词汇学007-stylistic分析

词汇学定义解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.下⾯我画了个图，把上⾯的定义形象的表达出来：12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs indifferent sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同⼀的，完全相同的』 only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。

Chapter 4Word Formation II一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词缀法，复合法，转类法，拼缀法，截短法，首字母缩略法，逆生法，专有名词普通化。

通过对本章的学习，考生应该了解现代英语的主要构词法，这些构词法在英语词汇发展中的地位，提高构词能力，自觉扩大词汇量。

在历年考试中：常常以选择题，名词解释，填空题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。

二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are writtenseparately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning. Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”‟is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other‟s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：“意义”的意义，词义的理据，词义的类别。

1．What is stylistics? Why is it necessary for us to learn stylistics?Stylistics means a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language. It concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties of a language.Stylistics study: a. helps develop a consistent method of language analysis and solve problems of interpretation by bringing into focus the stylistically significant features.b. helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness and acquire a sense of style.c. sharpens understanding and appreciation of literary works.d. helps achieve adaptation in translation.2．How does Martin Joo describe the range of formality in his book?M’s range of formality: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.3．What factors affect the degree of formality?a.S peech situation: setting purpose, audience, social relations and topic.b.L inguistic features: vocabulary; phonology syntax and semantics.4．What is a dialect? What is the relationship between regional and social dialects?Dialect:means language variations associated with different users of the language.5．What are the functions of a headline in a press advertisement?Headline is the theme and center of advertisement, often in the most conspicuous position to attract consumers’ attention. Therefore, headline is crucial to the success of advertisement. But what kind of headline is a good headline? Here are a few suggestions:(1)Hit on what readers like, and make them feel it will benefit them.(2) Try to introduce new things.(3) Use words that could arouse readers’ interest.(4) Avoid using vague words, avoid using privative words.6．What are the functions of a body copy in a press advertisement?Body CopyAfter consumers' attention has been attracted to the advertisement by headline, they will move to the body copy, which is the main part of advertising information, to find something useful. Whether an advertisement has met the consumers’ requirement, satisfied their desire, and stimulated them to take action are the factors to judge the quality of a good advertisement.7．What are the stylistic features of the press advertisement?Ⅰ. Lexical featuresa. One-syllable and simple verbs such as get and make are used.b. Emotive adjectives are adopted to arouse reader’s interest.c. Words are carefully chosen to make pun and alliteration.d. Weasel words, such as help and like, make the use of strongest language possible in advertisements.Ⅱ. Syntactical featuresa. Sentences in advertisements are short. On average, a sentence consists of11.8 words.b. Elliptical sentences are used to spare advertising cost and at the same time improve advertising effectiveness.c. Interrogative sentences and imperative sentences are common in advertisementsd. Present tense prevails in ads to suggest timelessness. And active voice is used to cater to audience’s habit in daily talk.Ⅲ. Discour se featuresA complete advertisement consists of five parts: Headline, Body Copy, Slogan, IllustrationAnd Trade Mark.Body copy is the key part, conveying product or service information.8．What are main components of a press advertisement?10. Summarize the basic requirements for the language of a effective advertisement?11. What are the stylistic features of public speech?Grammatical features:(1). Variation in sentence length, sentence are mostly of the SP(O)(C)(A) structure with occasional ASPOC(A) form.(2). Various sentence type: a. As public speeches are intended to inform ,to persuade, and to appeal, most sentences are statements; occasional questions are used to give the audience food for thought and to impress them.b. Commands can be many, often introduced by “let”.c. Vocatives of a general type are used.(3). More complex-looking group structures.Lexical features:(1). Often use accurate and clear words.(2). Adaptation of wording to particular audience.(3). Less use of phrasal verbs.Phonological features:(1). Appropriate volume and pitch variation.(2). Varying tempo and rightly timed pause.(3). Often seek to use the rhythm of language by their choice and arrangement of words.(4). Public speech is directed toward an audience sometimes very large so the speaker has to guard against sloppy articulation and articulate each word clearly and accurately. In such a variety, assimilations should not occur, but elision can sometimes occur.(5). Full use of non-verbal communication: gestures, eyes and etc.Semantic features:(1). Problem-cause-solution order (attention, need, satisfaction, visualization and action.). The use of pairs of transitional phrases stating both the idea that the speaker is leaving and the one he is coming up to.The use of internal previews and summaries.The uses of signposts like numbers, questions or simple phrase to help the audience keep track of where the speaker is in the speech.(2). Effective ways of delivery:a. parallelism makes the statement clear, consistent and compelling.b. antithesis contrasts ideas in a formal structure of parallelism.c. repetition helps creat a strong emotional effort.d. synonymous words are repeated to add force, clearness or balance a sentence.e. alliteration to catch the attention of audience and make ideas easier to remember.f. figurative use of language.12. What functions does a newspaper serve?Newspapers provide us with news, advertisement, editorials, cartoons, comics, fiction poems, book reviews, and art criticisms and so on. The central function of a news paper is to tell us news (functional tenor), written chiefly to be red (mode); and has different categories and different formats (straight tenor).13. What are the functions of a headline in a newspaper?Headlines play a vital part in drawing the reader’s attention to the news story.A good headline summarizes the story so that the hurried reader can get the gist of a story at a glance and evaluate the news immediately.14. What are the stylistic features of news reporting?Graphological features:Variation in the size and shapes of body types, especially the highlighting ofthe headlines, sometimes juxtaposed with pictures.Headlines often have a variety of sizes and shapes of even a different color.The news story is split into smaller nits-the use of subheadings, very short paragraphs for eye-catching and easier-to-read affect.Characteristic use of punctuation is obvious. Inverted commas are frequently used for direct or indirect quotation, or to spotlight terms for particular attention.Grammatical features:(1). Alternating use of long and short statement-type sentences.(2). Use of heavily modified nominal groups to wrap a large amount of information into the group.(3). Use of simple verbal groups.Lexical features: (use simple, accurate and vivid words)(1). Preference for journalistic words and set expressions.(2). Wide use of neologisms for eye-catching effect.a. words with extended meaning.b. nonce-words.c. coinages.d. words borrowed extensively from sports, military, commerce, science and the technology, gambling or even words from other languages.(3). Extensive use of abbreviation.(4). Avoidance of superlatives and tarnished word ornaments.(5). Avoidance of unobje ctive wording. Avoid the use of “I”, “me”, “my”, “our”in a news story except when quoting someone phrase in a news story should be factual, not tinged with the personal opinion of feelings of the reporter.Semantic features(1). Distinctive discourse pattern: inverted pyramid.(2). Simple way of transition: the unity of the news story is achieved through the obvious relatedness between sentences within a paragraph within a story, or with the use of common connectives.(3) skillful headline: headlines are noted for their wide use of ellipsis with frequent omission of articles, possessives, verb “be’, even content words, so as to shorten the length and to be more concise and comprehensive.a. wide use of present tense to convey a sense of freshness and immediacy of an event.b. future happenings are often expressed with a infinitive.c. composed of nominal groups.d. ing-forms are frequent as headlines.e. whole-sentence headlines even in the form of direct quote or command.f. seek novelty and humor rhetorically.g. alluding, punning, various figurative use of language.style: 1) a person’s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use.2) a set of collective characteristics of language use; language habits share bya group of people at a given time, in a given place, amidst a given occasion, for a literary genre, etc.3) the effectiveness of a mode of expression4) a characteristic of “good” or “beautiful” literary writing.Diatypic varieties (register): language variations associated with the different use to which they are put. Registers may be distinguished according to field, mode and tenor of discourse.Dialectal varieties (dialects): means language variations associated with different users of the language.Individual dialect (idiolect): a person’s particular speech or writing style which result from such traits as his voice quality, pitch and stress patterns, favorite lexical items, and even grammatical structure.Temporal dialect: a variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language: Old English, Middle English, Elizabethan English and Modern English.Regional dialect: a variety associated with various regions such as phonology, graphology, vocabulary and grammar.Social dialect:a variety associated with certain social group. 4 varieties of social dialect: socioeconomic status varieties, ethnic varieties, gender varieties and age varieties.Standard dialect: the variety of a language based on the speech and writingof educational native speakers of that language. Used in news media and described in dictionaries and grammars.Field of discourse:the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of the language user-the type of social activity the language user is engaged in doing in the situation in which the text has occurred.Mode of discourse:the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication.Tenor of discourse:the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker and hearer, and of what the user is trying to do with language for his addresses.Functional tenor:concerned with the intention of the user in using the language.Phonology: the study of the rules for the organization of sound system of a language.Graphology: the study of the writing system of language.Cohesion: implicit connectivity works best for sequence of events and reason.。

第五章 Reference （领会） – the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference， a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons） are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction. Although reference is abstract， yet with the help of context， it can refer to something specific. Concept（领会） – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affected by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language， so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are language in the world. Sense （领会） – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. It is also abstraction. Motivation——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation. Onomatopoeic Motivation – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example， bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks， etc. Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For instance， airmail means to “mail by air”， miniskirt is “a small skirt”。

Stylistics summarystylisticsThe scope of chapter 1What is stylistics? Stylistics is a subject that teaches us how touse language and how to apply different styles of language.Stylistics specifically refers to the stylistic feature, refer to apply to the concept of modern linguistics and its skills, learning a language style used in a discipline, including general stylistics and literary stylistics.What is language, different people's definition of language, the development of time, the definition of language is constantly changing and improving. Language is essentially a social activity.Philosophic view holds that language system is the function and activity of language in society.Words are compared to languages. The word code usually refers to a series of symbols, symbolizing the transmission of information. Thesmall amount of information is the process of translating a series of words into a voice and allowing the receiver to receive the information.The use of speech in speech. Language is constantly used in human social activities, and in the speech is determined by three bad circumstances: the normative, the size and the type of the activity.Language variations and functions: the use of language is influenced by the use of the occasion, and different languages must be used indifferent contexts. Different scenes, different people, different times, different places, different media, different social situations use different languages.Language in this ancient, script and spoken English, have a conceptof function and functional points (a service for expression of speaker, a service) for writing the real world.Style is the key to distinguishing between different language habits. Each person has their own language style. For example, "the salsa style." A style is a person's language habit and a group language.The study of style: the study of stylistics is called style, and the study of stylistics is very early in the west. And stylistics as an independent language specification we need to have a full understanding to him, stylistic study of learning style tend to be more standardized, theoretical, make a linguistic description of the more strict specification.The learning of stylistics is the essence of modern science. It hasto do with literature; She is the continuation and development of rhetoric; He approaches critical literature with a new image andprovides a point of support for it.The second chapter is necessary to study the stylisticsThe study of stylistics helps us to develop a correct sense oflanguage.Language is not a unifying phenomenon. He is a broad collection.Only in different situations can people communicate properly withdifferent correct languages. Therefore, it is necessary to cultivate a good sense of language that makes it easier for us to communicate.The study of stylistics makes it easier to understand and appreciate the work of literature.In critical literature, there are three stages: the descriptive stage, the interpretation stage and the evaluation stage. In literary creation, the author will continue to make the choice and judgment of language, including the choice of words and sentence structure. When we interrupt the regular use of a new language structure, we call it "variation." This is called "repetition" when we overuse a structure. This departure from the reader's mind is a psychological one.In addition to the prospect,Some authors also for some special effect, a large number of imitation, some of great lethality is because they are significant difference between the novel and drama opened the way you talk, use a lot of dialect makes the language more vivid, close to life.Study of stylistics helps us gains in terms of translation, the role of language in different function in a different language series, each kind of display is the same rule of language features, the translation is not enough to simply express the original meaning of a sentence. The translation must conformto the meaning of the language, which should be combined with the structure of the sentence and the analysis of the style, which makes the translation of the language more perfect. In translation, it isnecessary to put our energy in the same height, the same level, as the sentence.Chapter 3: variations of languageIncludes the dialect variant and the language domain variantDifferent characteristics of speech in different bad circumstances make the language different. The learning of language features has evolved, and modern linguistics has been divided into a series of divisions.Dialect variants are divided according to the user's differences; The language domain variant is determined by the use of bad situations.Dialects can be divided into individual dialects, time dialects, regional dialects, social dialects, and standard dialects. Social dialects can be subdivided into socioeconomic status variations, ethnic variations, gender variations, age variations.The language domain includes: the range of discourse, the way of discourse, the concept of the tone of the discourse.Most of our work has to do with our work, which is to use different languages for our different jobs. Discourse means the tools that language users use when communicating. The tone ofthe speech is about the relationship between the individual and the speaker/writer, listener/reader. A series of actions spoken by language speakers for speech purposes are called functional language.The presence of a variation in the language domain helps us get alot of information about a person, such as who we can judge from aperson's accent.The language domain and the dialect are interdependent. Language variants are of great social significanceThe purpose of language description in literature. In this relationship, it is to prove the theoretical analysis. At the level, language can be divided into: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics/handwriting.The grammar level can be divided into grammar and syntax; Grammar is the key of linguistics. In the study of lexical learning, the choice of special terms, the analysis of linguistic level.Stylistic feature mainly appear in semantics, grammar and vocabulary phonetics graphology, in the first level in stylistic feature, semantic features are: the segmental features (onomatopoeia, phonetic symbols, sound assimilation, alliteration/half harmonics), super sound characteristics (melody). A feature (rereading, rhythm, intonation,pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/sound).The second level of stylistic features: grammatical featuresshould be considered in terms of words. The types of sentences are: statements, questions, imperative sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences,sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences Clause/sentence types are: independent, non-independent, non-finite, and sentence elements.Phrases (nouns, pronouns, numerals, non-qualifier and noun structure (noun pre/post phrases); Verb phrase (verb, prepositional verb), passive and abbreviative.The word types have (roots, prefixes, suffixes) the high frequency compound words, composite words, mixtures, temporary words, conversions and pun.The general tendency is to notice six "no matter" and connotation, denotation, jargon, new words, and slang. Notice the combination of words.Stylistics third level: the semantic unit, linguistic connection [word cohesion should pay attention to the turning point ofwords/phrases, grammar structure of ellipsis, substitution, refers to each other on the (refers to, refer to below), vocabulary reuse three aspects], segmentation, discourse/textual patterns, rhetoric (metaphor meaning [metaphor, metonymy], ridiculous words and deeds cheat)/rhetoric/escape situation, semantic role.Note the four steps, the actual description and the analysis of the linguistic description.Chapter v the comparison of formal language of formal languageThe interpersonal function of language, the function that surrounds language, the interpersonal function that speaks language. Further theformal degree of language, functional language and formal degree. There are five levels of classification: informal, formal, z...The formal and phonetic characteristics of the language: the formal and informal language of the language depends on our words, the relationship to phonology, syntax rules, semantics.To establish a similar characteristic, the formal and informal language of the language depends on the vocabulary, phonology morphology, syntactic semantics. The article finally explains the difference between the content of the intervention and the informal language.Chapter 6 comparisons of spoken and written languagesProminent differences: different listening/readers, different linguistic, and different preparation statesThe difference of stylistics: speaking and writing are different in grammar, and different in terms of vocabulary, but also inphonetics/handwriting. After telling the difference between the two, there are plenty of examples to compare thetwo.The more subtle difference between the way of discourse: the difference in lifestyle, the way in which it is written,It includes: style, tone, rangeChapter 7 English conversationThe text tells the necessity of learning how to speak, the necessity of learning the conversation.Learning content of the session: economy, politics, theinternational situation, culture, education, science, sports, entertainment, news, family, children, the friendship, the weather, andso on.Adapt to the way the session is copied. The text lists many examplesof informal conversationsGeneral characteristics of English conversation:In terms of language levels of stylistic feature: grammatical features, preference for short and loose sentence, often adapt toelliptical sentence and incomplete sentences, often adapt to questions, using a simple noun and verb phrase structure; Vocabularycharacteristics, like to use short words and inaccurate expression, high frequency of acronyms, idioms, and a lot of phrasal verbs, use exaggerated words and slang. In phonetic features, the frequent use of some basic metrical features, the rhythmic variation in the tones, andtheemergence of the sublinguistic effects of freedom; A series of viewson semantic characteristics,Rough synonyms, even using illogical languages.Summary: the conversation sometimes relies heavily on the bad background knowledge of the time.Other session types include: discussion, telephone conversation, etc.。

浙江省2018年7月自学考试英语词汇学试题课程代码：10059I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.(45%)1. The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always ______.( )A. motivatedB. arbitraryC. logicalD. unconventional2. Pronouns and numerals are semantically______ and have limited______ .( )A. polysemous; use and stabilityB. monosemous; collocability and stabilityC. polysemous; use and productivityD. monosemous; productivity and collocability3. There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and______.( )A. dynamicB. paradigmaticC. diachronicD. syntagmatic4. Old English is a highly______ language just like modern German.( )A. agglutinativeB. analyticC. isolatingD. inflected5. Old English began to undergo a great change when the______ invaded England in 1066.( )A. RomansB. DanesC. NormansD. Jutes6. The English Language is noted for the remarkable______ and______ of its vocabulary.( )A. complexity, heterogeneityB. purity, simplicityC. naturalness, simplicityD. naturalness, conventionality17. The popular method of classifying English morphemes is to group them into ______ morphemes and ______morphemes.( )A. derivational, inflectionalB. free, boundC. free, inflectionalD. root, bound8. A______ is the form to which affixes of any kind can be added.( )A. rootB. stemC. lexemeD. headword9. In English, bound roots are either ______or______ .( )A. Latin, FrenchB. Greek, ScandinavianC. Latin, GreekD. French, Greek10. The chief function of suffixation is to______ .( )A. change the word-classB. change the meaning of the stemC. change the semantic function of the stemD. all the above11. Affixation is the formation of words by adding word-forming or ______affixes to stems.( )A. derivationalB. inflectionalC. boundD. locative12. Back formation is considered to be the opposite process of______.( )A. prefixationB. compoundingC. clippingD. suffixation13. Associative meaning comprises several types except______.( )A. connotative meaningB. stylistic meaningC. affective meaningD. lexical meaning14. “Much” and “many” have the same______.( )A. conceptB. motivationC. collocationD. sense15. ______ meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.( )2A. LexicalB. ConceptualC. AssociativeD. Grammatical16.______ is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages because overwhelming majority of words have more than one meaning.( )A. PolysemyB. HyponymyC. SynonymyD. Homonymy17. The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas:______ .( )A. elevation, connotation, applicationB. connotation, elevation, degradationC. connotation, denotation, applicationD. amelioration, deterioration, denotation18. A______ term is general and a/an______ term is specific.( )A. hyponym,subordinateB. superordinate, subordinateC. polysemant, monosemantD. lower, upper19.______ have experienced the extension of meanings.( )A. Proper nouns in the pastB. Polysemic words of modern EnglishC. Technical terms in the pastD. All the above20. If a word which used to have a more______ sense becomes restricted in its application in a present-day language, the word has undergone narrowing of meaning.( )A. specificB. pejorativeC. generalD. appreciative21. Many low, humble and despised occupations take more ______names due to ______ reasons.( )A. appealing, economicB. vulgar, psychologicalC. appealing, psychologicalD. non-affecting, psychological22. Ambiguity is caused mainly by______ context.( )A. lexicalB. historicalC. grammaticalD. inadequate23. ______ and______ often define each other, thus forming an important context clue.( )3A. Antonymy, synonymyB. Hyponymy, homonymyC. Superordinates, subordinatesD. Lexical words, grammatical words24. Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the ______ context, and in many cases by the whole______ as well.( )A. lexical, linguistic contextB. linguistic, speech situationC. grammatical, lexical contextD. lexical, extra-linguistic context25. Being phrases or sentences, idioms consist of more than______ word, but each is a semantic unity.( )A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four26. Idioms manifest apparent rhetorical coloring which excludes______.( )A. lexical manipulationB. stylistic manipulationC. phonetic manipulationD. figures of speech27. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the ______relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom.( )A. logicalB. lexicalC. illogicalD. grammatical28.Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English was compiled on the principle of______.( )A. pronunciationB. fieldsC. spellingD. usage29.______is a monolingual dictionary.( )A. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Contemporary English with Chinese TranslationB. New English-Chinese DictionaryC. Chinese-English DictionaryD. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English30. Both LDCE and CCELD are ______.( )A. monolingual dictionariesB. general dictionariesC. encyclopedic dictionariesD. both A and B4III. Complete the following statements with proper expressions according to the textbook.(5%)41. Stylistics is concerned with the user’s ______ of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects.42. Of all the borrowed words in English, about ______are from French.43. Free morphemes and free ______are identical.44. It deserves noting that conversion is not only a change of grammatical function of the lexical item involved but with it the different range of ______that it originally carried.45. Parts of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, these meaning of verbs all belong to______ meaning.IV. Study the following words and decide how each word is formed.(10%)Example: disobey (affixation)46. honeymoon ( ) 47. medicare ( )48. dorm ( ) 49. AIDS ( )50. edit ( )V. Answer the following questions.(10%)51. How are words classified?552. According to the functions of affixes, how many groups can you put them into? What are their characteristics?53. What is the difference between partial conversion and full conversion?54. What are the characteristics of connotative meaning?55. What are causes of ambiguity?VI. Analyze and comment on the following sentences. (10%)56.It is not a home. It is a house.Comment on the two sentences above, and analyze the grammatical meaning, conceptual meaning and connotative meaning of home and of house.6。

词汇学练习参考答案I. Some of the following statements are true, and others are false. Mark your answer by writing T or F in the bracket at the end of each sentences.1. T2. F3. F4. T5. F6. F7. T8. T9. F 10. F 11. T 12. F 13. T 14. F15. T 16. T 17. T 18. T 19. F 20. F 21. F 22. F 23. T 24. F 25. F 26. T27. T 28. F 29. F 30. F 31. T 32. F 33. F 34. T 35.T 36. F 37. F 38. F 39. F40. T 41. F 42. T 43. F 44. T 45. F 46. F 47. T 48. T 49. F 50. T 51. T 52. F53. F 54. T 55. F 56. T 57. T 58. F 59. F 60. T 61. T 62. T 63. F 64. T 65. T66. F 67. T 68. F 69. T 70. T 71. F 72. F 73. T 74. T 75. F 76. T 77. T 78. F79. T 80. F 81. T 82. T 83. T 84. F 85. T 86. T 87. T 88. F 89. T 90. F 91. T92. F 93. F 94. T 95. F 96. T 97. T 98. T 99. F 100. F 101. T 102. T 103. T104. T 105. F 106. T 107. T 108. T 109. F 110. F 111. F 112. T 113. T 114. T115. F 116. F 117. T 118. T 119. F 120. F 121. T 122. F 123. F 124. F 125. T126. F 127. FII. The following are multiple-choice questions. Mark your answer by circling A, B, C, or D which best completes the sentence.1. C2. B3. A4. B5. D6. B7. D8. B9. B 10. D 11. A 12. D 13. A 14. A15. B 16. C 17. C 18. B 19. D 20. D 21. A 22. D 23. B 24. C 25. B 26. A27. A 28. B 29. C 30. B 31. B 32. D 33. C 34. D 35. C 36. B 37. A 38. B39. B 40. B 41. B 42. C 43. B 44. C 45. C 46. B 47. C 48. C 49. B 50. D51. D 52. B 53. C 54. A 55. A 56. B 57. B 58. C 59. A 60. D 61. D 62. A63. D 64. C 65. B 66. A 67. A 68. D 69. C 70. D 71. D 72. D 73. A 74. D75. D 76. A 77. C 78. A 79. D 80. D 81. B 82. D 83. D 84. D 85. B 86. A87. B 88. C 89. C 90. A 91. B 92. C 93. B 94. A 95. C 96. D 97. D 98. B99. B 110. C 101. A 102. A 103. B 104. B 105. C 106. C 107. DIII. 连线题Section A1. J2. A3. B4. H5. E6. D7. F8. I9. G 10. CSection B1. G2. E3. H4. F5. I6. C7. B8. J9. A 10. DSection C1. D2. B3. E4. G5. A6. C7. F8. I9. J 10. HIV. 填空题Section A1. aliens2. intrinsic3. Denizens4. common5. stable6. Conversion7. polysemy8. compounding9. pejorative 10. Reference 11. arbitrary12. imperfect 13. reversative 14. French 15. lexical 16. extension/generalization 17. 1500Section B18. mositure 19. rigid 20. deserted 21. innocent 22. old-fshioned 23. loosen 24. completely 25. similarity 26. indifferent 27. fruitful 28. special 29. essential 30. depressed/sadV. Complete the following sentences by choosing phrases from the list and using them in their proper forms.Section A31. stood out against 32. approve of 33. get over with 34. looking into35. come up with 36. comply with 37. cashed in on 38. go without39. will profit by/from 40. put down toSection B41. close 42. cold 43. narrow 44. cardinal 45. burning 46. capital47. circumstantial 48. cool 49. double-minded 50. fair 51. green-eyed52. happy 53. hollow 54. open-ended 55. random 56. roundVI.1. b2. i3. c4. f5. a6. h7. e8. d9. g 10. j 11. r 12. p 13.s 14. k 15. o 16. m 17. l 18. n 19. qIX分析题（问题）1. As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule. Consider the following conversation that takes place between a waitress and a customer in a restaurant: “You are not eating the fish,” the waitress said to him, “Anything wrong with it?”“Long time no sea,” the man replied.答案：Long time no see is usually said as a form of greeting between two friends when they meet after a long time of separation. Here the customer cleverly employed the structure of the idiom tohis advantage to criticize in a humorous way the bad quality of the food served at the restaurant. Long time no sea implies that the “sea food kept for a long time is not fit for eating.”（问题）2. Collocation can affect the meaning of words答案：Collocation refers to the words before or after the word in discussion, and collocative meaning consists of the associations the word acquires in its collocation. Words with the same conceptual meaning may have different meanings due to the range of words they may collocate with. In other words, collocation can affect the meanings of words. For example, “pretty”and “handsome” share the conceptual meaning of “good looking”, but are distinguished by the range of nouns they collocate with: pretty girl (boy/woman/flower) and handsome man (car/airline, etc.).（问题）3. The “pen” is mightier than the “sword”.Explain what “pen” and “sword” mean respectively using the theory of motivation.答案：(1). Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.(2). Semantic motivation, one of the four major types of motivation, explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. (3). In this sentence, “pen” reminds one of the tool to write with, thus suggesting writing; “sword” reminds one of the weapon to fight with, thus suggesting war.（问题）4. Connotative meaning is not stable. Comment on this statement with one example.答案：(1).Connotative meaning, known as connotation, refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. (2). Connotative meanings are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word in actual context to particular readers or speakers. Thus they are unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period and the experience of the individual. (3). For example, the word “home” may remind one child of warmth, safety or love, while to another child who is often scolded or beaten at home, it may mean indifference, hatred, or even hell.（问题）5. Grammatical meaning, lexical meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, connotative meaning, collocative meaning, conceptual meaning, associative meaning, denotative meaning, formal, neutral, informal, appreciative, pejorative答案：Meaning—grammatical meaning—lexical meaning—conceptual meaning(denotative meaning)—associative meaning—connotative meaning—collocative meaning—stylistic meaning(formal, neutral, informal)—affective meaning(appreciative, pejorative)（问题）6. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.recollection, nationalist, unearthly答案：(1). Each of the three words consists of three morphemes, recollection (re+collection), nationalist (nation+al+ist), unearthly (un+earth+ly).(2). Of the nine morphemes, only “collect”, “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as theycan exist by themselves.(3) All the rest re-, -ion, -al, -ist, un- and-ly are bound as none of them can stand alone aswords.（问题）7. Analyze and comment on the following.He has been sick since this fall.Tell what “sick” and “fall” mean respectively and explain why they take on those meanings in modern American English.答案：(1). ”sick” means “ill” and “fall” means “autumn” in present American English;(2). These words no longer have such meanings in presnet British English;(3). American English has revived the old meaning of “sick” and that of “fall”. This is therevival of archaic or obsolete words.（问题）8. Find blends from the following sentence and give the explanation of which types of blendings they belong to respectively.“There is a set of hi-fi in the motel. ”答案：(1). Blends: hi+fi=high+fidelity, motel=motor+hotel;(2). hi+fi: head+head, motel: head+tail.（问题）9. Explain the rhetoric use of homonyms in B’s speech. Give the two possible Chinese translations.A. “What color would you paint the sun and the wind?”B. “The sun rose and the wind blue.”答案：(1). Rose can be defined in two ways: color of rose and the past form of the verb rise.(2). Blue in two ways too: the color blue and the past form of the verb blow (in pronunciation).a). 粉红的太阳，蓝色的风。

1.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation拟声理据, morphological motivation形态理据, semantic motivation语义理据, etymological motivation词源理据.2. Types of meaning:grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.3. Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.4.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning fromanother, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person;deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.5. 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.6. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. Sources of Synonyms1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application7.What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.8.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaningof a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes9.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation,elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).10.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to covera broader or less词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升格Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；11.词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a differentbut related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation. 12.语境的种类:非语言语境。

英语词汇学英语词汇学习题2及答案试题二第一部分选择题I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket（30％）1. Degradation can be illustrated by the following exampleA. lewd → ignoran tB. silly → foolishC. last → pleasureD. knave → boy2. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of:A. humourB. sarcasmC. ridiculeD. all the above3. The four major modes of semantic change are _____.A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB. extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation4. The use of one name for that of another associated with it is rhetorically called _____.A. synecdocheB. metonymyC. substitutionD. metaphor5. Idioms adjectival in nature function as _____.A. adjectivesB. attributesC. modifiersD. words6. Grammatical context refers to _____ in which a word is used.A. vocabularyB. grammarC. semantic patternD. syntactic structure7. In the idiom 'in good feather', we change 'good' into 'high, full' without changing meaning. This change of constituent is known as _____ .A. additionB. replacementC. position-shiftingD. variation8. The word "laconic" is _____.A. onomatopoeically motivatedB. morphologically motivatedC. semantically motivatedD. etymologically motivated9. CCELD is distinctive for its _____.A. clear grammar codesB. language notesC. usage notesD. extra columns10.Which of the following words is NOT formed through clipping?A. DormB. motelC. GentD. Zoo11.Old English has a vocabulary of about _____ words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,00012. _____ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds13. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of _____ in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin14. A word is a symbol that _____ .A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD.shows different ideas in different sounds15.Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because they _____.A. are complex words.B. are technical wordsC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.第二部分非选择题II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book（10％）16. The same idiom may show _____ differences when it is used in different meanings including affective meaning.17. LDCE is a _____ dictionary.18. Antonyms are classified on the basis of _____.19. The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called _____.20. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited _____.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1）types of meaning changes;2）types of meaning;3）language branches and 4）features of idioms （10％）A B21. grammatical meaning ( ) A. Scottish22. reading-lamp ( ) B. neither fish, flesh, nor fowl23. pen ( ) C. morphologically motivated24. alliteration ( ) D. head of a state25. difference in connotation ( ) E. answer/ respond26. elevation ( ) F. etymologically motivated27. degradation ( ) G. garage ( a place for storing cars)28. narrowing ( ) H. thing (any object or event)29. extension ( ) I. part of speech30. Celtic ( ) J. knave (a dishonest person)IV. Study the following words and expressions and identify 1）types of bound morphemes underlined;2）types of word formations;3）types of meaning and 4）types of meaning of idioms.（10％）31. heart and soul ( )32. father—male parent ( )33. mother—female parent ( )34. city-bred ( )35. lip-reading to lip-read ( )36. headache ( )37. antecedent ( )38. preview ( )39. receive ( )40. called ( )V. Define the following terms（10％）41. specialized dictionary42. collocative meaning43. transfer44. morpheme45. old EnglishVI. Answer the following questions. Y our answers should be clear and short Write your answers in the space given below.（12％）46.What's the fundamental difference between radiation and concatenation? Illustrate your points.47. What is dismembering?48. What is collocative meaning? Give one example to illustrate your point.VII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.（18％）49. The 'pen' is mightier than the 'sword'.Explain what 'pen' and 'sword' mean respectively using the theory of motivation.50. Study the following sentence, paying special attention tothe words in italics. If you find anything wrong, please explain why and then improve the sentence.(100 words)The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.参考答案第一部分选择题I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30%)1. B2. D3. A4. B5. A6. D7. B8. D9. D10. B11. B12. C13. A14. B15. C第二部分非选择题II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)16. stylistic17.monolingual18.semantic opposition19. degradation 或pejoration20.productivity and collocabilityIII. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of meaning changes;2)types of meaning;3)language branches and 4) features of idioms. (10%)21. I22. C23. F24. B25. E26. D27. J28. G29. H30. AIV. Study the following words and expressions and identify 1) types of bound morphemes underlined;2) types of word formation；3）types of meaning and 4) types of meaning of idioms.(10%)31. adverb idiom/ idiom adverbial in nature32. conceptual meaning33. conceptual meaning34. n+v-ed35. backformation36. n+v37. bound root38. prefix39. bound root40. inflectional affix/morphemeV. Define the following terms.(10%)41. Specialized dictionary refers to a dictionary whichconcentrates on a particular area of language or knowledge. (内容1.5分；语言0.5分)42. Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. (内容1.5分；语言0.5分)43. Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.44. the minimal meaningful unit of a language.45. the language used in England from 450 to 1150.VI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below.(12%)46. 要点：Radiation Concatenationi) primary meaning i) first senseii）次要意义由主要意义辐射ii）由此意义连续转换；特点为链接iii）名词语义互不依赖iii）最后意义与第一意义失去联系的迹象47. 要点：（1）break up an idiom into pieces（2分）（2）an unusual case of using idioms（1分）（3）in literature or popular press for special effect（1分）注：语言扣分不得超过1分（语法扣1分，拼写扣0.5分）48. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by words before or after the word in discussion. For example, 'pretty' and 'handsome' share the conceptual meaning of 'good looking', but are distinguished by the range of nouns they collocate with:pretty handsomeVII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write youranswers in the space given below. (18%)49. 答案要点1）Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.（2分）2）Semantic motivation, one of the four major types of motivation, explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(3分)3）In this sentence, 'pen' reminds one of the tool to write with, thus suggesting writing; 'sword' reminds one of the weapon to fight with, thus suggesting war.(4分)50.要点：（1）it is ambiguous（2分）（2）ambiguity caused by the structure（2分）（3）stop drinking can be understood as1）police stop drinking by themselves (1分)2）police stop people drinking (1分)（4）improvement（3分）1）The police were ordered to stop people drinking about midnight.2）The police were ordered to stop drinking by themselves about midnight.。

一、选择1-15；二、填空16-20*2；三、四、21-40选择连线；五、41-45名词解释*2；六、简答46-48*4；七、分析综合49-50*9针对复习：一、选择：二、填空：三、四、选择连线*****1、types of morphemes: Free morphemes; bound morphemes; inflectional morphemes.2、types of bound morphemes：Prefix; Suffix.3、types of idioms: Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence idioms.4、types of word meaning: Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning; conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative meaning\stylistic ~\affective ~\collocative ~)5、idioms stylistic features: colloquialisms; slang; literary expressions.6、idioms rhetorical features:phonetic manipulation (alliteration\rhyme); lexical manipulation(reiteration\repetition\juxtaposition);figures of speech(simile\metaphor\metonymy\synecdovhe\euphemism\personification)7、types of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.8、changes in wording: extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation; transfer.9、types of motivation: morphological motivated; semantic ~; etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~10、语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian（Persian, Hindi）, Armenian and Albanian ；Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek), Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).五、41-45名词解释*2；Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. Morphology : the study of morpheme and their different forms.Semantics：the study of word meaning.Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in their meaning.Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearerLexicography : the compiling of dictionaries.Synchronic study : the study of a word or words at one particular point in time. Diachronic study: an approach to lexicology which studies how a word (or words) changes over a period of time.word: a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.vocabulary：Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine:Jargon 行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. slang 俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone andin-group wordsArgot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it,Archaisms古词语are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.Neologisms 新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.denizens同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.Alien非同化词are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.Translation-loans. 借译词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.Content word: the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary ,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. It is the most important part of vocabulary.Creation : the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a languageAllomorph: any of the different forms of a morphemeFree morpheme: a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a wordBound morpheme: a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut must be used with another morpheme. Bound morphemes include hound roots and affixesAffixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function Prefixation(suffixation): is the formation of new words by adding prefixes(suffixes) to stem Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsDerivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create new wordsRoot: a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identityStem: a form to which affixes of any kind can be addedBound root: a root that can not stand alone as a wordMonomorphemic words: words that have nothing more than a free morpheme Affixation: Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Compounding: Compounding or composition is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way tire called compounds.Conversion：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation .Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversionAcronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFLBlending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a won! plus a part of another word. Words formed by blending are called blends or pormanteau. Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing word.Words from proper names of place, people, trade, book, etc.Concept,is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mindSense : denotes the relationships inside the language.Reference is the relationship between language and the world外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation.Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time. Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in applicationWhat are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or lessdefinite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciativesense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.语境的种类:非语言语境。

浙江省2018年7月自学考试英语词汇学试题课程代码：10059I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. (15%, 1 point for each)1.The differences between sound and form are not due to （）A. the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.B. stabilization of spelling by printing.C. influence of the work of scribes.D. innovations made by linguists.2. All these languages have some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has _____ the English vocabulary. （）A. borrowed words fromB. enlarged words toC. decreased words toD. lent words into3. In the growth of present-day English vocabulary, there are three main sources of new words, the rapid development of modern science and technology, social, economic and political changes; the influence of _____. （）A. the educational systemB. other cultures and languagesC. the government systemD. the society changes4. In a derivational process, an item is converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. The name is _____.（）A. full conversionB. partial conversionC. functional shiftD. zero-derivation5. The conversion of two-syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of _____.（）A. spellingB. pronunciationC. stressD. function6.Stylistically, back-formed words are largely _____ and some of them have not gained public acceptance. （）A. formalB. adjectivesC. human nounsD. informal7. Modern English began with the establishment of _____ in English. （）A. printingB. Bourgeois RevolutionC. Industrial RevolutionD. the Renaissance8. Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of _____.（）A. prefixationB. suffixationC. acronymyD. conversion9. Dictionaries _____.（）A. are used as reference booksB. contain information, spelling, pronunciation, meaning and usageC. list words generally arranged in alphabetical orderD. All of the above10. The dictionaries which belong to desk dictionaries are _____.（）A. Oxford Advanced Learner’s DictionaryB. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary EnglishC. Webster Ninth New Collegiate DictionaryD. All of the above11. The word “neck”in the phrase “the neck of the bottle”is related to _____ motivation.（）A. onomatopoeicB. semanticC. morphologicalD. etymological12. Stylistic meaning refers to the features of _____ of words.（）A. formalityB. affectivenessC. appropriatenessD. part of speech13. An idiom differs from a free phrase in that the former is _____ and the latter is not.（）A. structurally changeableB. semantically analysableC. structurally fixedD. easily understood14.The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is _____.（）A. conventionalB. non-conventionalC. concreteD. specific15. The way to define an antonym is based on _____. （）A. contradictionB. contrarinessC. oppositenessD. relativenessⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false. (20%, 2 points for each)16. In early Middle English period, English, Latin and Celtic existed side by side.（）17. In modern times, borrowing brings less than ten percent of modern English vocabulary.（）18. Compounds are words formed by combining affixes and stems.（）19. Middle English absorbed a tremendous number of foreign words but with little change in word endings.（）20. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.（）21. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin. （）22. Homonyms are words whose meanings are closely related.（）23. Contradictory terms do not show degrees.（）24. The unmarked term of an antonymous pair often covers the meaning of the marked.（）25. Idioms are fixed in structure and so can never be changed.（）Ⅲ.Match the words in Column A with the words in Column B (10%, 1 point for each)26. （）27. （）28. （）29. （）30. （）31. （）32. （）33. （）34. （）35. （）Ⅳ.Complete the following statements with proper expressions according to the textbook. (10%, 2 points for each)36. Middle English lasted for more than three hundred years ：_____.37. The four major foreign contributors to English vocabulary in earlier times are Latin, French, Scandinavian and _____.38. The relationship between sound and _____ is arbitrary and conventional.39. Concept is the _____ of human cognition, and it reflects the objective world in the human mind.40. A word whose meaning was borrowed from another language is called semantic _____.Ⅴ.Study the following words and decide how each word is formed. (10%, 2 points for each)Example: disobey (Affixation)41. G-man （）42. flu （）43. sci-fi （）44. pocket (v) （）45.daydreaming （）Ⅵ. Answer the following questions. (20%, 5 points for each)46. What is sense?47. How do you understand the statement that “true synonymy is non-existent”?48. What are the types of changes in word meaning?49. What are the similarity and the difference between a verb phrase and a phrasal verb?Ⅶ. Analyze and comment on the given sentence(s). Pick out the idiom in the sentence, and point out its structure, grammatical function and figure of speech. (15%)50. She said that his hair was pepper and salt.。