｃｈＱｕｅｓｔｉｏｎＩｎａｎｏｖｅｌ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｄｅｃｉｄｅｓｔｈｅｗｏｒｋ’Ｓｓｕｃｃｅｓｓａｎｄｖａｌｕｅ．Ａｓｔｏｄｅｐｉｃｔｖｉｖｉｄａｎｄａｔｔｒａｃｔｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ，ａｎａｕｔｈｏｒｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｍａｋｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ．Ｆｏｒｒｅａｄｅｒｓ，ｔｈｅｙｔｒｙｔｏｇｅｔｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｇａｉｎａｐｉｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｏｃｉａｌｌｉｆｅ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｋｅｙｔａｓｋｆｏｒｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｉｓｔｏｃｒｅａｔｅｉｍｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ．Ｔｏｐｏｒｔｒａｙｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｕｓｕａｌｌｙｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｏｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｉｒｓｏｃｉａｌｓｔａｔｕｓ，ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ，ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ，ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｙ，ｑｕａｌｉｔｙａｎｄｔｈｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ，ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｅｖｅｎｔｈｅｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｓｈｏｕｌｄｅｒｓａｌｌｔｈｏｓｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓｆｕｌｌｙｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｙｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｔｈｅｎｏｖｅｌｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｌｙ．Ｉｔｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｎｏｔｅｄｔｈａｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓｉｎｎｏｖｅｌｓａｒｅｈｉｇｈｌｙｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｚｅｄ，ｂｕｔｎｏｔｌｉｋｅｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓｃｏｍｍｏｎｔａｌｋ．Ａｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｒｅｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｐａｒｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅＣｒｅａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｉｔｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ，ｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｆｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｄｏｆｔｈｅｗｈｏｌｅｐｌｏｔ．Ｆｏｒｖａｒｉｏｕｓａｉｍｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｃｈｏｏｓｅｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｒｄｅｒｓｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ，ｉ．ｅ．，ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｗａｙｓｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｂｏｔｈｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｎｅｅｄｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｅｎｔｉｒｅｓｔｏｒｙ．Ｉｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ２ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｓｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｍｅａｎｉｎｇ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｒｕｅｖａｌｕｅｏｆｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔ，ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｗｏｕｌｄｎｅｖｅｒｎｅｇｌｅｃｔｆｏｒｍｓ－ｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｍａｙｈａｖｅｄｉｒｅｃｔｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｎｒｅａｄｅｒ’Ｓｆｅｅｌｉｎｇ．Ｗｈｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅｄｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅ，ａｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｆｒａｍｅｉｓｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄｆｏｒｄｅｅｐｅｘｐｌｏｒａｔｉｏｎｂｙｌｅａｄｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓＲｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎｎａｎ，ＢａｎｆｉｅｌｄＡｎｎ，ＬｅｅｃｈＧｅｏｆｆｒｅｙ，ＭｉｃｈａｅｌＳｈｏｒｔａｎｄＮｏｒｍａｎＰａｇｅ，ｐｅｏｐｌｅｗｈｏｈａｖｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｌｙｆｏｒｄｅｃａｄｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｙｃｌａｓｓｉｆｙｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｄｒｉｖｅｈｏｍｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｓ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｙｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏａｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃｗａｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｌｅｓｓｅｎｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｔｏｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ．Ｂａｓｅｄｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｕｐｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｉｎｌｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｏｓｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｎｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｏｒｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ（ＦＩＳ／Ｔ），ａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｌｙｎｏｎ—ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍ．ＴｏｆｕｌｌｙｅｘｈｉｂｉｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆＦＩＳ，ａｃｌａｓｓｉｃｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄ，ｉｓｃｈｏｓｅｎ，ｃｒｅａｔｅｄｂｙＱｉａｎＺｈｏｎｇｓｈｕ，ａｗｅｌｌ－ｋｎｏｗｎＣｈｉｎｅｓｅａｕｔｈｏｒ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｉｎｔｅｎｄｓｔｏｒｅｖｅａｌｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｃｅｓｉｍｐｒｉｎｔｅｄｂｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｉｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔａｎｄｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｈａｎｇｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ．１．３ＯｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＴｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｓｏｆｆｉｖｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒｓｗｈｉｃｈｗｉｌｌｂｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｅｄｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙａｓｆｏｌｌｏｗｓ：ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅｓｅｒｖｅｓａｓａｌｅａｄ－ｉｎｔｏｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｏｍｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｉｓｓｕｅｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｎｄｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ．ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｌｙｒｅｖｉｅｗｓｓｏｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｏｐｉｃｗｈｉｃｈｃｏｎｔａｉｎｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄｎａｌｌｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｖｅｒｙｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｕｍｍａｒｉｚｅｄｔｏｊｕｓｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｆｏｒｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｈｒｅｅｉｓｄｅｄｉｃａｔｅｄｔｏｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ＴｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｆｉｒｓｔｌｏｏｋｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｌａｓｔｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄＦＩＳ．ａｎｄｉｔｓＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｏｕｒｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｎＦＩＳｉｎＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄＥｎｇｌｉｓｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒｓｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｒｅｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｌｙａｎｄａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓ（４．３ａｎｄ４．４）ｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓａｒｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｖｅｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｈｉｇｈｌｉｇｈｔｅｄｆｏｒｅａｃｈｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒ．Ａｎｄｉｎｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｃａｓｅａｎｄｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｅｄｕｐｏｎ．ｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｔｈｅｔｒｅａｔｍｅｎｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＴｈｅｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ，ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｉｖｅ，ｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｍａｊｏｒｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｓａｎｓｗｅｒｉｎｇｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ，ｉｍｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｌｉｍｉｔａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｆｏｒｆｕｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄ．４ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏＬｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅＲｅｖｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｇｉｖｅｓａｌｌｅｘｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｎｄｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｆｉｎａｌｌｙｉｔｇｉｖｅｓａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｏｆｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｖｅｉｌｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．１ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９７５：１０）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｒｅｉｎｃｏｍｐｌｅｍｅｎｔａｒｙｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００７）ｓｔａｔｅｓｔｈａｔａｎａｌｙｔｉｃａｌｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｇｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｒｉｇｈｔａｃｃｅｓｓｔｏｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈＣａｎａｌｓｏｂｅｕｓｅｄｆｏｒｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｍｉｃｒｏｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｅｘｔｓｗｉｔｈｖａｒｉｏｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．ＩｔｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｗｉｄｅｓｅｎｓｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｓｏｆｇｒｅａｔｈｅｌｐｔｏｔｈｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄＣａｎｓｅｒｖｅｔｏｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅｌｙｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｒｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｅｄｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅＴｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｘｔ，ｎａｍｅｌｙｔｅｎｓｅ，ｍｏｄｅａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅ，ａｓｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄｂｙＧｅｎｅａｅ（１９８０）ｉｎａｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｍｏｄｅｌｆｏｒｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｔｅｎｓｅｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｔｏｒｙｔｉｍｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｍｏｏｄｉｓｕｓｅｄｔｏｍｏｄｕｌａｔｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｒａｎｄｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｋｉｌｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍ（ｉｂｉｄ），ａｌｌｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓａｔｔｒａｃｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌａｎｄｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ｔｈｅｙｃａｎｂｅｒｅａｄｉｌｙｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｓｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓａｒｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｉｎａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｗｈａｔ’Ｓｍｏｒｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｐｒｏｐｏｓａｌｏｆｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｖｏｉｃｅｃａｔｌｂｅｓｅｅｎａｓａｎｅｗ－ｒｉｓｉｎｇｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｓｎｅｗｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｍｏｒｅａｂｏｕｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｂｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｌａｔｅｒ．ＺｈｅｎｇＭｉｎｙｕ（２００１）ｄｒａｗｓｕｐｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ５ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｈｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔａｋｅｙｔｏｔｈｅｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｏｆｆｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｃａｎｂｅａｔｔａｃｈｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｔｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｙｐｅ．Ａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｈｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｓｔｒｉｖｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｔｏｒｙ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．ＢａｓｅｄｏｎＧｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓ（１９７２：７１—７６）ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｍｅｌｙ，ｈｉｓｔｏｉｒｅ，ｒ＆ｉｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，Ｒｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎａｎ（２００２：３）ｐｕｔｓｆｏｒｗａｒｄａｓｉｍｉｌａｒｔａｘｏｎｏｍｙ：ｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｓｈｅｆｕｌｌｙａｎａｌｙｚｅｓｅｖｅｎｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｉｍｅ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｌｅｖｅｌｓｏｆａｔｅｘｔａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｓｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｏｕｔｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙ．ＴｈｕｓＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｗｏｒｋｓｌａｙａｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓｃｏｐｅｉｓｂｒｏａｄｅｎｅｄｂｙａｄｄｉｎｇｖｉｓｕａｌ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ，ｅｍｏｔｉｖｅａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｌｉｇｈｔｏｆＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｅｘｅｒｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｍｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕａｌｉｚｅｄａｎｄｅｘｔｒａ－ｔｅｘｔｕａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００３）ａｔｔａｃｈｅｓｇｒｅａｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅｔｏｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｏｄｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｉｓａｌｍｏｓｔｈａｒｄｔｏｄｉｓｃｅｒｎ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｇｕｌａｒｌｙｃｏｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ．Ｓｏｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏ“ｐａｙａｄｅｑｕａｔｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏａｇｒｅａｔｃｈａｌｌｅｎｇｅｔｏｔｈｅｖｉｅｗ’ａｎｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｅｍｂｅｄｄｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．ｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｉｔｓＡｓｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｔｏａｌｌ，ｆｒｏｍ１９６０ｓｔｏ１９８０ｓｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｈｅｗｅｓｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｉｎｇｏｆｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄａｇｒｅａｔｄｅａｌｂｅｆｏｒｅｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｍｅｒｇｅｄｆｅｍｉｎｉｓｍｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｔｃ．Ｔｈｅｓｅｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｂｒｉｎｇｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃ·ｓｏｃｉａｌａｎｄｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｎｅｒｆｏｒｍａｎｄｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔｎｅｗｌｙ－ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｄｗｉｔｈｏｆａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ．ｂｏｕｎｄｔｅｘｔｐｕｓｈｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｘｐｌａｉｎｓｔｈｅ‘ｒｅｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ’ｏｕｔｏｆｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌａｎｄｓｏｃｉａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｒｅａｌｍ．２．２ＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ６Ｏｎｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｈｏｗｔｏｍａｋｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｒｉａｎｔｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｎｄｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ，ｅｖｅｎｉｆｔｈｅｙｆｉｒｅｇｒａｍｍａｔｉｃａｌｌｙｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ．Ｉｓｓｕｅｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｉｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｄｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｂｙｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ．ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｐａｙｇｒｅａｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｉｎｇｔｈａｔ“ｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｏｆａｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｅｘｔｃａｎｂｅａｍｅａｎｓｔｏａｆｕｌｌｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇａｎｄａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃａｃｈｉｅｖｅｍｅｎｔ”（２００１）．Ｂｙａｐｐｌｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｍｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｔｈｅｙｓｕｍｕｐｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｎｄｍｉｃｒｏｃｏｓｍｉｃａｌｌｙｓｈｏｗｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ：ｗｏｒｄｓ，ｇｒａｍｍａｒ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃ，ｃｏｈｅｒｅｎｃｅａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅａｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ａｎｄｍｅａｎｗｈｉｌｅｔｈｅｙｍｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｅｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒｓ：‘‘ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒ’’‘＇ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒ’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｄｅｒ＇’（ｉｂｉｄ）．Ｔｈｅｙｌａｙａｓｏｌｉｄｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＱｉｎＸｉｕｂａｉ（２００１）ｈａｓａｌｓｏｔｏｕｃｈｅｄｕｐｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．ＩｎｈｉｓＥｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｓｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈｅｏｕｔｌｉｎｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｍａｉｎｌｙｉｎｔｈｒｅｅｆｉｅｌｄｓ：ｐｒｏｎｏｕｎａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅ／ｄｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｏｎａｎｇｌｅ，ｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌｄｉａｌｏｇｕｅ，ａｎｄｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓａｒｅｉｎｃａｒｎａｔｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｉｎｖａｒｉａｂｌｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ，ｈｅｍａｋｅｓｓｏｍｅｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｗｈｏｍａｙｅｘａｍｉｎｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｏｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓ．Ｆｅｗｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｈａｖｅｍａｄｅｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｆｒｕｉｔｆｕｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｌｙａｐｐｌｉｃａｂｌｅｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓａｎｄｈａｓｄｒａｗｎｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＺｈａｎｇＭｉｎ（２０１０：２１６—２１７）ａｐｐｌｉｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｎｏｎ—ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｔｏｍｏｄｉｆｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｉｎｓｐｉｒｉｎｇｆｏｒｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｗｉｔｈｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＮｏｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｗｅｒｅｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｅｎｏｕｇｈｕｎｔｉｌＳｈｅｎＤａｎｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄＬｉｔｅｒａｒｙＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＦｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎ１９９５．Ｓｈｅ（１９９５：７）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔ“ｂｙｓｈａｒｐｅｎｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｓｅｎｓｉｔｉｖｉｔｙｔｏｔｈｅｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｓｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓｙｓｔｅｍ，ｂｙｉｍｐｒｏｖｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｎｏｒｍｓ，ａｎｄｂｙｅｎｈａｎｃｉｎｇａｎｄｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓｃｒｅａｔｉｖｅａｃｔｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｔｏｏｎｅ’Ｓａｗａｒｅｎｅｓｓｏｆｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ７ｍａｋｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｔａｋｅｏｎａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｐｅｒａｔｅｓｔｏｈｅｌｐｔｈｅｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｔｏａｃｈｉｅｖｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｏｒｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ．”Ｓｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｅｓｗｈｙａｎｄｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃａｎｂ氐ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｄｅｔａｉｌｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ，ｓｙｎｔａｘ，ａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｒｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｓｏｌｖｅｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆ“ｄｅｃｅｐｔｉｖｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅ”．ＣｈｅｎＳｈｕｋｕｎ（２０１０）ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｓｔｈｅｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｏｆｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｃｌａｉｍｉｎｇｔｈａｔｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎＳＴｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｇｒｅａｔｅｓｔｅｘｔｅｎｔｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｍｉｔｔｉｎｇｒｈｙｔｈｍｔｏＴＴ．ＤｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｔｒａｉｔｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｍａｋｅｕｐｕｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｂｙｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎＳＯｔｈａｔｔａｒｇｅｔｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏｒｅａｄｅｒｓｈａｖｅｔｈｅｓｉｍｉｌａｒｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｒｅａｄｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌ．２．３ＴｈｒｅｅＣａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＩｎｔｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄｉｎｍａｉｎｌｙｔｈｒｅｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ，ａｎｄａｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｈａｓｂｅｅｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｙｂｙｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｔｏｂｒｉｎｇｏｕｔｔｈｒｅｅｓｅｎｓｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＳＯｔｈａｔｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｓａｐｐｌｉｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓａｒｅｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄ．Ｓｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３）ｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｉｅｓｆｏｕｒｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ：ｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌ，ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌ，ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｍｅｒｇｅｄａｓｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｙ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｌｅｆｔｔｗｏａｎｄｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ．ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓａｒｅｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ２．３．１Ｓｐａｔｉｏ－ＴｅｍｐｏｒａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＬａｎｇｕａｇｅｉｓｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｅｄｔｏｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄ谢ｔｈｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ，ｗｈｅｒｅｍｅｎｔａｌｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．Ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｄｒａｗｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｏｂｊｅｃｔｓｆｒｏｍａｎｙｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｒｅｆｅｒｒｉｎｇａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｇｆｏｒｍｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ．Ｔｈｅｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｉｓａｒｅｕｓｅｄｔｏｓｅｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｍ；ｔｈｅｓｅｎｅｅｄｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｔｉａｌａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｍｍｅｄｉａｔｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎａｒｏｕｎｄｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓｏｒｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｉｍａｇｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｒｍｅｍｏｒｙｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｄｅｉｘｉｓｄｅａｌｓｍａｉｎｌｙｗｉｔｈｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅ８ａｎｄｉｓｏｆｔｅｎｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍａｎｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ’ｓｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｓｐａｔｉｏ—ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ：ｐｅｒｓｏｎｄｅｉｘｉｓ（ｅ．ｇ．磊ｙｏｕ，ｓｈｅａｎｄｈｅ），ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｅａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ，ｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｉｖｅｐｒｏｎｏｕｎｓａｎｄａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓ（ｅ．ｇ．ｔｈｉｓａｎｄｔｈａｔ，ｈｅｒｅａｎｄｔｈｅｒｅ，ｎＯＷａｎｄｔｈｅｎ），ｌｏｃａｔｉｖｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓ，ｓｐａｔｉａｌａｄｖｅｒｂｓ，ａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌａｎｄｔｅｎｓｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ．Ｕｓｕａｌｌｙｄｅｉｘｉｓｉｓｕｔｔｅｒｅｄｂｙａｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ，ａｎｄｉｓａｄｄｒｅｓｓｅｄｔｏａｎｏｔｈｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｔｈｅｈｅａｒｅｒ．Ｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅｅｃｈａｃｔ．Ｄｅｉｘｉｓｐｌａｙｓａｑｕｉｔｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｍｏｒｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙ，ｏｆｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉｏ－ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．２．３．２ＩｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＳｔｙｌｅｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ．Ｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｗａｙｓｔｏｄｅｆｉｎｅｉｔｉｓｔｏｗｅｉｇｈ“ｓｏｍｅｏｒａｌｌｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｈａｂｉｔｓｏｆｏｎｅｐｅｒｓｏｎ…ｗｈｅｎｗｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｄａｕｔｈｏｒｓｈｉｐ’’（ＣｒｙｓｔａｌａｎｄＤａｖｙ１９６９：９）．Ｉｔｉｓｗｉｄｅｌｙａｓｓｕｍｅｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｗａｙｗｒｉｔｅｒｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｌｙｄｒａｗｏｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｓｔｙｌｅ．Ｔｈａｔｉｓｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｍｏｄａｌｗｏｒｄｓａｒｅｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ．Ｔｏｐｕｔｉｔａｎｏｔｈｅｒｗａｙ，ｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｉｓｃｒｕｃｉａｌｉｎｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｂｙｗｈｉｃｈａｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｏｒａｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｍａｙｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｈｉｓｊｕｄｇｍｅｎｔｓａｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ，ｖａｌｕｅａｎｄｄｅｓｉｒａｂｉｌｉｔｙｉｎａｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｖｅｎｔａｎｄｏｆｐｅｏｐｌｅｒｅｆｅｒｒｅｄｔｏ．Ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｕｎｄｅｒｐｉｎｓｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３：４７），ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｆｏｕｒｔｙｐｅｓｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ：１）ｍｏｄａｌａｕｘｉｌｉａｒｉｅｓ（ｄｅｏｎｔｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｓｕｃｈａｓｓｈｏｕｌｄ，ｍｕｓｔａｎｄｍａｙｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｎｇｄｕｔｙａｎｄｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔ２）ｍｏｄａｌｖｅｒｂｓ（ｂｏｕｌｏｍａｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ），ｌｉｋｅｈｏｐｅ，ｗｉｓｈａｎｄｒｅｇｒｅｔｄｅｎｏｔｉｎｇｄｅｓｉｒｅｓ，３）ｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒｓ（ｅｐｉｓｔｅｍｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒ’Ｓｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｏｒｌａｃｋｏｆｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｉｎｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｆａｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｅｄ，ｆｏｒｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，ｓｕｒｅ，ｐｒｏｂａｂ砂ａｎｄｃｏｕｌｄｎ｝ａｎｄ４）ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓｏｒａｄｖｅｒｂｓ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｇａｒｄｅｄａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒ，ｌｉｋｅａｐｐａｒｅｎｔ（１ｙ），ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓ（１ｙ）ａｎｄｃｌｅａｒ（１ｙ）．Ｏｎｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｙｎｔａｘ，ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔ“ｄｉｆｆｅｒｉｎｇｃｈｏｉｃｅｓａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｏｎｅｃｌａｕｓｅｃａｎｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｖａｒｙｉｎｇｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｖｅｎｔ”．Ｔｈｅｒｅｆｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｅｎｔｅｎｃｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｓａｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｗｏｒｌｄ，ｇｉｖｉｎｇｒｉｓｅｔｏａｎｅｎｔｉｒｅｔｙｏｆｍｉｎｄ—ｓｔｙｌｅ，ａｓｎａｍｅｄ９ｂｙＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９８６：１５０）．２．３．３ＰｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｅｔｈｉｒｄｍａｊｏｒｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｎａｍｅｄｂｙＦｏｌｗｅｒ（１９８６：１３４），ｏｒｗｈｉｃｈＵｓｐｅｎｓｋｙｐｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｍｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ（１９７３：８０）．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３），ｉｔｉｓｄｅｆｉｎｅｄａｓｔｈｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｗｈｉｃｈａｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｔｏｌｄ．Ｉｔａｃｃｏｕｎｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｄｏｍｉｎａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｄｏｐｔｅｄｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｎｏｍａｔｔｅｒｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｎａｒｒａｔｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｆｉｒｓｔ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎｏｒｔｈｉｒｄ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｒｅｓｔｒｉｃｔｅｄｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｒｏｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｔｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ．ＵｓｉｎｇｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆＶ论ｗｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｓｃａｎｍａｎｉｐｕｌａｔｅｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｔｏｒｅｐｏｒｔｏｒｔｏｃｏｍｍｅｎｔ．Ｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｔｉｍｅ－ｈｏｎｏｒｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｔｈａｔｄｒａｗｓＨｅｎｒｙＪａｍｅｓ’ｏｖｅｒｄｕｅｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｈｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｅｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｈａｓｃｏｎｔｒｏｖｅｒｓｉａｌｔｙｐｏｌｏｇｉｅｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｈａｖｅｔｏｂｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｉｎｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ２．５．２．４ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗｉｎＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＰｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓａｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｍａｉｎｌｙｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇ“ｔｈｅｖｉｓｕａｌ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌ）ａｎｇｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ”ａｎｄ“ｌｉｔｅｒａｌｌｙｒｅｖｅａｌｅｄｓｔａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔ，ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅａｎｄｍａｎｎｅｒｏｆｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ”（ＳｈｅｎＤａｎ，２００４：２０５）．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｂｅｇｉｎｎｉｎｇｏｆｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｗｅｓｔｅｒｎｎｏｖｅｌ，ｔｈｅｖｉｅｗｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｎｏｔｉｃｅｄ．Ｓｈｏｒｔ（１９９９：１７２—１８６）ＵｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇＴｅｘｔｓ：ＰｏＲｔｏｆＨｅｗｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｉｎｔｗｅｎｔｉｅｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｗｈｉｃｈｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｎｙｆｏｒｍｏｆｔｅｘｔ．Ｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒ’Ｓｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｉｎｍｏｄｅｍｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｌｏｓｅｌｙｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅａｂｕｎｄａｎｔａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｉｎ１９７０ｓａｎｄ１９８０ｓ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｇｏｔｔＯｉｔｓｕｎｐｒｅｃｅｄｅｎｔｅｄｃｌｉｍａｘ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｂｅｉｎｇａｔｔａｃｋｅｄｂｙｂｏｔｈｓｉｄｅｓｏｆｄｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ，ｉｔｔｈｅｎｗｅｎｔｄｏｗｎｔｏａｌｏｗｐｏｉｎｔ．Ｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ，ｈｏｌｄｓｇｒｅａｔｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｎｄＳＯｉｓｔｈａｔｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ．ＶａｎＤｉｊｋ（１９８１：３１１）ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｔｈｉｓｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｔｈｏｒｏｕｇｈｌｙａｎｄｅｎｌａｒｇｅｓｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｔｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＴｈｅＲｕｓｓｉａｎＦｏｒｍａｌｉｓｔｓＳｈｋｌｏｖｓｋｙｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｈｅｗａｙｉｔｉｓｔｏｌｄ，ｕｓｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｅｒｍｓ４，ａ６ｙ．７ａａｎｄｃｔｏ．）ｌｃｅｍ，ｗｈｉｃｈｅｑｕａｔｅｔｏｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｅｓｅ‘ｔｗｏｍａｊｏｒｄｏｍａｉｎｓｏｆｉｎｑｕｉｒｙｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｖｉｄｅｄｉｎｔｏｔｈｒｅｅｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＭｉｅｋｅＢａｌ（１９８５）ｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｒｅｅｔｅｘｔｌｅｖｅｌｓ：ｆａｂｕｌａ，ｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｅｘｔ，ａｎｄＲｉｍｍｏｎ—Ｋｅｎａｎ（１９８３）ｏｆｆｅｒｓｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｐａｒｉｔｙｏｆｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｎｏｔｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｔｏｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｂｅｃａｕｓｅｉｔｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｂａｓｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｂｏｔｈｂｉｎａｒｙａｎｄｔｒｉａｄｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｅｔｗｏｍａｉｎｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎｔｈｕｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｅｖｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｉｔｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙｍａｙｂｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒｉｎｇｓａｎｄｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｎｇｖｏｉｃｅ（ｉｂｉｄ．ｐ１５）．Ｉｔｉｓｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｔｏｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｗｈｅｎａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇａｗｏｒｋｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｌｏｃａｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｓｏｆｖａｒｉａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙ．Ａｎｏｔｈｅｒｃｒｕｃｉａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｉｎｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｔｈｅｃｏｎｆｕｓｉｏｎｏｆ‘＇ｗｈｏｓｅｅｓ？’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｗｈｏｓｐｅａｋｓ？’’ｓｕｓｔａｉｎｅｄｆｏｒｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｎｇｔｉｍｅ．Ｓｏｉｔｉｓｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｔｏｐｕｔｉｔｈｅｒｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ（１９９０：７４）ｉｎｈｉｓｂｏｏｋＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅＲｅｖｉｓｉｔｅｄｔａｋｅｓｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ‘‘ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ’’ｉｎｓｔｅａｄｏｆ‘‘ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｏｆ‘＇ｖｉｅｗｉｎｇｐｏｉｎｔ”ｆｒｏｍｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｓａｒｅｓｅｅｎ．Ｈｅａｓｓｕｍｅｓｔｈａｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｉｔｈａｄｅｇｒｅｅｏｆａｂｓｔｒａｃｔｎｅｓｓ，ｉｓｔｈｅｉｎｓｔｒｕｍｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ，ａｓｏｒｔｏｆｐｉｐｅｔｈａｔａｌｌｏｗｓｐａｓｓａｇｅｏｎｌｙｏｆａｕｔｈｏｒｉｚｅｄｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍｅａｎｓｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．２．５ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｉｓａｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔＣａｎｏｂｔａｉｎａｃｌｅａｒｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ．Ａｎｄｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ’ｔａｘｏｎｏｍｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｈｏｗｎｂｅｆｏｒｅａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｉｓｒｅａｃｈｅｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｆｏｒｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．５．１Ｆｒｉｅｄｍａｎ’ＳＥｉｇｈｔ－ｔｅｒｍＴａｘｏｎｏｍｙＮｏｒｍａｎＦｒｉｅｄｍａｎ（１９５５）ｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｓａｖｅｒｙｃｏｍｐｌｅｘａｎｄｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｗｉｔｈｅｉｇｈｔｔｙｐｅｓ：ＥｄｉｔｏｒｉａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＮｅｕｔｒａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，Ｉ－ａｓ—ｗｉｔｎｅｓｓ，Ｉ－ａｓ－ｐｒｏｔａｇｏｎｉｓｔ，ＭｕｌｔｉｐｌｅＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＴｈｅＤｒａｍａｔｉｃＭｏｄｅ，ａｎｄＴｈｅＣａｍｅｒａ．Ｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｆｉｒｓｔｔｗｏ。

英语文体学结课论文对梭罗的《瓦尔登湖》的文体学分析班级：英语07-2班姓名：李晓璐学号：310714010207AbstractThis paper will introduce the background of Henry David Thoreau. His masterpiece Walden, or Life in the Woods is honored to be as Green Bible. The book embodies his philosophy and reflects his independent character. The paper will adopt stylistic analysis, which will be helpful for us to better understand the theme and aesthetic effect of the book and at the same time the stylistic analysis of the book also has strong social influence. At present, our Chinese modern construction comes to a new step, it has some similarities with America at the time of Henry David Thoreau, so how to keep balance between the economic growth and the natural protection is not the desire of citizens, but also the demands of harmonious society. So the analysis of the book can benefit us a lot.Key Words: Thoreau H.D; Walden, or Life in the Woods; Stylistic AnalysisChapter 1 Introduction1.1The significant Place of Henry David Thoreau inAmerican LiteratureHenry David Thoreau, American writer, philosopher, and naturalist who believed in the importance of individualism. When he was young, he heard a speech of Ralph Waldo Emerson which was called The American Scholar and this speech was thought to be the guide for young Thoreau, it led him to the transcendentalism. He showed great interest in transcendentalism and oriental books which were full of mysterious philosophy. In a commercial, conservative, expedient society that was rapidly becoming urban and industrial, he upheld the right to self-culture, to an individual life shaped by inner principle. He demanded for all men the freedom to follow unique lifestyles, to make poems of their lives and living itself an art. In a restless, expanding society dedicated to practical action, he demonstrated the uses and values of leisure, contemplation, and a harmonious appreciation of and coexistence with nature. Because of his prolific talents in literature, he was honored to be as American environmental pioneer and mental master of philosophy.Chapter 2 The Stylistic Analysis ofWalden, or Life in the Woods2.1 A General Overview of the BookWalden was published in 1854, seven years after Henry David Thoreau ended his stay in a small cabin near Walden Pond. In Walden, Thoreau condensed events of his twenty-six month sojourn into one year, for literary purposes. The eighteen chapters celebrate the unity of nature, humanity, and divinity-a central idea of transcendentalism-and portray Thoreau’s life at Walden Pond as an ideal model for enjoying that unity. Thoreau was very critical of modern civilization. He felt that man should seek truth directly by himself and not through imitation of others. This book does not attract the corresponding attention at that time: As time goes by, it becomes hotter and hotter. Walden, or Life in the Woods was honored one of the 25 masterpieces which shape people’s life; In 1985, it was bestowed one of 10 books which had the ability to construct American’s character.2.2 Stylistic AnalysisStylistic analysis of Walden, or Life in the Woods will be divided into four parts. They are lexical level, grammatical level, figures and speech, cohesion and context.2.21 Lexical LevelGeoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short in Style in Fiction (2001) have explain such theory that the words are the bases of a paragraph, a chapter, even a book. Special employment of special words can get special effect, for example, they can enhance the descriptions and protrude the theme. Thoreau is a special man, so his thoughts, such as his affection for nature and life, his independent style, his positive ideas, his innocent and naughty characteristics often appear in his book. Let us appreciate them one by one.A.Employment of AdjectivesExample 1: “Bread I at first made of pure Indian meal and salt, genuine home cakes, whichI baked before my fire out of doors on a shingle or the end of a stick of timber sawed off inbuilding my house, but it was won’t to get smoked and to have a pine flavor” (2004:52). In the passage, he tries his best to make pure Indian meal and salt, genuine home cakes, there are two adjectives “pure” and “genuine”, which can fully make us imagine that “how does the writer do? Where does he do? What he would use?” and so a series of interesting questions which can largely enhance our appreciation.Example 2: “I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not ,when I came to die, discover that I had not lived”(2004:77). Let us pay special attention to the adjectives“deliberately, essential”, from which we can see the hard life of Thoreau, though when he meets his difficult days, he does not give up. In our Chinese history, there are some people who would like to give up their money, their lands, even their lives in order to achieve their pursuits. Just as a Chinese man has once said that if a people wants to have a position in history, he must know what should be given up and what should be stuck to. Henry David Thoreau has a firm belief in transcendentalism, he think that the people can have direct connection with the nature, so in order to complete his belief, in order to experience the nature, he leaves noisy world for the hug of nature, so these sentences express his purist for the reality of life.Example 3: “My residence was more favorable, not only to thought, but to a series of reading, than a university, and though I was beyond the range of the ordinary circulating library. I had more than ever come within the influence of those books which circulating round the world, whose sentences were first written on bark, and are now merely copied from time to time on to linen paper” (2004:85). As we know, when Thoreau lives in Walden, he comes into his land which he expects a lot before. He likes his house, even it is only a hut, because as far as Henry David Thoreau concerned, this hut provides an ideal place for him to listen to the nature, When he puts himself in the nature, he finds that he comes into a huge library, the nature will tell people when to give seeds to land and how to work with the land in order to get a good harvest. The nature never advises people to copy because everyday for itself is fresh and everyone has the ability to achieve himself. I think this passage also reflects the bad habit of copying in American literature at that time. Though he has to suffer the poverty of life and “solitude”of spirit, though he only lives in a simple hut, but in the eyes of him, the life is “favorable” and he is absorbed in the reading of nature. This adjective exhibits a positive man.B.Employment of VerbsAccording to Geoffrey N. Leech, Style in Fiction(2001), verbs have strong expression to show the state and atmosphere, the adoptions of definite verbs can make the descriptions more impressive. Of course, Thoreau is good at composition, he has good ability to handle the verbs.Example 1: At the beginning of the book, he writes:” when I wrote the following papers, or rather the bulk of them, I lived alone, in the woods, a mile from any neighbor, in a house which I had built myself, on the shore of Walden pond, in Concord, Massachusetts, and earned my living by the labor of my hands only. I lived there two years and two months. At present, I am a sojourner in civilized life again. I see young men, my town men, whose misfortune is to have inherited farms, houses, barns, cattle, and farming tools, for these are more easily acquired than got rid of some of you, we all know, are poor, find it hard to live, are some times, as it were, gasping for breath”(2004:21). From the sentences, we can see the words “wrote, lived, had built, earned”, which clearly show us two Thoreau: one is the present and the other is the past. The present Thoreau lives in a hut and he has to do everything by himself, but he is happy；The past Thoreau lives in city, he needs not to do everything by himself, but he is unhappy. So from the words we can see the independent and compassionate characteristics of him.Example 2: “I have thus surveyed the country on every side within a dozen miles of where I live, in imagination I have bought all the farms in succession, for all were to be bought, and I know their price. I walked over each farmer, tasted his wild apples,discoursed on husbandry with him, took his farm at his price on it. I took every, but him to some extent, I trust, and withdraw when I had enjoyed it long enough, leaving him to carry it on”(2004:69). In the sentences, “surveyed, tasted, discoursed” exhibit his affection for his residence strongly, when he goes into the nature, he finds all things belongs to him, the lands, the farms, the fruits, so these words deepen our understanding of Thoreau.C. Employment of Colloquial wordsBecause when the writer wrote the book, he lived in concord, a village, so it is apparent for us to see a lot of colloquial words, which make the language style fresh. Let us see some examples.Example 1: “ When I return to my house I find that visitors have been there and left their cards, either a bunch of flowers, or a wreath of evergreen, or a name in pencil on a yellow want leaf or a chip”(2004:93).Example 2: “I planted about two acre sand a half of upland, and it was only about fifteen years since the land was cleared, and I myself had got out two or three cords of stumps, I did not give it any manure”(2004:138).From the two examples, the colloquial words “ I, evergreen acre” make the description of the passage more rustic, from the whole book, the adoption of local language is very often and the style makes the features of the language fresher, more accessible.2.2.2 Grammatical LevelThis part is divided into two parts, which are employment of parallelism sentences and question sentences.A.Employment of Parallelism Sentences and the OtherGeoffrey N. Leech and Michael H. Short have once said in Style in Fiction(2001) that some structures can exhibit strange effects. In the book, we can see a lot of parallelism sentences, which stress the tone a lot. Let us see some examples.Example 1: “Some have asked what I got to eat. If I did not feel lonesome, if I was not, and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purpose, and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained”[2004:32]. In the paragraph, the parallelism sentence “ if I did not feel lonesome, if I was not, and the like” expresses the curiosity of the local people.Example 2: “I have traveled a good deal in concord, and everywhere in shops, and offices, and fields, the inhabitants have appeared to me to be doing penance in a thousand remarkable way. What I have heard of sitting exposed to four fires and looking in the face of the sun, or hanging suspended shoulders until it becomes impossible for them to resume their natural position, while from the twist of the neck nothing but liquids can pass in to the stomach, or dwelling chained for life, at the foot of a tree; or one leg on the tops of pillars- even these forms of conscious penance are hardly more incredible and astonishing than the scenes which I daily witness”[2004:56]. In the sentence, “and, or” are repeated several times, and from the parallelism sentences, as if we are so curious as well as the author because the anecdotes of the local people are so true, and the pattern causes a tense stress on us, when we hear these things, there is a little of scare besides the curiosity, and it also emphasizes the author’s affection forthe field.B.Employment of Question SentencesThe adoption of question sentences can make us feel that we are with the author and the style can make us think about that why the author has such question? And correspondingly, this will be helpful to deepen our contemplations of the book..Example 1: “Who made them serfs of the soil? Why should they eat their sixty acres, when man is condemned to eat only his peck of dirt? Why should begin digging their graves”(2004:48). In the text, the author uses a series of questions, from which we can see his indignation over the inequality between the rich and the poor, he calls for people to live independently, we should not beg for food from our parents, so it has social influence and the pattern of question sentence impresses us a lot.Example 2: “If we live in the 19th century, why should we not enjoy the advantages which it offers? Why should our life be in any respect the provincial? If we will read newspapers, why not skip the gossip of Boston and take the best newspaper in the world at once? Not be sucking the pap of neutral family paper, or browsing olive branches here in England. Let the reports of all the learned societies come to us, and we will see if they now anything. Why should we leave it to Harper and to select our reading? As the nobleman of cultivated taste surrounds himself with what ever conduces this culture genius learning wit book painting, music philosophical instruments, and the other things”(2004:94). From the passage, the author proposes a good question: the social property becomes more and more, but we do not get corresponding happiness and even our smile becomes less and less, we become to be particular about everything. The author adopts a series of question sentences, this adoption here likes a trumpet which beats our depth of heart. We are largely shocked by these questions and it makes us think about how to live in a good life.2.2.3 Figures of SpeechThis part is divided into two parts, which are employment of simile and metaphor, onomatopoetic device.A.Employment of Simile and MetaphorAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), the employment of simile and metaphor can change the invisible into concrete. It will give us a direct feeling of the abstract and it makes the invisible into visible.Example 1: “For the first week, whenever I looked out on the pond it impressed me like a tarn high up on the side of a mountain, its far above the surface of other lakes, and as the sun, I saw it throwing off its smooth reflecting surface was revealed. While the mists, like ghosts, they were stealthily withdrawing in every direction on to the woods, as at the breaking up of some nocturnal conventicler”(2004:83). In the paragraph, he uses a series of similes and metaphors, for example, he compares the pond to a tarn, and he compares the mists to ghosts, the employment fully exhibits the beauty of the pond and the mists, which gives us a more vivid impression.B.Employment of Onomatopoetic DeviceAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), Semantics examines how meaning is encoded ina language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but alsowith levels of language below the word and above it, based on such theory, we can see that onomatopoetic words transmit special meanings.Example 1: “They give me a new sense of the variety and capacity of that nature which is our common, oh-o-o that I never had been bor-r-r-rn!”（2004:87）.When the writer describes the sound of the birds, he adopts “oh-o-o- bor-r-r-rn” to imitate the sounds of birds, which is very special and vivid.2.2.4 Cohesion and ContextAccording to Hu Zhuanglin (2007), the role of conjunctions and numerals can make the text more coherent, and they are just as a bridge which links the above and the follow. A, Employment of ConjunctionExample 1: “But while we are confined to books, though the most selected classic, and read only particular written languages, which are themselves but dialects and provincial”(2004:95). This sentence appears at the turn of chapter “Reading” and chapter “Sound”, and the conjunction “but, and”as well as “we are confined to books”, which gives us a coherent impression of the text.B, Employment of NumeralsExample 1: “ I had three chairs in my house, one for solitude, two for friendship, three for society”(2004:120). Numerals “one, two, three”make the connection between the above and the follow more natural.Chapter 3 ConclusionWalden, or Life in the Woods is a masterpiece all over the world and everyone can share something from it. By analyzing it from stylistic analysis, we can appreciate it better. As we know, the rhythm of the society becomes faster and faster, so people feel more and more stressful. If the stress is too heavy to control, some tragedies may happen. So how to keep the harmony between the individual growth and the social growth is very important. Walden, or Life in the Woods, the book calls for people to live freely, just relax yourself, go to nature to find your happiness. I think this kind of life provides us with quietness and the space os thinking, so it can slow down the stress effectively. Another challenge for human being is the environmental pollution, we often hear people say that the river is not so clear, the sky is not so blue, the number of the tree is not so much, the air is not so fresh and so on, it is apparent for us to have a beautiful earth, but how to achieve the goal. I think the most important is to waken the awareness of the people, if everyone can share Walden, or Life in the Woods, if everyone can feel the beauty of nature in the book, I think they must feel unhappiness of the pollution of the nature, they must fell guilty of their deeds to the nature, and they will think how to keep a healthy earth, how to live a good life, I think this is what Henry David Thoreau has been expecting.Bibliography[1] Geoffrey N. Leech. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001[2] Henry David Thoreau . Walden , or Life in the Woods [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai foreign Language Education, 2004.[3] Geoffrey N, Leech & Michael H , Short. Style in Fiction [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.[4] Crystal, D. Investigating English Style [M]. London: Longman, 1979.[5] 胡壮麟，语言学教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2007.[6] 常耀信，美国文学史[M]. 天津：南开大学出版社，1998.[7] 黄任，英语修辞与写作[M]. 上海：上海外语教学出版社，1996.[8] 秦秀白，文体学概论[M]. 长沙：湖南教育出版社，1996.。

摘 要　文学翻译成功的关键之一在于是否能够准确传达原文风格。

对于译者来说，文学翻译最棘手的问题莫过于原作风格的传达。

尽管传统文体学越来越多地被用于小说风格翻译，但是功能文体学却给文学翻译批评提供了崭新的视角。

功能文体学以韩礼德的系统功能语法作为理论基础，基于语言的三大元功能——概念功能、人际功能、和语篇功能对文本进行较全面的分析，是一门结合语言学描述和文学鉴赏的交叉学科。

本论文主要分析比较《傲慢与偏见》三个具有代表性的中译本风格（即文体特征）的传递及各个译本的优缺点, 这三个中译本分别是：王科一译（2007版），孙致礼译（2008版），张玲 & 张扬译（2009版）。

本文首先根据语域理论及小说情节的发展变化，选择了主人公伊丽莎白和达西之间的对话为分析语料，并将其划分为三个阶段。

通过对主人公典型对话的人际情态及评价语在特定语境中的文体学分析比较三个中译本风格（即文体特征）的传递。

本论文通过对三个中译本中主人公对话的功能文体学分析，阐述将功能文体学用于小说风格翻译的必要性及有效性，以期将功能文体分析方法更好地应用到小说翻译中，尤其是原文风格翻译的传达上。

本研究选择小说《傲慢与偏见》为分析语料，基于以下两个原因：该小说充满戏剧情节，人物之间对话睿智风趣，人物形象生动；小说风格幽默，富含文体特点，其人物在不同情境下的语域选择变化十分明显。

通过对三个中译本的对比分析，本文发现：1) 王科一译本在情态、意态等方面的传达上基本体现了原文的幽默反讽风格，但译文中多处地方忽略原句的形式对等及上下文语境，存在漏译和误译现象。

2) 孙致礼译本在对评价语的翻译上选词优美简洁，四字成语习语较多，译文通篇流畅简洁，但恰恰是这种自然流畅的特点折损了原文一些地方的幽默反讽风格。

在人物对话中，有些四字成语习语的运用不太符合原著人物的语域选择，在人际情态方面的风格传达上较多地沿用了王科一译本。

3) 张玲& 张扬译本总体采用直译法，最大限度地保留了原文的句法形式，并取得了较好的文体效果。

stylistics文体学英文定义Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of style in language. It is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the linguistic features that contribute to the distinctive character of a text or a speaker's language use. Stylistics examines how language is used in different contexts and for different purposes, and how these choices can convey meaning and create particular effects.The study of stylistics involves the examination of various linguistic elements, such as vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and rhetoric, and how they are used to create a particular style or tone. Stylistics also considers the role of context, including the social, cultural, and historical factors that influence language use.One of the key aspects of stylistics is the concept of foregrounding, which refers to the use of linguistic features that draw attention to themselves and create a sense of prominence or emphasis. This can be achieved through the use of unusual or unexpected language, such as metaphors, alliteration, or unusual sentence structures.Stylistics also considers the relationship between form and content, and how the way language is used can shape the meaning andimpact of a text. For example, the use of formal or informal language, the choice of vocabulary, and the structure of sentences can all contribute to the overall tone and effect of a piece of writing.Another important aspect of stylistics is the analysis of literary texts, where the focus is on the distinctive linguistic features that contribute to the style and meaning of a work of literature. This can include the examination of narrative techniques, such as point of view and characterization, as well as the use of figurative language, symbolism, and other literary devices.Stylistics can also be applied to other forms of communication, such as speech, advertising, and political discourse. In these contexts, the analysis of style can reveal insights into the speaker's or writer's intentions, the target audience, and the broader cultural and social context in which the language is being used.One of the key challenges in the study of stylistics is the need to balance the objective analysis of linguistic features with the subjective interpretation of their meaning and effect. Stylistic analysis often requires a deep understanding of language, as well as a keen eye for detail and a willingness to engage with the nuances and complexities of language use.Despite these challenges, the study of stylistics remains an importantand influential field within linguistics. By examining the ways in which language is used to create meaning and effect, stylistics can provide valuable insights into the nature of language and communication, and can contribute to a deeper understanding of the human experience.。

文体学课后题1、2单元1Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples.1）Words and phrasesshilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhymehigh and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhymekith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhymepart and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme2）Pride and Prejudice = alliterationThe Love’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliteration Bill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliterationFather in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliterationThe Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration3)Advertisements--Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision--Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision--Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment,but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful—but don’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught.2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master.3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick.3 1)phonological devices in the following extract.A creak of hinges...aisle.In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable.2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms.“TOM!”No answer. ...--Mark TwaiThis is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Y-o-u-u, Tom!” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard fa r away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through.3单元1 What are thethree ways of clause classification?classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause.2 how do we distinguish situation types?By according to meaning or sense of the verb.3 Name the participant roles in action types?The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4What is a simple sentence? What is a multiple sentence?Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either acompound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clauses function asmodified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incomplete sentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minor sentence is supposed to be “complete” in the sense that it is finished. An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why are you late? Because I—Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is the use of pre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines can economize space, and arouse the reader’s intere st as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out. Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style. Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech? Which typeof branching is preferred in written styles?Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation of ideas.A writer may favor right-branching and use short, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is betteradapted to writing because it is structurally more compact andlogical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas are presented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel insuspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards theend of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are the stylistic effects offronting and postponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or less fixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile in position. The change of the order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of a linguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. For example,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (fronting talent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University. (Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function?Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form (e.g. tense, aspect) and phrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example,See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill. And sand. Power sand.This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand namePower.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate andthat of native words? Why?Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion andofficial communication; and in most cases, they help to create theeffect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.Words ofAnglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people’s basicvocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged. A highpercentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specific word?Is it true that use of specific words should always berecommended?A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class ofobjects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that groupor class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often toovague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader’s or hearer’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there isno need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vaguefor some (tactical) reason.5 What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employrepetition and reiteration in speech or writing?When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example,We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 andafternoon classes begin at 2:00 again.When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. Forexample,We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again.In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetitionof an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps todirect the reader’s attention to the interpretation of its significance.Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoidthe monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression.6 What is collocation? What is the use pf analyzing lexical collocationof an item in a piece of language?Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of the item. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text.7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a general wordwhose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words.1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk)2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk)4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box (container)5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle (vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly a similarconceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associatemeanings.1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words;2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more.In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four ofwhich are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are fromLatin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand.10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement.(Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories) To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong, savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to show what good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer. 5单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one social dialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accent?Accent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks a dialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with different accents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from one dialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or her accent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a London accent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speak British English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English? Is there a standard accent with whichpeople speak Standard English?Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely accepted such as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元11）What does ‘channel limitation’ mean? How does channel limitation affect language use?Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only—visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facial expressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, on the other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should be explicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother”, which is understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context. But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make it explicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of the classroom building is Wang Qian’s mother.2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ from prepared written form?In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising one’s utterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said and its response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance. If one’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech is characteristically broken up by the following features of normal non-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts. For example,He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shall I say er- withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mm goldfish bowl round his head - not very easy…7单元1What is role relationship? Give some examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer—salesman, colleagues in an office, management—employees, teacher—pupil, parent—child.2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of variousattitudes?Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility3.What factors affect the degrees of formality?The degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on.4 How does language vary in terms of politeness?Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between theaddress and addressee; the degree of social distance separating theaddresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation.5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms?The basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), Firstname + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith,Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) andTerms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet).6 What is linguistic impersonality?Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to theaddresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personalpronouns such as I, we, you, etc7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibility?We can measure the degrees of accessibility by the followingformula:FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H)L = the average sentence length in a passageH = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in thepassageSuppose a passage has:--a total number of words 120--the number of sentences 6--the number of “hard” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3) = 13.32Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult.8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.AThere was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for an accident to happen. It wasn’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody’ll get me in an accid ent. I was facing failure, real failure. I’d never faced complete failure before.I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a littlenewspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together.Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling StoneB(The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having beenterminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediate considerationalverification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisationalexperience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS,both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomiclogistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aimwould be the immediate terminalisation of readershipfallout by content amendment through extremeconservation….“Weekend Competition”, New StatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. Thesentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personal pronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates the speaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract, whichindicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber’s entry in t he Dictionary denotes that the telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber’s request and the Post Office is not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses of such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of the public the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree of formality.A I’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, I train students to become more sensitive and aware of interpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words,as well as nonverbal behavior. I try to ignite symbols in your mind, so we can come to a point of agreement on language. Thisis an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we’ve strong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, New Statesman Comparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though both are formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses short sentences and a fair portion of common words. But there are professional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities?Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely accepted functions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serve?A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a press advertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. It has been estimated that five times as many people read theheadline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospectivebuyer’s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/herremember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement?A complete press advertisement consists of the following components: HeadlineIllustrationBody copySignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details are sometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English.Move to Axe Miners’ JobsWoman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with West Europe.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for Easter Holidays.。

《英语文体学》课程教学大纲课程编号：ENGL3002课程类别：专业选修课授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：秋（第7学期）学分：2主讲教师：王军指定教材：《新编英语文体学教程》，董启明主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2008年。

教学目的：英语文体学是一门实用性非常强的学科,对阅读、翻译、文章分析、文章欣赏以及得体地使用英语都有很大的帮助，此外，英语文体学也是英语语言学研究重要的基础性学科之一。

作为一门课程，英语文体学主要由两部分构成：其一为文体学研究主要内容介绍，包括文体类型、文体特征、文体价值等方面，其次为具体文体分析方法介绍。

第一课Introduction to Stylistics课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容：What is stylistics and how is it associated with other linguistic studies?第一节：The position of stylistics in general linguistics.The importance of studying stylistics.第二节：What is stylistics?The major contents of this study.Issues that need to be born in mind.思考题：1.How to do stylistics in the framework of literature or translation?2.What do you expect to learn from this course?第二课Style and Stylistics课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容：The development and scope of stylistics第一节：The definition of style and stylistics.The relationship between appreciation and research.第二节：The development of stylistics.The scope of stylistics.思考题：1.What are the major differences between style and stylistics?2.What areas in society can the knowledge of stylistics be applied to?第三课Procedure of stylistic analysis （1）课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容：Linguistic description第一节：Linguistic description: methods and procedures.第一节：A checklist of linguistic description.The functions of each one.思考题：1.Why do we need linguistic description?2.Think about the significance of conducting linguistic description.第四课Procedure of stylistic analysis （2）课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容：Textual analysis and contextual factors analysis第一节：What is textual analysis?How to conduct textual analysis?第二节：A classification of contextual factors.How to analyze contextual factors？思考题：1.How do you understand the relationship between understanding and textual analysis?2.Are there other ways to classify contextual factors?第五课Stylistic functions of linguistic items课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容：Stylistic functions as defined at different levels第一节：Stylistic functions of speech sounds.Stylistic functions of graphological items.第二节：Stylistic functions of lexical items.Stylistic functions of syntactic/grammatical items.思考题：1.How do you evaluate the different kinds of stylistic functions?2.What is the significance of studying stylistic function?第六课Varieties in relation to regions课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容：Regional English第一节：A brief introduction to British English.The appearance of American English.第二节：Differences between British English and American English.British and American regional dialects.思考题：1.What are the major causes for the differences between British English and American English?2.How to deal with the use of the two regional English in actual learning or dailycommunication?第七课Varieties in relation to media课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容：Spoken English and written English第一节：Major features of spoken English and written English.What are the standards of using spoken English or written English?第二节：Electronic English.思考题：1.What is the situation like if one is only skilled in using spoken English or written English?2.What is the role of electronic English in the course of learning English?第八课Varieties in relation to attitude课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容：Attitude-related styles第一节：Degree of formality.Politeness.第二节：Impersonality.Accessibility.思考题：1.Think about the relationship between meaning and emotion expressions.2.What do you think of the relationship between formality and politeness?第九课Varieties in relation to social factors课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容：Social factors and their constraints on language第一节：Women’s English.Black English.第二节：Taboo and euphemism.Cultural factors involved in social factors.思考题：1.What are the reasons that maintain the existence of women’s English?2.How do you understand the status of black’s English and the black’s social status?第十课Review of the past lessons课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容：A summary and comment of the past lessons第一节：The watershed of the whole course.Recall what have been learned.第二节：What are the sections that interest you the most?Is there possibility for you to conduct further research?第十一课The English of conversation课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容：Conversational English第一节：A general introduction to what to learn in the latter half of the term.About conversation.Phonological features.第二节：Lexical features.Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.How do you understand conversation in terms of direct speech and indirect speech?2.Is conversational English always informal?第十二课The English of public speaking课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容：Public speech and its features第一节：What is public speech?Public speeches’ phonological features.Lexical features.第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the major differences between public speaking and conversation?2.What are the major differences between public speech and written English?第十三课The English of news reporting （1）课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容：General knowledge about news reporting第一节：What are news reports?Different kinds of newspapers and magazines.第二节：The make-up of news reports.A sample analysis of a piece of newspaper (New York Times/China Daily)思考题：1.Is there any difference between formal news report and informal news release?2.Specify the make-up of some pages of newspaper, both English and Chinese.第十四课The English of news reporting （2）课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容：Stylistic features of news reporting第一节：Graphological features.Lexical features.第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the functions of each group of stylistic features in news reporting?2.What are the stylistic features that distinguish news reporting from other textual styles?第十五课The English of Advertising课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容：The language styles in advertising English第一节：Something about advertisements.Graphological features.第二节：Lexical features.Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the major purposes of advertisements?2.Give some advertising examples that show the violation of some basic language rules inadvertising.第十六课Literary English课时：第十六周，共2课时教学内容：Literary English: novel and poetry第一节：Some basic facts about the novel.Aspects for the analysis of the novel.General stylistic features of the novel.第二节：Some basic facts about the poetry.Prosody.General stylistic features of poetry.思考题：1.Between fiction and reality, what kinds of stylistic features are most suitable for the novel?2.What effects does it have on appreciation to analyze the novel’s stylistic features?3.How to balance meaning expression and poetic features in poetry?4.What are the common stylistic features between poetry and novel?第十七课：The English of science and technology课时：第十七周，共2课时教学内容：Technical English第一节：Graphological features.Lexical features第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.思考题：1.How to handle formality and politeness issues in technical English?2.How is objectivity achieved in technical English?第十八课：Review and answer questions课时：第十八周，共2课时教学内容：Review and answer questions第一节：Review.第二节：Answer questions.参考书目：1.王守元.《英语文体学要略》.济南：山东大学出版社，2000.2.徐有志.《英语文体学教程》.北京：高等教育出版社，2005.3.Thornborrow,J. Patterns in Language: Stylistics for Students of Language and Literature.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.4.Wright, L. Stylistics: A Practical Coursebook. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press, 2000.。

新闻文体分析英语作文News Style Analysis。

News style is a unique form of writing that is used to convey information in a clear, concise and objective manner. It is often used in newspapers, magazines, and online news websites to report on current events, issues, and trends.In this essay, we will analyze the key characteristics of news style and examine how it is used to effectively communicate with readers.One of the most important characteristics of news style is its objectivity. News writers are expected to presentthe facts in a neutral and unbiased manner, withoutinjecting their own opinions or emotions into the story. This means that news articles are written in a straightforward and factual tone, and avoid using sensational language or exaggerations.Another key aspect of news style is its focus onaccuracy and reliability. News writers are responsible for fact-checking and verifying the information they report, and are expected to cite credible sources to support their claims. This helps to build trust with readers and ensures that the information presented is reliable and trustworthy.In addition, news style is characterized by its use of the inverted pyramid structure. This means that the most important information is presented at the beginning of the article, followed by supporting details and background information. This allows readers to quickly grasp the main points of the story, even if they only read the first few paragraphs.Furthermore, news style often employs a concise and to-the-point writing style. This means that unnecessary words and phrases are eliminated, and the writing is focused on conveying the key information in a clear and efficient manner. This helps to keep readers engaged and prevents them from becoming bored or overwhelmed by excessive details.Finally, news style also includes the use of headlines, subheadings, and bullet points to organize and structure the information. This helps to guide readers through the article and allows them to quickly locate the information they are interested in.To illustrate these characteristics, let's examine a news article from a reputable source, such as The New York Times. In a recent article about the impact of climate change on coastal communities, the writer presents thefacts in a neutral and objective manner, citing scientific studies and expert opinions to support their claims. The article also follows the inverted pyramid structure, with the most important information presented at the beginning, followed by supporting details and background information. The writing is concise and to-the-point, and the use of subheadings and bullet points helps to organize the information and make it easy to navigate.In conclusion, news style is a unique form of writing that is characterized by its objectivity, accuracy, and focus on clear and concise communication. By understandingthe key characteristics of news style and how it is used to effectively convey information, writers can improve their ability to communicate with readers and provide them with reliable and trustworthy information.。

StylisticsDefinitionStylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of STYLE. It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups. The stylistics analysis of a text involves the description of a writer’s/speaker’s verbal choices which can be abstracted as style. A stylistician would usually proceed to discuss the relevance of the analysis to interpretation, the possible meaning or effect evoked by the adoption of a certain style.Language is viewed as a system of different types for linguistic organization. A language of a particular society is part of the society’s culture. The language of a participant in a social activity reflects his social characteristics (such as his status, ethnic group, age and sex). It also reflects his awareness of the various factors of a social situation in which he finds himself. He should adjust his language in accordance with the medium of communication (speech of writing), the setting, the relationship with the addressee (in terms of the degree of intimacy or social distance), the subject matter, and the purpose. Appropriate use of language is considered the key to effective communication.Concepts of Style·”Style” may refer to some or all the language habits of one person. E,g. Shakespeare’s style·The word may refer to some or all of the language habits shared by a group of people at one time, or over a period of time. E.g. the style of legal documents.·The word may be used in an evaluative sense.·Partly overlapping with the three senses above, the word may refer solely to literary language.Style gives us additional information about the speaker’s/writer’s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the hearer/reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes.“Style” in this book refers to the characteristic variation in language use. The term can be applied to both spoken and written, both literary and non-literary varieties of a language.Procedure of AnalysisThe concept of textA text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs. The concept of ContextThe discussion of “text” naturally leads to the discussion of “context”, because an understanding of the meaning of a linguistic unit or a text depends upon a knowledge of the context in which the unit or text occurs.Context may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as CO_TEXT, which refers to the linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning.·Characteristic of the USER of languageAgeSexSocio-regional or ethnic backgroundEducation·Characteristics of the USE of language in situationMedium of communication: speech or writingSetting: private or publicRole-relationship between addresser and addressee: the degree of intimacy: the degree of social distance.Linguists have emphasized the role of contexts of situation as determinants of style. There is an observable match between linguistic features and contextual factors.Levels of linguistic descriptionIn order to capture the stylistic characteristics of a text, we have to describe the text’s verbal properties in a rigorous way.PHONOLOGY is defined as the system of speech sounds in a language. GRAPHOLOGY refers to the writing system of a language. The lexicogrammatical system consists of vocabulary and syntactic structuresThe matching of a text with its context is termed as the PLACING OF A TEXT or CONTEXTUALIZATION.In the first place, linguistic features of a given text should be compared with a set of relative norms of language in use. By “relative norms”we mean the ranges of linguistic appropriateness to various contexts of situation.A text should be further be contextualized in terms of its genre, its historical period or cultural background.Potential style markers: markers in phonology and graphologyLanguages features are classified into four categories: phonology,graphology, lexis and grammar. Potential style markers in phonology.Ellision: refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech.Sound patterning: refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words. CVC: AlliterationCVC: AssonanceCVC: ConsonanceCVC: Reverse RhymeCVC: PararhymeCVC: RhymeSound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis, establishing relationship between the patterned words.Onomatopoeia: used to produce sound images.Potential style markers in graphologyPunctuation: an essential part of the properly constructed English sentence, reflection pauses, intonation, patterns of the spoken language.The use of exclamation marks:a.to represent urgent warning or command. e.g. ”Nicholas!” said his uncle sharply.b.Ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory or urgent force of a command. E.g., shut thedoor!c.The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies the writer’s doubt or surprise aboutcertain language items. e.g. He said that I was his best(?!) friend.d.Excessive use of exclamation marks is often considered as a sign of frivolous or immature writing; theuse of more than one exclamation mark is a feature of very informal writing. E.g. Number 7 stands empty!!The use of dashesa.Dash is considered a mark of informal writing. It may indicate a sudden break or interruption inspeech. E.g. ”No he didn’t, Aunt Mollie. It wasn’t Mr Edmond. Mr Edmond didn’t--”b.Dashes can be used to mark off a parenthesis. E.g.”…when he had bent his head-I saw him! –overmy mother’s little glove.”The use of quotation marksa.To indicate the authenticity of the quoted words. E.g. Tom Lincoln used to say Abe was going to have“ a real eddication,” explaining,”You air a-goin’ to larn readin’ writin’, and cipherin’”b.To direct the reader’s attention to the quoted words. E.g. A fourth of USA schools are “shoddy”c.To enclose words used in special senses or borrowed from other contexts. E.g. I do not know that it isto see into the heart of a friend through that “window of the soul”, the eye.d.To enclose words that the writer considers inappropriate or untrue. E.g.The use of capitals and italicsa.Capitals are used to dignify or personify a lexical item. Initial capitals for key word are typical featuresof legal language.b.Italics in print, small capitals, or capitals are often used for emphasis,indicating sometimesphonological prominence. E.g. You are my FRIEND/friend.ParagraphingParagraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs (consisting of one or more sentences). It is a device of revealing the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.Potential style markers in lexciogrammartical levelPotential style markers in syntaxThe basic clause structure and the classification of clause types:Basic clause structure: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOCClassification of clause types:1.In terms of clause constituents: SV(A) SVO(A) SVC SVOO SVOC2.In terms of the structure of the verb phrase in a clause: finite clauses, non-finite clause andverbless clauses.e.g. Mrs Marlow’s health has been improving ever since she quit smoking.(finite clause)e.g. Inhaling the smoke of others is thought to be harmful(Non-finite:-ing nominal clause)e.g. A born-again Christian, she has married.(verbless clause)Verbless clauses are clauses which contain no verb element. They are regarded as clauses because they function in the similar way as finite or non-finite clauses.3.In terms of function in a sentence, clauses can be classified into dependent and independentclauses.Subordinate clauses are those which constitute part of another clause and function as its clause elements or as constituents of a phrase within a clause.Subordinate clauses can be further divided into:a.Nominal clauses: that-clauses. wh-clauses, to-infinitive clauses and –ing clausesb.Relative clauses, functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.parative clauses, resembling adjectives and adverbs in their modifying functions.d.Adverbial clauses, denoting time, place, reason, purpose, conditions, etc.Potential style markers in lexical choiceThe examination of lexical choice is mainly an analysis of content words, involving the following aspects: Are the words simple or complex? Formal or informal? General or specific?Anglo-Saxon or Latinate wordsGenerally speaking, words of Latin, French origin (Latinate) are words of science, religion and official communication; they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance. The percentage of Latinate words in a text is only one among many markers indicating the degree of formalityof a text. In most cases, it becomes significant only when combined with other markers. Besides, quite a number of Latinate words have passed into the basic vocabulary of a native speaker of EnglishWords of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people’s basic vocabulary. The percentage of Anglo-Saxon words runs very high-usually between 70 and 90 percent. Therefore a high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual and informal style.General or specific wordsGeneral terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of s pecific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images.Conceptual or Associative meaningThe lexical meaning of a word or phrase is said to be a complex of various interrelated components. Some components constitute conceptual meaning and some associative. Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word or phrase. Associative meaning refers to the meanings that a word has beyond or in addition to its conceptual meaning. These meanings may: Show people’s emotions, attitudes towards what the word refers to/ reflect the social circumstances of its use/ evoke in the reader/hearer certain associations of what the word refers to.Associative meanings may be private, varying from person to person as the result of individual experience; Associative meanings are often shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex or age.In scientific and technical varieties of English, where precise information is of primary importance, words without much emotive/evaluative overtone will be preferred.In order to avoid using words with undesirable associations people turn to euphemisms:Senior citizen: old man/ womanNewly single: divorcedMemorial park: graveyardFuneral director: undertakerSanitation collector: garbage collectorIndustrial action: strikeTo eliminate: to kill or to murderDomestic helper: servantHair stylist: barberAirhostess: waitress aboard a planeKnowledge-based nonpossessor: idiotThe South, or the developing countries: countries that have little industrialization and low standard of living.Two freedom fighters took the oppressor’s life away: the general was murdered by two terrorists.Verbal Repetition and ReiterationBoth verbal repetition and reiteration can be regarded as text-forming devices which manifest the relationof meaning within the text. Moreover, they are often used for rhetorical purposes.Verbal repetition refers to the repetition of a linguistic unit (morpheme, lexical item, phrase, etc.) which has already occurred in the preceding context. Repetition is sometimes deliberate; it is used for emotive intensification. In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device; it helps to direct the reader’s attention to the interpretation of its significance.Varieties of Contemporary EnglishLanguage varieties are classified according to the following factors:characteristics or USER, and USE, interference and historical period. Dialect is a variety which a person habitually speaks, determined by regional and social background and adopted as a speaker’s permanent from. Register is a variety determined by what he is doing in a social activity and adopted to suit a specific occasion. The match (correlation) between contextual factors and language features is fairly systematic.Varieties according to region and social group·Regional and Social DialectsVarieties according to the characteristics of language user are commonly termed DIALECTS. A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialect differs from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Social dialects refer to the language variation according to education, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, and even age and sex. The higher the social status or education, the fewer the regional features in speech. ·Standard and non- standard EnglishStandard English refers to the particular socially-favored variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. Standard English is primarily used for public communication: It is the language used in schools, taught to non-native learners of the language.Dialect forms are used to indicate one’s regional or class loyalty.The dialectal English which differs from Standard English in grammar and vocabulary is termed Non-Standard. Standard English has higher status and enjoys more prestige than any other English dialect. ·The use of non-standard EnglishWhile the Standard English is an important medium for public communication, education, and official writing, non-standard varieties are characteristically used in informal speech for personal (or local) needs.·Markers Indicating Non-Standard Speech in LiteratureNon-Standard language features are found in dialogues and first-person narrations. They serve to indicate the speech style of a character or a narrator. The representation of non-standard language in literature is generally occasional rather than constant, approximate rather than accurate. Grammatical markers:a.Double/multiple negation“Nobody don’t go there no more”b.Double comparatives/superlativesMore beautifuller, nicerer, woreser, leastest.ck of subject-verb agreement“I walks to work everyday”“He walk to work”·Standard American and British EnglishSee examplesVarieties according to medium (mode of discourse)As far as linguistic communication is concerned, MEDIUM refers to graphic signs(visual medium) or speech sounds (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to another. Comparing spoken language and written language, linguists notice that the following aspects condition the variations in speech and writing.a.Channel limitationb.Spontaneity of the messagec.Audience interactiond.Publicity of the situationChannel limitation and linguistic explicitnessChannel refers to the route in which a message is conveyed from the addresser (speaker/writer) to the addressee (hearer/reader). “Channel limitation”means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only- visual or auditory. Spoken language, in most case, has no channel limitation. If the transmission of a message has no channel-limitation, the verbal message is often inexplicit.Linguistic inexplicitness (caused by the use of exophoric words) is one of the characteristics of spoken language, when both speaker and hearer understand tacitly the references within the shared situation.Spontaneity and linguistic characteristicsSpontaneously spoken language differs from (formal) written language in the following aspects:a.Fluencyb.Sentence structureSpontaneously spoken language is often characterized bya.The lack of clear sentence boundariesb.Syntactic incompletenessc.The use of minor sentencesd.The preference for paratactic structurement clauses in end-positionA formal written text is in general “well-prepared”. It is a finished product created by the writer aftera good deal of thinking, planning, revising, proofreading, and polishing. The following are somefeatures, typical of written formal sytle；a.Syntactic completeness and complexityb.Heavily premodified noun phrasesc.Cleft sentencesd.The use of personal pronouns in a subordinate clause, preceding the main clause.Audience interaction and linguistic manifestationTo engage in a MONOLOGUE is to speak in such a way as to exclude the possibility of interruption by the audience. To engage in a DIALOGUE is to speak in such a way as to invite the participation of the audience.In a dialogic situation the communication normally proceeds through the cooperation of speaker and audience. The speaker is continually monitoring his message to keep the channel of communication open by using MONITORING signals. The speaker also uses questions, tag-questions, imperatives to invite the active participation of the hearer.In a monologue situation the audience is denied the opportunity or the right to participate, and the interaction features are fewer in evidence.However, monitoring features may occur in a monologue, indicating that the speaker is aware of the audience’s presence and reactions.A written text can be compared to a written monologue because it is addressed to an imaginedaudience that is not physically present.Publicity of situation and formality in languageThe language of a speaker/writer is often conditioned byA.The size of the audienceB.The relationship between the addresser and the audienceFeatures of spoken style in fictional dialoguesFeatures of spoken style can be found I the first person narration, interior monologue and dialogue in a novelVarieties according to attitude (tenor of discourse)The language we use varies according to our attitudes towards the addressee. Such attitudes are related to the ROLE RELATIONSHIPS in various situations. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent. The addresser’s attitude towards the addressee influences language choice at every level. Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: FORMALITY, POLITENESS, IMPERSONALITY, and ACCESSIBILITY.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of formalityThe degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, church service, cocktail party, and so on. Thus formal English, typically in written form, is found primarily in official documents, regulations, business letters or ceremonial speeches. Informal English is found typically in private conversations or personal letters. It is also used nowadays in advertisements and popular newspapers.a.Phonological markers.E.g. He dunno. Elision and assimilation. He doesn’t knowWhatcna want is assimilation What you want isI wanna come elision I want to comeGimme the bottle elision Give me the bottleI gonna do it elision I’m going to do itLemme think a minute elision Let me think a minuteA cuppa tea elision A cup of teab.Graphological markers·Certain punctuation marks(e.g. the dash and the exclamation mark) are more informal than others (e.g. the semincolon and the colon)·It is considered informal to write figures instead of words as part of a sentence.c.Syntactic Markers·Contracted forms of auxiliary verbs occur frequently in spoken and informal English.E.g. What’ll you have?·In informal English, for indefinite reference you is used instead of one·In informal English the pronoun in the objective case is used when it is notionally the subject of the omitted verb.E.g. She can drive as well as him.·When a that-clause is object or complement of the postponed subject, that is frequently omitted in informal use.E.g. I knew he would come.·In informal English, the preposition may be placed at the end of a relative clause, a wh- question, or an exclamation.E.g. what a difficult situation he’s in!·In informal speech elliptical questions and abbreviated clauses are often used.E.g. What for? Where to? Who with?·Pronoun they is often used informally in co-reference with the in-definite pronouns everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody,e.g. Everyone thinks they have the answer.Has anybody brought their camera?The use of they is a convenient means of avoiding the traditional formal use of he or the recent use of the cumbersome he or she when the sex is not stated.·In subjunctive clauses, the ordinary past tense was can replace were in informal style.e.g. He treated me as if I was a small boy.·The use of participial and verbless clauses is characteristic of formal written English, as they are rarely encountered in spoken language.d.Lexical markers·Shortened Latinate words·Many Phrasal and prepositional verbs are characteristic of informal styles·The use of slang and colloquialism characterizes informal styles·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of politenessIn terms of politeness, language varies according to:a.The degree of intimacy between the addresser and addressee.b.The degree of social distance separating the addresser from the addresseePoliteness tends to increase to the extent that the addressee is more senior in status and less intimate.Politeness can be separated from formality within language.·pohonological markersIntonation patterns often indicate degrees of politeness.·syntactic markersThe use of syntactic markers is determined by three levels: the cost-benefit scale, option-nonoption scale, and indirect-direct scale.a.The use of exclamatory questions for emotive emphasis is typical of familiar styles.e.g. Am I hungry!b. When the speaker wants to be polite and tactful he usually uses the will+progressive construction instead of the simple will constructione.g. When you will be visiting us again?c. Could and might are considered more polite alternatives to can and may in first-person requests and would to will in second and third-person requests.d. In order to tone down a command people usually add please or the tag question won’t you, why don’t you, will you. In dealing with one’s inferiors and children, the simple imerative is very much more frequent.e. In familiar use, this may introduce something new in a narrative.·Lexical markersa.Sometimes, members of the same social or regional group may resort to the use of dialectalforms to reinforce group identification, to show the intimacy among themselves.b.The degree of politeness can be manifested in the choice of forms of greetings and leave-takings.·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonalityImpersonal style is chiefly in written form: the text is regarded as having validity independent of the person who writes or reads it. Thus impersonal style has a distancing effect and is typical of scientific, legal and official writing. Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonality include；A．The passive voiceB．Introductory it as the subject of a sentenceC．Third person nouns such as the student, a claimant, etc.D．Abstract nouns formed from verbs and adjectives·Linguistic markers indicating the degrees of accessibilityACCESSIBILITY means whether a piece of language is easy to understand for the addressee. As the language becomes more formal, more impersonal, more specialized in certain subject matter. It tends to become less accessible to the ordinary reader or listener.Features indicating accessibility often overlap with features indicating formality: Latinate words are usually less accessible than Anglo-Saxon words; and long, multiple sentences are more difficult to understand than short simple sentences.Bureaucratic writings are often referred to as ”gobbledygook”, because they are written in an obscure and complex style, which to some extent may help to impress, to mislead or deceive the public.Varieties according to field of discourseField of discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part. Style is the choice made among the alternative linguistic expressions referring to the same thing in a given text. Varieties according to field are often classified according to the dominant function of language in a given social activity.·The language of news reportingA newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion. The chief characteristic of newspaper is:a. A headline that has dramatic eye-catching effectb.An article within a limited spacec. A material which is most readable and attractiveGraphological DevicesGraphological devices are employed to facilitate reading and highlight what the editor considers important in the report.a.In any newspaper we can find different sizes or shapes of type used for the main headlines, thesubheadings, and sometimes even in the body of the article itself.b.Another important device is paragraphing.c.Frequent use is made of inverted commas to·Spotlight particular terms·Mark out direct quotations·Distance the writer from the reported fact or opiniond.Frequent use of dashes instead of commas to mark off a parenthetic phrase, to link expansions ofthought or afterthoughts with the main part of the sentence.Syntactic Markersa.The need for clarity and readability underlies the choice of different sentence structures in a reportb.Very short news items often consist of one or two sentences, location, character, event, mode, time,cause.c.Long adverbial phrases are used to introduce sentencesd.Responsibility for a piece of information is sometimes dodged by the reporter through the use of thefollowing structurese.Reversed word orderf.Reporters are fond of pilling up modifiers in order to pack in as much information as possible eventhough the information is sometimes not very relevantg.The simple present is used instead of the present perfective and the past tensesh.In headlines, to-infinitive construction is used for future-time referencei.In headlines, the use of the present participle without the auxiliary to refer to an action in passivevoice.j.Verbless sentences are common in headlinesk.Articles and other function words are often omitted or reduced to a minimum in headlinesLexical devicesboring-saving clichésb.Neologism or foreign words and giving new meanings to old wordsc.Evaluative and emotive wordsd.Anglo-Saxon words are preferred to polysyllabic Latinate wordse of initials, acronyms and clipped forms is common, especially in headlines.f.Sound patterning, punning and use of allusions·The language of press advertisementAds help manufacturers and corporations to increase profits, manipulate social values and attitudes, and shapes people’s life style. It influences the policies and appearances of the media, interacts with and affects other forms of communication-literature, art and even language itself. The primary function of the advertising language remains the same-CONATIVE.Linguistic Characteristics of Press Advertisementsa.Deliberate misspelling of words, particularly in brand-naming.b.Abundant use of exclamation marksc.Instead of commas, punctuation marks of greater separative force are used for emphasis and effect Syntactic Devicese of direct imperative to prompt actione of present tense to imply a universal timelessnesse of superlative or unqualified comparative adjectives to commend the product, while avoiding theviolation of the Code of Advertising Practice.e of heavy premodifers to specify the qualities of a product.e of minor sentences to make the massage more striking.e of questions to arouse curiosityLexical DevicesThe study of vocabulary is mainly focused on the exploitation of the associative meanings of words, which may induce the public to be favorably disposed towards a product or a service.A.The choice of a brand name which may produce favorable associations.e of emotive/evaluative adjectives or adjectival phrases.e of technical terms and scientific-sounding words to impress the audience.D.In order to stress the uniqueness or novelty of a product advertisers resort to neologism, andimprovised adjectival structures.e of all, very, always, etc. to indicate that the reference is universal.e of no, none, nothing, never ,etc., for unqualified exclusion.Rhetorical Devicesa.Punningb.Various types of sound patterning and syntactic parallelism.。