A Stylistic Analysis of William Wordsworth

A Stylistic Analysis of Wants by Philip Larkin Abstract:This paper analyzes the stylistic features of the poem …Wants‟ writte n by Philip Larkin. First of all, the paper states the brief accounts of the auth or and the poem. Then it focuses on its stylistic features: lexis, grammar, phon etics and so on. Last some links between stylistic features and interpretation ar e explored to illustrate the importance of stylistics to poetry appreciation.1. Brief Introduction of Philip Larkin and His Poem WantsPhilip Arthur Larkin, as an English poet, novelist and jazz critic, is a fairl y traditional poet in terms of his use of poetic forms. He is often associated with the traditional poets like Hardy, Edward Thomas and John Betjeman. He spent his working life as a university librarian and was offered the Poet Laure ateship following the death of John Betjeman, but declined the post. Larkin is commonly regarded as one of the greatest English poets of the latter half of t he twentieth century. He first came to prominence with the publication in 1955 of his second collection, The Less Deceived. The Whitsun Weddings and Hig h Windows followed in 1964 and 1974. In 2003 Larkin was chosen as "the na tion's best-loved poet" in a survey by the Poetry Book Society and in 2008 T he Times named Larkin as the greatest post-war writer.Philip Larkin is an acute observer of the social side of English life and is often concerned with death and growing old (LU, 2001). He wrote the poem “Wants” in 1950. In the poem, both of these preoccupati ons can be seen.In the first stanza, Larkin set us in the middle of mundane, middle class English social life. He notes that we involve ourselves in all sorts of socializin g; but even though we fill up our time with such social activities, Larkin sugg ests that such a life is empty and that although we disguise it from ourselves, underneath we really want to be alone. In the second stanza he extends the wish to be alone to its logical terminus, death. He suggests, then, that in spiteof our social involvement we all have a death-wish within us, and that imme rsing ourselves in the social round is harmful in that it is a mechanism we us e to prevent ourselves from coming to terms with death and our desire for it. Unlike many modern poems, this one is not a crossword puzzle; it is fairly ea sy to understand.2. Stylistic features of the poemPoetry as a kind of literature owns some unique linguistic features and it can give the readers a sense of beauty. The famous poem “Wants” will be an alyzed stylistically and the stylistic features will be given in terms of lexis, gr ammar, phonetics.2.1 Lexis2.1.1 RepetitionThe last line of each stanza is a repetition of its first line and the followi ng items wish, alone, desire, oblivion, run are repeated. It is the same with th e prepositions beyond and beneath, which are lexically fuller English prepositio ns.2.1.2 Lexical groupingsMany lexical items in this poem belong to a series of conceptual groups:a) wish, desire, wants. wish and desire are synonyms indicating a felt lac k (in this case a lack of being alone or nothingness!).wants is also a near sy nonyms of wish.b)alone, oblivion, death. These three words all have to do with loneliness. death and oblivion are a rather extreme form..c) beyond, beneath. The two prepositions express remoteness, either horizo ntally or vertically from the locus of the speaker.d) Invitation cards, printed directions of sex, photographed, calendar, life i nsurance, fertility rites. All these lexical items are capable of interpretation as having to do with printed matter. It is apparent that the words and phrases all have to do with social life on a scale from the most general (social groups) to the most personal (relations between two individuals, in this case, couples) v ia an immediate unit, the family (LI, 2005).2.1.3 Semantic-syntactic deviationsa) The sky grows dark with invitation cards(2)The notion of the sky growing dark is a dead metaphor in English, which is common. However the collocation with invitation cards is odd. Here the deviation (along with the generic plural) helps us to suppose an overwhelming number of social invitations (obligations?) (Short, 1984).b) The printed directions of sex (3)Sex cannot literally have printed directions as it is an abstract noun. The phrase could refer to books on sexual positions, instructions on conceptive pac kets or how to calculate female ovulation periods in order to avoid or ensure conception. Short (1984) pointed out that the first possibility, which seems to be the best most likely as it fits in best with the tone of the rest of the poem, help view love making as a mere matter of mechanics. The other possibilities also do this, but to a lesser extent.c) The tabled fertility rite(8)Fertility rites,which obviously have to with sex, are usually associated wi th primitive, nonliterate tribes. Here, however, they are modified by tabled, whi ch indicates that whatever is referred to is written down in a tabular fashion (hence mechanical). That fact that what is referred to here is described as a rit ual reinforces the mechanical associations for sex seen in line 3.d) desire of oblivion runs(6)Desire of oblivion is abstract and it can not literally run. Presumably desir e of oblivion is being likened to a river, and as it appears as subject and acto r to runs, it appears that the individual‟s desire is one which is not consciousl y motivated.e) the artful tensions of the calendar(7)Calendar doesn‟t literally have tensions. This oddity can be interpreted as the possible conflicts between the engagements. The artful tensions are anotheroddity. Artful usually has to do with intended actions, so maybe the events o n the calendar are designed artfully to conflict.f) The costly aversion of the eyes from death(9)Larkin has blended two expressions together. Aversion means a strong disl ike. Aversion of the eyes from death expresses neatly the idea of turning away from something distasteful, namely death. Besides,aversion is modified by co stly.Aversion cannot literally cost money. The costly means the great disadvant age to the individual concerned.2.2 Grammar2.2.1Parallelisma) The middle three lines of each stanza consist of a set of parallels:In stanza 1, line 2-4 each consist of subordinate clause beginning with the linker however. In spite of the colon at the end of line 1 and the dash at th e end of line 4, which separate the repeated lines (1&5) from the middle three lines, it appears that syntactically the three …middle line‟ clauses are all subor dinated to the elliptical repeated clause.In stanza 2 the middle three lines consist of the preposition despite plus a list of definite noun phrases which are all complements to that preposition. T he headed nouns of the Noun Phrase (NPs) involved are all abstract.b) The repeated lines in the two stanzas show similarities. They all begin with fronted three-word prepositional phrase including the word all. The prepo sitional phrases are all separated off from the rest of their lines by a comma.All four lines end with a major punctuation boundary (line1 and 6 with a semicolon and line5 and 10 with a full stop).2.2.2 Definiteness and GenericsThere are no indefinite NPs whatsoever in the poem. Every lexicalized NP s either begins with the definite articles or has a generic nouns at its head. Th is suggests a tension between specific ness (the poet is referring to the specific situation around him, his life) and generality. The generic nouns force us intoseeing Larkin‟s comments as being not just about his own situations but also about modern life in general. As a result, a number of the nouns (e.g. the wi sh) appear to be capable of both specific and general interpretations at the same time (e.g. the speaker‟s wish, the wish of people in general).2.2.3 TenseThe whole poem is in the present tense. Th is aids the …specific but at the same time general‟ interpretation, as the present tense can be used to refer to the specific present situation and also to universal, timeless matters. These tw o aspects of the English present tense are referred to as the …instantaneous‟ and …timeless‟ present.2.2.4 PronounsThere are four pronouns in the poem, which in effect two pairs of repetiti ons in the first and last line of each stanza. All this in line 1 appears to be d emonstrative, referring out exophorically to the situation around the speaker. As line 5 is a repeat of line 1, it may have the same referring function. But in fact all this in line 5 can also be seen as functioning anaphorically--- that is, i t refers back to the clauses in line2-4. As a result, this this reflects the specifi c/general tension said above. The same can be said of it all in line 6 and 10, with the added point that the first it all is also capable of anaphoric reference back to the first stanza.2.3 Phoneticsa)Beyond all this; beneath it all(line 1, 5, 6 and 10)The repeated prepositional phrases at the beginnings of line 1, 5, 6 and 1 0 are similar in that they all consist of three words with 2, 1, 1 syllable patte rn. This phonetic parallelism helps reinforce the structural parallels pointed out earlier.b) this; wish(Line 1 and 5)They embody present versus hypothetical state.c)dark; cards(line 2)Dark has connotations of threat, and sometimes death; card here has an o bvious social reference.d)directions; sex(Line 3) family; photographed; flagstaff (Line 4)Here the assonance and alliteration help bring out the ritual and mechanic al aspects of the personal relations described in the poem.4. Link between stylistic feature and interpretationThe poem “Wants” is characterized with parallelism and repetition. Line 2 -4 in stanza 1 and lines 6 and 10 in stanza 2 are paralleled and Larkin thus i nvites us to see them as being in some sense the same, in spite of the differe nt things which they refer to. All six lines describe aspect of social life, whic h is then contrasted with the wish to be alone and the wish for oblivion or de ath.Furthermore, the three parallel items in each of the three middle lines of each stanza can be related together to show three finer aspects of the social lif e: the social group, the family and the sexually related people. The line 1and 5, 6 and 10 are repeated. The repetitions as well as the deviant, mainly metap horical, expressions in line 2-4 and 7-9 indicate the unreal, mechanical nature of social reality, especially, paradoxically, at the most personal end of the scal e. A further parallelism, the assonance between this and wish point out the gre at difference between the reality and the wish. In reality, man lives as a social animal in guise. However, they all wish for loneliness and death. Thus Philip Larkin portrayed the real picture of that times (LU, 2003).5. ConclusionBased on the poem “Wants”, this essay analyzes the stylistic feature such as lexis, grammar and phonetics and points out the link between the stylistic f eature and the interpretation of the poem. The importance of stylistic analysis makes the readers to have a deeper understanding of the poem and enhance th eir appreciation of poems. When reading a poem, we can‟t just focus on their contents but on their stylistic features since they are also of great help for app reciating poems.ReferencesLI, Yanlin. (2005). The Poet Laureate Philip Larkin and His “Wants”. US-China Foreign Language, 3(12), 14-17.LU, Aijing. (2001). Seeking after the Lost Past—on the themes of Philip Larki n‟s poetry. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University, 17(1), 53-55.LU, Aijing. (2003). The New Artistic Quality of Philip Larkin‟s Poetic Langua ge. Journal of Xiangtan Normal University, 25(4), 94-96.Short, Michael. H. (1984). Who is stylistics?. Foreign Language, (6), 37-42.Appendix:WantsBeyond all this, the wish to be alone:However the sky grows dark with invitation-cardsHowever we follow the printed directions of sexHowever the family is photographed under the flagstaff—Beyond all this, the wish to be alone.Beneath it all, desire of oblivion runs:Despite the artful tensions of the calendar,The life insurance, the tabled fertility rites,The costly aversion of the eyes from death—Beneath it all, desire of oblivion runs.Philip Larkin。

2003年英语专八人文知识真题31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America.[A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day32. The university of Dublin was not founded until .[A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898.[A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to .[A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century[C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the fifth century, the seventh century35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens?[A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times[C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period.[A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.[A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories.[A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent[C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government39. studies the sound systems in a certain language.[A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called .[A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism2004年英语专八人文知识真题31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT .[A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year.[A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992.[A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream".[A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr[C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style.[A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson[C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .[A] international theme [B] waste-land imagery[C] local color [D] symbolism37. Hemingway's writing style, together with his theme and the hero, is greatly and permanently influenced by his experiences .[A] in his childhood [B] in the war [C] in America [D] in Africa38. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. in terms of .[A] manner of articulation [B] openness of mouth[C] place of articulation [D] voicing39. Which of the following words can correct two clauses in a coordinate sentence?[A] Through. [B] When. [C] But. [D] If.40. is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.[A] Word [B] Morpheme [C] Allomorph [D] Root2005年英语专八人文知识真题31. is the capital of Canada.[A] Vancouver [B] Ottawa [C] Montreal [D] York32. U.S. presidents normally serve a (n) term.[A] two-year [B] four-year [C] six-year [D] eight-year33. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S.?[A] Huston. [B] Boston. [C]Baltimore. [D] Philadelphia.34. is the state church in England.[A] The Roman Catholic Church [B] The Baptist Church[C] The Protestant Church [D] The Church of England35. The novel Emma is written by .[A] Mary Shelley [B] Charlotte Brontë [C] Elizabeth C. Gaskell [D] Jane Austen36. Which of the following is NOT a romantic poet?[A] William Wordsworth. [B] George Elliot.[C] George C. Byron. [D] Percy B. Shelley.37. William Sidney Porter, known as O. Henry, is most famous for .[A] his poems [B] his plays [C] his short stories [D] his novels38. Syntax is the study of .[A] language functions [B] sentence structures [C] textual organization [D] word formation39. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?[A] Arbitrariness. [B] Productivity.[C] Cultural transmission. [D] Finiteness.40. The speech act theory was first put forward by .[A] John Searle [B] John Austin [C] Noam Chomsky [D] M.A.K. Halliday参考答案：BBADA BCBDB2006年英语专八人文知识真题31. The President during the American Civil War was .[A] Andrew Jackson [B] Abraham Lincoln [C] Thomas Jefferson [D] George Washington32. The capital of New Zealand is .[A] Christchurch [B] Auckland [C] Wellington [D] Hamilton33. Who were the natives of Australia before the arrival of the British settlers?[A] The Aborigines. [B] The Maori. [C] The Indians. [D] The Eskimos.34. The Prime Minister in Britain is head of .[A] the Shadow Cabinet [B] the Parliament [C] the Opposition [D] the Cabinet35. Which of the following writers is a poet of the 20th century?[A] T. S. Eliot. [B] D.H. Lawrence. [C] Theodore Dreiser. [D] James Joyce.36. The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is written by .[A] Scott Fitzgerald [B] William Faulkner [C] Eugene O'Neill [D] Ernest Hemingway37. is defined as an expression of human emotion which is condensed into fourteen lines.[A] Free verse [B] Sonnet [C] Ode [D] Epigram38. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of .[A] reference [B] meaning [C] antonymy [D] context39. The words "kid, child, offspring" are examples of .[A] dialectal synonyms [B] stylistic synonyms[C] emotive synonyms [D] collocational synonyms40. The distinction between parole and langue was made by .[A] Halliday [B] Chomsky [C] Bloomfield [D] Saussure参考答案BCADA DBDBD2007年英语专八人文知识真题31. The majority of the current population in the UK are decedents of all the following tribes respectively EXCEPT .[A] the Anglos [B] the Celts [C] the Jutes [D] the Saxons32. The Head of State of Canada is represented by .[A] the Monarch [B] the President [C] the Prime Minister [D] the Governor-general33. The Declaration of Independence was written by .[A] Thomas Jefferson [B] George Washington[C] Alexander Hamilton [D] James Madison34. The original inhabitants of Australia were .[A] the Red Indians [B] the Eskimos [C] the Aborigines [D] the Maoris35. Which of the following novels was written by Emily Brontë?[A] Oliver Twist. [B] Middlemarch. [C] Jane Eyre. [D] Wuthering Heights.36. William Butler Yeats was a(n) poet and playwright.[A] American [B] Canadian [C] Irish [D] Australian37. Death of a Salesman was written by .[A] Arthur Miller [B] Ernest Hemingway[C] Ralph Ellis on [D] James Baldwin38. refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.[A] Phonology[B] Morphology[C] Semantics[D] Sociolinguistics39. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT .[A] lexical[B] syntactic[C] phonological [D] psycholinguistic40. The word "tail" once referred to "the tail of a horse", but now it is used to mean "the tail of any animal." This is an example of .[A] widening of meaning [B] narrowing of meaning[C] meaning shift [D] loss of meaning参考答案CDACD CABDA2008年英语专八人文知识真题31. The largest city in Canada is .A. VancouverB. MontrealC. TorontoD. Ottawa32. According to the United States Constitution, the legislative power is invested in .A. the Federal GovernmentB. the Supreme CourtC. the CabinetD. the Conress33. Which of the following is the oldest sport in the United States?A. Baseball.B. Tennis.C. Basketball.D. American football.34. The head of the executive branch in New Zealand is .A. the PresidentB. the Governor-GeneralC. the British monarchD. the Prime Minister35. The Caterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, is an important poetic work by .A. Willian LanglandB. GeoffreyC. William ShakespeareD. Alfred Tennyson36. Who wrote The American?A. Herman Melville.B. Nathaniel Hawthorne.C. Henry James.D. Theodore Dreiser.37. All of the following are well-know female writers in 20th-century Britain EXCEPT .A. George EliotB. Iris Jean MurdochC. Doris LessingD. Muriel Spark38. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Displacement.C. Duality.D.Diachronicity.39. What type of sentence is "Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry"?A simple sentence. B. A coordinate sentence. C. A complex sentence. D. None of the above.40. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called .A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. PolysemyD.homonymy参考答案BCADBBDACD2009年英语专八人文知识真题31. The Head of State of New Zealand is .[A] the governor-general [B] the Prime Minister[C] the high commissioner [D] the monarch of the United Kingdom.32. The capital of Scotland is .[A] Glasgow [B] Edinburgh [C] Manchester [D] London33. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence and later became the U.S. President?[A] Thomas Jefferson. [B] George Washington. [C] Thomas Paine. [D] John Adams.34. Which of the following cities is located on the eastern coast of Australia?[A] Perth. [B] Adelaide. [C] Sydney. [D] Melbourne.35. Ode to the West Wind was written by .[A] William Blake [B] William Wordsworth[C] Samuel Taylor Coleridge [D] Percy B. Shelley36. Who among the following is a poet of free verse?[A] Ralph Waldo Emerson. [B] Walt Whitman.[C] Herman Melville. [D] Theodore Dreiser.37. The novel Sons and Lovers was written by .[A] Thomas Hardy [B] John Galsworthy [C] D.H. Lawrence [D] James Joyce38. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is .[A] corpus linguistics [B] sociolinguistics[C] theoretical linguistics [D] psycholinguistics39. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called .[A] dialect [B] idiolect [C] pidgin [D] register40. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing .[A] an illocutionary act [B] a perlocutionary act [C] a locutionary act [D] none of the above答案31、D the monarch of the United Kingdom 32、B Edinburgh. 33、AThomas Jefferson. 34、C Sydney 35、D Percy B. Shelley36、B Walt Whitman. 37、C D.H. Lawrence. 38、D psycholinguistics.39、C pidgin. 40、A an illocutionary act.2010年英语专八人文知识真题31. Which of the following is INCORRECT?A. the British Constitution includes the Magna Carta of 1215B. the British Constitution includes Parliamentary actsC. the British Constitution includes decisions made by courts of law答案D：The British Constitution includes one single written constitution32. The first city ever founded in Canada isA. QuebecB. VancouverC. TorontoD. Montreal答案A：Quebec33. When did the Australian Federation officially come into being?A. B. 1788C. 1900D. 1901答案D：190134. The Emancipation Proclamation to end the plantation slavery in the south of US was issued byA. Abraham LincolnB. Thomas PaineC. George WashingtonD. Thomas Jefferson答案A：Abraham Lincoln35.Who was best known for the technique of dramatic monologue in his poems?A. Will BlakeB. W.B.YeatsC. Robert BrowningD. William Wordsworth答案C：Robert Browning36. The Financier was written byA. Mark TwainB. Henry JamesC.答案D：Theodore Dreiser37. In literature a story in verse or prose with a double meaning is defined asA. allegoryB. sonnetC. blank verseD. rhyme答案A：Allegory38.____ refers to the learning and development of a languageA. language acquisitionB. language comprehensionC. language productionD. language introduction答案A：language acquisition39. The word “motel”comes from “motor –hotel”. This is an example of “…”in morphology.A. backformationB. conversionC. blendingD. acronym答案C：blendingnguage is tool of communication, the symbol “highway closed”servesA. B.C. a performative function D. a persuasive function答案B：informative function2011年英语专八人文知识真题31. The northernmost part of Great Britain is _______.A. Northern IrelandB. WalesC. EnglandD. ScotlandTIP：选D。

湖南科技大学外国语学院课程学期论文课程名称：英语修辞学论文题目：A stylistic analysis of Walt Whitman’spoem“O Captain! my Captain!”姓名：吴飞班级：教育二班学号：0912010401学年学期：2012-2013-1A stylistic analysis of Walt Whitman’s poem“O Captain! my Captain!”O Captain my Captain! Our fearful trip is done,The ship has weathered every rack, the prize we sought is won,The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;But O heart! heart! heart!O the bleeding drops of red,Where on the deck my Captain lies,Fallen cold and dead.O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;Rise up--for you the flag is flung-for you the bugle trills,For you bouquets and ribboned wreaths for you the shores a-crowding, For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;Here Captain! dear father!This arm beneath your head!It is some dream that on the deck,You've fallen cold and dead.My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will;The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;Exult O shores, and ring O bells!But I, with mournful tread,Walk the deck my Captain lies,Fallen cold and dead.IntroductionWalt Whitman was the first major poet to create a truly American vision and style. His extraordinary example gave American verse much of its subsequent character and diction. Rejecting traditional constraints of form and subject matter, Whitman considered democracy itself appropriate grist for his own poetic mill, inventing a radically different sort of free verse to express what he had to say.Whitman had a strong belief that nature was the root of all beautiful things, whether it was the smell of a flower, or the light of the moon anything that was natural had internal beauty and thereby had the possibility to make humanity beautiful. In many of his poems Whitman depicts that nature is what depicts the true soul of a man and has the power to both display it and control it. These aspects of nature were large parts of the American Romantic movement, which shows Whitman’s relationship to the American Romantics.AnalysisO Captain! My Captain! three-stanza poem by Walt Whitman, first published in Sequel to Drum-Taps in 1865. From 1867 the poem was included in the 1867 and subsequent editions of Leaves of Grass. O Captain! My Captain! is an elegy on the death of Pres. Abraham Lincoln. It is noted for its regular form, meter, and rhyme, though it is also known for its sentimentality verging on the maudlin. The poem, which was highly popular, portrays Lincoln as the captain of a sea-worn ship-the Union triumphant after the American Civil War. While “The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,” the Captain lies on the deck, “Fallen cold and dead.”Ⅰ. At the Phonological LevelMeterThis poem was thought of as the most traditional works of Whitman because of its strict meter, which reflects on the application of iambic throughout the whole poem. “the port is near, the bells i hear”, the meter just act as the waving waves. In this poem, Walt Whitman also adopted a complex pattern, which consisted of mixed lines of heptameter, trimeter and tetrameter. The poem contains three stanzas, and each of that consists of 8 lines. The first for lines is heptameter, while the next four lines are tetrameter or trimeter. Having adopted this kind of meter, the author expressed his deep sorrow completely.RhymeWhitman’s choice of rhymes went along with her strict application of meter. He employed the rhymes of “aabbcded”through this poem.The first four lines are two couplets and their rhyme is done/won and exulting/daring; bells/trills and a-crowding; still/will and done/won. The next four lines used the forms of “cded”, which reflects on heart/red/lies/dead, captain/head/deck/dead and bell/tread/lies/dead.Besides, many words also used rhyme. For example, “cold and dead”,”pale and still”, which had contributed to make the poem full of musicality.ApostropheApostrophe is a figure of speech which a thing, place, idea or person (dead or absent) is addressed as if present, listening and understanding what is being said. In the poem, Whitman used apostrophe in many places. “O captain! My captain!””But O heart! heart! heart!””Here Captain! dear father!”, which had expressed author’s deep sorrow and could easily cause the resonance of readers.Apostrophe is also one of the most important stylistics in this poem. The poet use second person together with first and third person to develop the poem. Sometimes he just like whisper to himself, sometimes he seems to cry to others, while sometimes it looks like he was crying to Lincoln.AlliterationIt has to do with the sound rather than the sense of words for effect. It is a device that repeats the same sound at frequent intervals and since the sound repeated is usually the initial consonant sound, it is also called "front rhyme". For instan ce, “the ship is anchor’d safe and sound.”rhetorical repetitionRhetorical repetition is an instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage--dwelling on a point. In this poem, Whitman adopted this kind of stylistic in both stanzas. For example, in the first stanza, the author cried:”The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting”. In the second stanza, he cried that “ Rise up--for you the flag is flung-for you the bugle trills”. In the last stanza,the line “Exult O shores, and ring O bells” is rhetorical repetition as well. Which had given much power to this poem.The most appreciated thing is that Whitman always combine many stylistic together. For instance, he combined apostrophe and rhyme with rhetorical repetition in some lines, such as “Here captain! Dear captain!”.Ⅱ. At the Graphological LevelconfigurationThe shape of the poem had arranged carefully by the poet. The first four lines of each stanzas are aligning left with no space at the beginning of each line., while in the followed four lines, each stich get two characters more than the before stich. What’smore, the second to the forth lines are the longestones, while the first lines are shorter than them butlonger than the rest of stichs.This kind of arrangement makes the shape ofthe poem seems just like a ship. And at the beginning of each ship/stanza, there lies the word “O/My Captain”. It can conclude that Whitman had used the shape of the poem to implicate his respect to Lincoln. capitalizationThe tendency that Whitman had to capitalize nouns aimed at giving additional emphasis to the capitalized words at times, while being idiosyncratic. In this poem, all the “Captain”s as well as “O”s were capitalized, from which Whitman had expressed his special respect and deep sorrow to Abraham Lincoln.Ⅲ. At the Semantic LevelMetaphorMetaphor makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but different from a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. In this poem, Whitman had compared America which had experienced the Civil War only just to a ship which had succeeded suffered a storm recently, and compared president Abraham Lincoln who was assassinated when the victory was coming to the captain who had sacrificed before achieving at the coast. This stylistic won a great shocking for the poem and made it being one of the most classical imagery in the history of literature. AntithesisIn rhetoric, an antithesis is two sharply contrasting ideas balanced across a sentence. On the one hand, beside the coast there were vast of people with “bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths” to celebrate the return of the ship, but on the other hand, the narrator on the deck was in deep sorrow about the death of the captain. This sharp contrast had brought a dramatically effect. For example, in the first stanza, when the ship has weathered every rack, the people were all exulting, but the narrator was nearly break dow, ”O heart! heart! Heart!”conclusionWhitman had used variety of rhetorics in this poem, especially he used to combine different rhetorics together to make a classical but depressing poet. Which had brought great success to his work and made a great influence for America as well as the world. In this poem, Whitman had expressed his great respect to the great captain of America and at the seem time, he also expressed his deep sorrow to the death of him.ReferencesDongqiming. 2009. English Stylistics: A New Coursebook [G]. Bejing: Foreing language teaching and research press.Hallengren, Anders. The Code of Concord. Emerson's Search for Universal Laws. Stockholm: almqvist & Wiksell International, 1994. 287-301.Trent Lorcher, & S. Forsyth. 2012. Analysis of "O Captain! My Captain!" by Walt Whitma [M].Stanford: Stanford University Press.Voices Visions: Walt Whitman. <n.html>Wilson, Leslie Perrin. Thoreau, Emerson and Transcendentalism. NY: IDG Books worldwide Inc., 2000.任军，2009，《音韵偏离——惠特曼诗歌<哦,船长! 我的船长!>的文学文体学分析》[J].青年文学家（9）:111—120.。

AStylisticAnalysisofTheEagle【Abstract】This paper aims to make a general analysis of the famous poem The Eagle from stylistic perspective.By analyzing its phonological，lexical and grammatical feature，the poet’s intention and emotional effect can be thoroughly understood.【Key Word】stylistic；lexical；phonological；grammaticalThe eagle is a short poem to praise a brave and proud eagle，and to memorize his friend，who possessed the same qualities.This is a profound theme the poet intends to express，and in the short poem，all the technique and aesthetic effect contribute to the understanding of the poet’s affection.He clasps the crag with crooked hands，Close to the sun in lonely lands，Ringed with the azure world，he stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls；He watches from his mountain walls，And like a thunderbolt he falls.The poem boasts of a typical iambic foot，that is，a stressedsound appears after each weak sound.Alliteration lies in “clasps”，“crag”and“crooked”，and the powerful plosive /k/ shows the vitality and masculinity of the eagle，as well as the tough environment the eagle lives in.All these three words include the short but loud vowel /?/，making the poem full of musical effect by way of assonance.The poem is beautified by alliteration，assonance，consonance，greatly strengthening the melody.The word “thunderbolt”is phonetically deviated because it is the only three syllable word in the poem.And when reading the poem，the word is outstanding to break the static scene，making the most shocking sound when the eagle leaves.Besides，onomatopoeia is widely used，for the plosive sound make the tough impression of the eagle more vivid，contrasting with the description of the waves of ocean to imply that the sea is not as tempestuous and lively as the eagle.The words are carefully chosen，especially those describing the eagle and his environment.For example，“clasp”and “thunderbolt”are employed to strengthen the brave and strong image of the eagle.And “lonely”，“wrinkled”and “crawl”are used to describe the environment.In this way，the vast sky and boundless ocean make a contrast comparison with the eagle as his life is far richer and broad.So it serves as a foil to thepowerful and mysterious eagle.To use the pronoun “he”instead of“it”to describe the eagle is evidently lexically deviated，and its repetition in personification inevitably highlight the masculinity and other spirit associated with man.The word “lonely”is used to imply the solitude the eagle suffers from though he is so close to the sun.And“world” makes the loneliness stronger.The“wrinkled sea”becomes not so grand in the eyes of the eagle to indicate that the brave eagle has experienced many difficulties with a broad and proud mind.The last word“fall”instead of“fly”shows a n abnormal action leading to a variety of imaginary.Maybe he is getting down rapidly hunting animals as agile as“thunderbolt”，maybe he is so lonely that he chooses to die by falling down，maybe he is too old to fly，or it hints to his dead friend who could never come back to life again.Different thinking can cause different understanding to the poem，which leave readers more space to digest.The word “falls”not only contributes to esthetic effect，but also severs as the distillation of the content. As for sentence pattern，the second sentence of the first stanza is not a complete sentence as others in order to get the coherence in the whole poem，because the poet eclipses the subject“he”and the predictive link verb“is”to imply the loneliness of the eagle in a static way bygrammatically deviation.Besides，syntactical repetition is used by“He stands”and“he falls”at the end of each stanza，which give more emphasis the hero“he”，producing a great momentum with its emotional appeals to the full.After the whole analysis of the poem in stylistic way，we may find there are so many perfect points in this little poem.The poet has praised the eagle`s characters，such as aggressiveness，powerfulness and unyieldingness，by way of vivid personification for“he”and its surroundings.To analysis this poem deeper，we also could find the deep sorrow in Tennyson`s heart for his lost friend and his vivid expression of his own spirit of braveness，aggressiveness and violence.References：[1]赵?h萍.彭小强.英文诗The Eagle的功能语言学分析[J].南昌：南昌航空大学学报.2010.[2]SHORT，Mick.Exploring the Language of Poems，Plays and Prose，（Longman）[M].1996.[3]LEECH，G.N.& SHORT，M.H.Style in Fiction，（Longman）[M].1981.。

English StylisticsAnswers to Questions and TasksI. Introduction1. What is stylistics? Why is it considered to be a sub-branch of linguistics?Stylistics is a science dealing with styles. It is relegated to linguistics because it studies styles using the theories and methods of modern linguistics. It is concerned with the characteristic use of language by an individual or a group.2. What is style?Style refers to the habitual use of language typical of an individual or a group, including the effectiveness of language use in a particular context.3. Can we call the compositions written by a class of middle school students different styles?Explain.It is not appropriate to call the compositions of students of a class ‘different styles’ because students are still learning the language and they have not formed a linguistic habit yet. As they progress in language learning with time, they will improve their ability of using the language. As a result, the language they produce will be different. Only when they have a relatively fixed ways of using the language can we refer to their writings different styles.4. Name a few types of language habitually used by a group.The language that a group of people habitually use is usually known as a variety—the characteristic use of language in a particular context for a specific purpose, such as news report, business letter, advertisement, poetry, play, short story and so on.5. In what way can stylistics help us in our comprehension of the text?A very important part of comprehension is to get the meaning of a text. A grammarknowledge can only help us to understand the text in terms of its surface meaning. The study of style, however, can deepen our understanding and lead us to go beyond the surface and dig out the hidden meaning or the writer’s intended meaning such as class background, social status, region, occupation, education, political attitude, etc.6. How can stylistics help us in our study of a foreign language?Language is the most important means of communication. We learn a foreign language because we need it in communication. The most difficult problem in language learning is the appropriate use. Making correct sentences does not guarantee our effective use. Without a sense of style, it is impossible to achieve effective communication. As a foreign language learner, we can not acquire this sense of style as a native speaker does. We have to learn it formally and consciously. Once we internalize this conscious knowledge, we can improve our sense of style, which in turn leads to a better use of language.7. Explain how stylistics can help improve our study of literature.Each piece of literature is a piece of art. The understanding and appreciation of a literary work should be based on the study of the work itself. Since stylistics focuses on the study of literary language and explain how language contributes to the literary achievement of the text, it is scientific and convincing. Stylistics will introduce us to the theories and techniques of such intrinsic study, and this will no doubt raise our literary awareness and develop our ability of literary study and appreciation.8. What is the coverage of this course of stylistics?In simple terms, stylistics studies the language in use. It studies both spoken and written varieties, both literary and non-literary varieties, and both long and short texts. It covers a variety of genres. Because of the restraint of the time, we shall choose a few very practical varieties and make a detailed analysis.II. Procedures of Analysis1. What is text?A text is a passage, long or short, spoken or written, which is logically arranged and naturallyconnected.2. What makes a text a text?A text should be coherent. That is the whole text should center around one main idea.Meanwhile, a text should be cohesive. That is all the language units should be naturally connected.3. Comment on the following dialogue. Can we call it a text? What is missing?A. You come back for dinner, Darling?B. It’s Monday, Mum.C. OK.On the surface, the utterances seem not to come together as a text because they are not naturally connected. What is missing is cohesive devices. But put in the context that B is on night shift every Monday, and this knowledge is shared by Mother, the text can be said to be coherent and make sense. The coherence of the text is achieved by pragmatic implications. 4. What is wrong with the following passage consisting of three sentences in terms of text? (Thethree sentences are numbered (1),(2),(3)for the sake of discussion.)(1) I bought a new car yesterday. (2) His father got hurt in a car accident the daybefore. (3) Accidents are frequent nowadays.Although the three sentences are linguistically related, for example, in (1) a new car is mentioned, in (2) the same word car appears and in (3) accident used seems to refer back to car accident. But in terms of idea, the three sentences do not form a whole as a text because the three sentences are semantically unrelated.5. What is linguistic context?Linguistic context refers to the language environment in which a linguistic item is used and its meaning is defined. Such a language environment can consist of a phrase, a clause, a sentence, a paragraph, a passage, and even the whole book.6. What is non-linguistic context?Non-linguistic context refers to the physical situation, in which an utterance or a piece of discourse is produced. The meaning of the utterance or discourse is defined by the contextual factors.7. What are the components of the context of situation?The context of situation is non-linguistic context. It is composed of such factors relating to the user as: age, sex, family background, ethnic group, social status, education, economic status, etc. and factors relating to the use such as: setting, role-relationship, medium, etc.8. Comment on the following linguistic choices and classify them according to contextualfactors.1) What’s the time now?2) How is the enemy?3) Excuse me, but could you tell me the time me?4) Time?5) Would you mind telling me the time?6) My watch has stopped.7)Who’s got time?9. Find an example from any source to illustrate the mutual influence of linguistic choices andcontext.Professor: Good morning, good morning…You are…er…I suppose you really are … the new pupil?Pupil: Yes, Sir. Good morning, sir. You see I came at the right time. I didn’t want to be late.Professor: Good. Yes, that’s very good. Thank you. But you shouldn’t have hurried too much, you know. I don’t know quite how to apologise to you for having kept youwaiting…I was just finishing…you understand, I was just…er…I do beg your pardon…I hope you will forgiveme…Pupil: Oh, but you mustn’t, Sir. It’s perfectly all right, Sir.Professor: My apologies(Eugene Lonesco, The Lesson, pp.183-4)The role-relationship between the professor and the pupil requires more polite language on the part of the pupil. But through the conversation we can see the professor is polite and nervous and too polite for his status. It indicates the unusualness of the pupil. Although the language used by the pupil is polite, it implies dignity and sort of superiority of the pupil.10. In what way do we usually describe a text?A text can be described by its phonological level and graphological level. A text has itsphonological features such pronunciation, intonation, stress, rhethm and so on. The intonation and stress can often change the meaning of the utterance. Graphological forms of the utterance consist in spelling, capitalization, punctuation and so on. The former is to be heard and the latter is to be read. In terms of lexis and grammar, an utterance is the result of connecting a number of words by grammatical rules to convey meaning. The re-arrangement of words may lead to the change of meaning.11. What is the use of frequency in stylistic analysis?The style of a text is usually related to the high frequency of certain features. When the writer or speaker makes linguistic choices, s/he normally has the meaning in mind. The high frequency indicates their preference or intention. For example, if the writer wants to be friendly and intimate, s/he frequently uses informal features. If s/he wants to be cold and distant, s/he makes frequent choices of formal features.12. What is the effective way of making out the sense of a text?The effective way of making the sense of a text is to place the text in a context. Only when the contextual factors are determined, can we interpret the text validly.13. What is norm? How is norm formulated?Norm is the normal practice in speech or writing. That is language use according to conventional rules. These rules are usually based on the language practice by comparison. If in the same context, most people use language in a certain way, that usage can be said to be the norm. Unusual or peculiar ways of using the language is considered abnormal—against the norm. This norm results from comparison of large quantities of linguistic data.14. Look at the following passage. In what way is the high frequency of passive voice related tothe style of the text and its effect?We are now looking at another process. The heated plastics material is extrudedthrough a die in the form of threads. The threads are now drawn through a bath, tocool them. Then they are chopped into granules.This is a piece of scientific and technological English. Of the four sentences, three are in the passive voice. The high frequency of passive voice makes the writing impersonal, objective and formal. The one sentence in the active is concerned with people. In all the rest, focus is put on the material.15. Put the following text in three different contexts and give an interpretation for each.It will be raining tomorrow.In general cases, this is a statement, informing people there will be rain tomorrow. Suppose a class of students have planned to have a picnic in the open-air, this means “We must change our plan and postpone or cancel it.” If one is going to travel, i t asks the traveler to take an umbrella or rain coat along. If a place suffers from draught, this statement may mean get ready for the crop, and so on.III. Style Markers in Phonology1. What is usually dealt with in phonology?In phonology, we usually discuss speech sounds, stress, pitch, tempo, loudness, intonation patterns and so on.2. Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples.1) Words and phrasesshilly-shally super-duper high and mightyfair and square k ith and kin toil and moilpart and parcel b y hook or by crookshilly-shally = pararhymesuper-duper = rhymehigh and mighty = assonancefair and square = rhymekith and kin = reverse rhymetoil and moil = rhymepart and parcel = reverse rhymeby hook or by crook = rhyme2) Titles and headlinesPride and PrejudiceThe Love’s labour LostOf Mice and ManBill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon ManFather in a FixWitch WatchThe Wonder of WaterfallPride and Prejudice = alliterationThe Love’s labour Lost = alliterationOf Mice and Man = alliterationBill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliterationFather in a Fix = alliterationWitch Watch = alliterationThe Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration3) Advertisements--Drinka Pinta Milka Day--Extra Pintas Warma Winta--Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Ex-periment, but still economise.Be bold and be beautiful—but don’t break the bank.--Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision--Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision--Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment,but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful—but don’t break the bank. = (in order)alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration3. The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples is (are) understood as patterned insound on a word (or words) not present in the sentence. Can you explain the function of the implicit sound patterning?1) A chimp (chimpanzee) is named as Nim Chimpsky.2) A man called his tommy cat Romeow.3)Moby Disc—A Whale of a Record shop. (Advert)1) Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a languagelearning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language howeverbadly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such adevice. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal)can never learn the language however hard it is taught.2)Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciationwith the main character in Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master.3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it remindsone of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick.4. Point out phonological devices in the following extract.A creak of hinges and a booming thud at the back of the church indicates the arrival of alatecomer. As the priest turns back to the altar to read the offertory prayer, and the rest flutter the pages of their missals to find the English translation in its proper places, all hear the hurried tiptap of high-heeled shoes on the tiled surface of the central aisle.(David Lodge, How Far Can You Go)In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable.IV. Style Markers in Graphology1. What is graphology concerned with?Graphology deals with types of letters, spelling, capitalization, italicization, punctuation, hyphenation, paragraphing and all other forms.2. Explain the functions of punctuation.The written language is considered to be the graphological form of the spoken language.Punctuations take the place of pause, intonation, stress, tempo, loudness and so on in spoken form. A good writer can always manipulate punctuations to express different kinds of mood, tone, emotions such as anger, happiness, excitement, urgency, warning, surprise and so on. 3. How would you account for the role of paragraphing?As we know, each genre such as poem, pose, letter, and advertisement has its conventional graphological forms and requires different ways of paragraphing. The proper way of arranging paragraphs can contribute to the meaning of the text as well as attract attention and arouse the reader’s interest. For example, journalists favour short paragraphs, re gulations and rules are usually arranged in blocks numbered, business letter and a letter to a friend certainly require different paragraphing, and so on. In a novel, the conversations between characters and the language of the narrator are clear because of the paragraphing. Often just by paragraphing, reader can understand the intention of the writer.4. Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer and comment on thegraphological forms.“TOM!”No answer.“Tom!”No answer.“What’s gone with that boy, I wonder? You, TOM!”No answer.The old lady pulled her spectacles down and looked overthem about the room, then she put them up and looked out under them. She seldom or never looked through them for so small a thing as a boy; they were her state pair, the pride of her heart, and were built for “style”, not service—she could have seen through a pair of stove lids just as well. She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:“Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll—”She did not finish, for by this time she was bending downand punching under the ed with the broom, and so she needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but the cat.“I never did see the beat of that boy!”She went to the open door and stood in it and looked outamong the tomato vines and “jimpson” weeds that constituted the garden. No Tom. So she lifted up her voice at an angle calculated for distance, and shouted:“Y-o-u-u, Tom!”There was a slight noise behind her and she turned just intime to seize a small boy by the slack of his roundabout and arrest his flight.“There! I might ‘a’ thought of that closet. What you beendoing in there?”“Nothing.”“Nothing! Look at your hands. And look at your mouth.What is that truck?”“I don’t know, aunt.”--Mark TwainThis is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Y-o-u-u, Tom!” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard far away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through.V. Style Markers in Syntax1. What are the major elements of basic clause structure?The major elements of basic clause structure is SV(O)(C)(A).S stands for subject which can be a noun phrase, a pronoun and a noun clause. V is the short form for verb, which can be a single verb or a verb phrase. (O) (C) (A) mean the elements are optional; (O) stand s for ‘object’, (C) for ‘complement’ and (A) for ‘adverbial’. For example,SentenceS V O C AJohn found his dog dead in the yard.2. What are the criteria for clause classification?There are usually three ways of classifying clauses, i.e. classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause.3. Differentiate a finite clause from a non-finite clause.A finite clause is one in which the verb is affected by the subject in number or person and bythe context in terms of time. For example,The earth moves around the sun.Zhang set out for the train station at 8:00 in the morning.A non-finite clause, however, is one in which the verb does not change. Such a cause can bean infinitive clause, participial clause or gerundial clause. For example,I heard Mary singing in the next room half an hour ago.He suggested going to the lecture.To be honest, I don’t like the movie.4. Explain the difference between an independent clause and a dependent clause.An independent clause is one which can stand alone such as:The Great Wall is really a wonder!She bought a notebook computer yesterday.Whereas a dependent clause can not stand alone but is always a subordinate element in a sentence. For example,I know that she bought a notebook computer yesterday.That the Great Wall is one of the seven wonders is known to many people across the world. *5. What is situation type?Clauses can be viewed as means of representing patterns of one’s objective and subjective experience in the world. Each of these clauses is called a situation type. All the clauses can be categorized into a number of situation types*6. How do we distinguish situation types?Situation types can be distinguished according to verb meaning, i.e. whether the meaning is dynamic or stative. Dynamic meaning refers to a happening or occurrence, which has a beginning and an end. It may be momentary or durative, e.g.He left for Beijing two hours ago.The students have been play basket ball for more than an hour.Stative meaning refers to a situation thought of as existing, continuous and unchanging, e.g.Who owns the house?I understand what you mean.*7. Name the participant roles in action types?The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).*8. What are the participant roles in stative types?Stative types involve such participant roles as (1) relational: identifier and the identified, and carrier and the attribute, e.g.a. Cathy is diligent.b. Tom is our class president.In a Cathy is the carrier and diligent the attribute, and in b Tom is the identified and our class president is the identifier.(2) mental: sensor and the phenomenon, e.g.The dog smelled the handbag and started barking.In this example, the dog is the sensor and the handbag is the phenomenon.*9. Why do we need to analyse situation types of clauses in a text?In language agency, animacy, dynamic action, mental states and so on seem to be the basic categories to show how hunman beings present the world and their experiences through language. Consistent choice and avoidance of certain types suggests the mind-style of a writer or speaker. For instance, the emphasis of objective or instrumental role manifests the writer’s intention to disclaim the agent’s responsibility as in “Penalty is enforced when books are taken out of the library” rather than “We shall penalize those who take books out of the library.”10. What is sentence?A sentence is the largest language unit, which expresses a complete thought and is able tostand alone; it begins with a capital letter and ends with full stop, question mark or exclamation mark when it is written on paper. But it ends with a long pause or in rising tone or falling tone.11. What is a simple sentence?A simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).12. What is a multiple sentence?A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either a compound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence. A compound sentence contains two or morecoordinating clauses. A Complex sentence is composed two or more clauses, among which one must be the main clause and the rest is or are subordinate clauses. A mixed clause comprises both compound and complex sentence, and sometimes called compound-complex sentence.13. What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incomplete sentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minor sentence is supposed to be “complete” in the sense that it is finished. An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please.(2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture?(4) Why are you late?Because I—Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.14. Analyse the text below, considering such aspects as:(Day Survey written by Phyllis Walden, a housewife, married to a farm labourer.)9 o/c I get up, wash, make tea, cook breakfast and feed everyday. He says he’ll help withthe housework, as Jay has contracted a skin complaint and I have to dress her badplaces’. This takes half an hour. Clear away wash up. We both tidy dining room. Hehelps me upstairs too. Then at 10:30 I start to prepare dinner. This consists of roastbeef, potatoes, beans and marrow all from own garden. Apple pie and custard tofollow.2:15 Dinner on the table at last. I am surprised I’ve not had a ‘wigging’ from himself at it being so long after one o/c our usual time. But I just couldn’t hurry today. We allenjoy meal.3:30 Clear away we wash up together. Children out in garden. I make scones for tea.4:45 Sit down. Look at the wireless programme—Decide to tune in at 5 o/c.6 o/c Rouse to the tune of crockery being put on the table. Himself getting tea ready.Good gracious! I’ve been asleep an hour. Rush to wash and change.Looks verydull going to rain I think.7:30 Put children to bed. Himself sits nursing cat. I curl up in a low armchair. Listening to wireless. Going to get dark early tonight. Raining. We sit in the twilight….1) the average length of the sentences;The passage has 230 words and 32 sentences. The average sentence length is 7.2 words.This shows the style is colloquial, casual.2) the ratio of simple to multiple sentences;The ratio of simple to multiple sentences is 32: 4.3) the ratio of minor to major sentences.The ratio of minor to major sentences is 59(19 minor S):41(13 major S).15. What is noun phrase?A noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as the key word and functions as a noun in a sentence16. What are the major components of a noun phrase?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head andpost-modifier. The determiner can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.17. What is the use of pre-modification?Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines can economize space, and arouse the reader’s interest as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out.Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style.18. What is the function of post-modification?Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in moreformal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.19. The following is a text from From Russia with Love written by Ian Fleming, follwed by a listof noun phrases. Please mark the constituents in number (1, 2, 3, 4).Breakfast was bond’s favourite meal of the day. When he was stationed in London it was always the same. It consisted of very strong coffee, from De Dry in New Oxford Street, brewed in an American Chemex, of which he drank two large cups, black and without sugar. The single egg, in the dark blue egg cup with a gold ring round the top, was boiled for three and a third minutes.It was a very fresh, speckled brown egg from French Marans hens owned by somefriend of May in the country. (Bond disliked white eggs and, faddish as he was inmany small things, it amused him to maintain that there was such a thing as theperfect boiled egg.) Then there were two thick slices of whole wheat toast, a large patof deep yellow Jersey butter and three squat glass jars containing Tiptree ‘LittleScarlet’ strawberry jam; Cooper’s Vintage Oxford marmalade and Norwegian HeatherHoney from Fortnum’s. The coffee pot and the silver on the tray were Queen Anne,and the china was Minton, of the same dark blue and gold and white as the egg cup.very strong coffee from De Bry…sugaran American Chemextwo large cups, black and without sugardark blue egg cup with a gold ring round the topa very fresh speckled brown egg from French…countryFrench Marcans hens owned by …countrytwo thick slices of wholewheat toastwholewheat toasta large pat of deep yellow jersey butlerdeep yellow jersey butlerthree squat glass jars containing…Fortnum’stiptree ‘Little Scarlet’ strawberry jamcooper’s Vintage Oxford marmaladeNorwegian Heather Honey from Fortnum’sVery (1) strong (2) coffee (3) from De Bry…sugar (4)An (1) American (2) Chemex (3)Two (1) large (2) cups (3), black and without sugar (4)dark blue egg (2) cup (3) with a gold ring round the top (4)a (1) very fresh speckled brown (2) egg (3) from French…country (4)Fre nch Marcans (2) hens (3) owned by …country (4)two (1) thick slices of wholewheat (2) toast (3)wholewheat (2) toast (3)a (1) large pat of deep yellow jersey (2) butler (3)deep yellow jersey (2) butler (3)。

校园英语 / 文艺鉴赏Stylistic Analysis of William ButlerYeats’s Poem When You Are Old武汉大学/秦泽昊【Abstract】As one of the foremost figures of the 20th century literature, William Butler Yeats has created lots of famous poems, including the poem When You Are Old, which expresses his love to Maud Gonne and his understanding of love. Stylistics provides us a new perspective to analyze and understand poems. This thesis just applies the theory of stylistics and analyzes the poem from phonological, lexical, syntactic/grammatical and semantic features. After analyzing it word by word and line by line, readers can feel the poet’s strong emotions more easily and profoundly.【Key words】stylistic analysis; William Butler Yeats; poemI. IntroductionWilliam Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of the twentieth century literature. He was staunch in affirming his Irish nationality and maintained his cultural roots. In 1923, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Irishman so honored for what the Nobel Committee described as “inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation”. Fellow poet Wystan Hugh Auden assigned Yeats the high praise of having written “some of the most beautiful poetry” of modern times. Yeats is a Symbolist poet and uses allusive imagery and symbolic structures throughout his career. He chooses words and assembles them so that they suggest other abstract thoughts that may seem more significant. The poem When You Are Old was written in 1893, four years after he met Maud Gonne. He fell in love with her at the first sight and proposed to her four times in his life, but she refused each proposal, even when she was frustrated in the marriage. The poem just expresses Yeats’intense love to Maud Gonne through the elaborated design. As a branch of linguistics, stylistics studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels. It links literary criticism to linguistics and provides a new way to appreciate literary works. Using the theory of stylistic analysis can help us understand the poem more profoundly.II. Stylistic Analysis1. Phonological FeaturesUnlike other modernists preferring free verse, Yeats is a master of the traditional forms. The poem shares the pattern of iambic pentameter (V—V—V—V—V—). And the rhyme scheme of the poem is a (sleep) b (book) b (look) a (deep), c (grace) d (true) d (you) c (face), e (bars) f (fled) f (overhead) e (stars). In the fifth, ninth and twelfth lines, glad and grace, bending and beside, hid and his are alliteration. In the third, seventh and eighth lines, read and dream, one and loved, changing and face are assonance. In the fourth line, once and shadows is consonance. The application of alliteration, assonance and consonance make the poem sound beautiful. Also, Yeats like using words with diphthong, triphthong or long vowel to express strong emotions. For example, soul, glowing ([əʊ]), grace, face ([eɪ]) and eyes, beside ([aɪ]) are diphthongs, fire ([aɪə]) is triphong and read, dream ([i:]), bars, stars ([ɑ:]) are long vowels.2. Lexical FeaturesIn this poem, Yeats uses lots of words to describe the appearance and behaviors of the man and his beloved one. The poet just draws a picture to convey the artistic conception rather than gives his own comments. That is to say, the diction is descriptive rather than evaluative. Also, the poet tends to use simple words. The poem has one hundred words in total. Among them, eighty words are monosyllabic, and twenty words are polysyllabic. In this way, the poem becomes catchier. And there are thirteen verbs or verbal words in this poem. Nine of them (nodding, take, read, dream, bending, murmur, fled, paced and hid) are dynamic verbs and express activities, while four of them (all of them are loved) are static verbs and express a kind of emotion.3. Syntactic/Grammatical FeaturesIn this poem, Yeats tends to use simple sentences. He uses a series of verbs to describe the man’s beloved one. And adverbial modifiers are frequently used, such as the use of gerund (e.g. nodding by the fire) and prepositional phrase (e.g. with love false and true). Also, different tenses are used in this poem. When describing the beloved one’s behavior, the poet uses present tense to make the imaginary scene more vivid and authentic. When talking about love and the love towards the beloved one, the poet uses past tense and talks about the stories. As for the voice, all of the lines are active voice. In this way, descriptions are more lifelike and acceptable, and readers are easier to imagine the scene described in the poem. What is more, sentences in the poem are not as grammatical as those in academic writings. The poet can adapt the word order, omit some sentence elements or only use some sentence fragments to express meanings. The tolerance of non-grammatical phenomena provides the chance of creating masterpieces for the poet.- 253 -- 254-校园英语 / 文艺鉴赏4. Semantic FeaturesThis poem applies lots of rhetorical devices, e.g. antithesis, metaphor, personification, imagery and symbolism. The fifth to eighth lines make a comparison between the man ’s and other people ’s love towards the beloved one and show the differences more clearly. The man loves all of the things about his beloved one, even her grey hair and wrinkle. His love is eternal and selfless. In the eighth line, the poet uses pilgrim to modify Soul. On the one hand, the sanctity and purity of the lady is just like the pilgrims that pay their respects to the god sincerely. On the other hand, her sacrifice for the national independent movement is great and holy. The use of metaphor intensifies the perfectness of the lady. In the last three lines of the poem, love is described as a human. Love can flee, pace and hide, but the man never changes his love. This reflects the toughness of the man ’s love skillfully. Also, there are many images in the poem, e.g. the fire and the glowing bars. They are coordinated with each other. The fire is warm and easy to make people recall the things happened before. Love can be dissolved by time. The man wants his beloved one to understand him and cherish his love. At the end of the poem, the poet uses symbols to express his firmness of love. Mountains mean toughness and tenacity, and stars mean eternity and immortality. Whenever and wherever he is, the man loves the lady so much. He gives her best wishes and wishes her to be happy forever.III. ConclusionThe poem When You Are Old expresses Yeats ’s intenselove to Maud Gonne profoundly and impresses readers a lot. Yeats deserves Thomas Stearns Eliot ’s high praise, the greatest poet in contemporary era. This thesis applies the theory of stylistics and analyzes the poem from phonological, lexical, syntactic/grammatical and semantic features. After analyzing it in detail, readers can feel the poet ’s strong emotions more easily. The poet hires several ways to rhyme, e.g. alliteration, assonance and consonance. Rhyme dramatically adds a sense of musical beauty to the poem. Also, by using words with diphthong, triphthong or long vowel, the poet conveys his strong emotions successfully. His using Anglo-Saxon words, monosyllabic words and simple sentences make the poem sound brief and delicate. In addition, the poet expresses his feelings and emotions more completely and intensely by using a series of rhetorical devices and techniques of expression accurately and properly. By reading the poem, readers can easily feel Yeats ’ love to Maud Gonne and the sorrow that he is refused by his beloved one. References:[1]董启明.新编英语文体学教程[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2009.[2]王冬菊.英语文学概论[M].西安:西安交通大学出版社,2012.[3]李正栓,吴晓梅.英美诗歌教程[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2004.作者简介：秦泽昊(1994.12-)，女，汉族，河南郑州人，武汉大学外国语言文学学院，本科，主要研究方向：英美文学，外国语言学。

1。

______ is the capital city of Canada。

A。

VancouverB。

OttawaC. MontrealD。

York2。

U.S。

presidents normally serves a （an）_________term。

A。

two-yearB. four-yearC. six-yearD。

eight-year3。

Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U。

S。

？A。

Huston。

B. Boston。

C。

Baltimore。

D。

Philadelphia。

4。

________ is the state church in England.A. The Roman Catholic Church.B。

The Baptist ChurchC. The Protestant ChurchD. The Church of England5. The novel Emma is written byA。

Mary Shelley。

B. Charlotte BronteC。

Elizabeth C。

Gaskell.D. Jane Austen。

6. Which of following is NOT a romantic poet？A。

William Wordsworth.B。

George Elliot.C。

George G。

Byron。

D。

Percy B. Shelley.7。

William Sidney Porter, known as O. Henry，is most famous forA。

his poems.B。

his plays。

C. his short stories.D。

his novels8。

Syntax is the study ofA. language functions.B. sentence structures。

毕业论文参考题目1.International strategies of China’s enterprises2.Body language and its impact on intercultural communication3.Nonverbal language and cross-cultural communication4.The importance of intercultural communication in business and daily life5.Dumping and anti-dumping in China6.Thomas Hardy and Tess of the D’Urbervilles7.CP and communicationputer-assisted language learning and computer-assisted instruction9.Ernest Hemingway and A Farewell to Arms10.Theodore Dreiser and Sister Carrie11.Deep Structure Translation: Translating Meaning12.The Significance of Learning Grammar in English Study13.Translation and Culture14.The Importance Grammar in Learning English15.Jane Eyre16.Exploring the Principles of Business English Translaton17.A Research on the Misunderstanding in Cross-cultural Communication18.The Linguistic Features of English Recruitment Advertisement19.Exploring the Application of English Chinese Abbreviation20.Mark Twain and His Adventure of Huckleberry Finn21.Contribution, the characteristic element in American culture22.A brief discussion about the means of English rhetoric23.A discussion about the spirit of freedom and equality embodied in Jane Eyre24.A discussion about William Wordsworth’s love for nature embodied in his poems25.A discussion about Charles Dickens’s criticism of bour geois society in DavidCopperfield26.Discussion on the function of linguistic Context27.The difference between American English and British English28.Individual Differences in Second Language Learning and their PedagogicalImplications29.Good Language Learning Strategies and the Role of the Teacher30.The Impact of Large-scale Language Tests on College English Teaching in China31.HR’s Role in Promoting Business Ethics32.Job Satisfaction Factors that will Grow in Importance33.Demographic Environment for Managing Human Resources in China34.Ernest Hemingway and His The Old Man and the Sea35.Charles Dickens: the Themes Present in His Novels36.. Nonverbal Behaviors and Its Impact on Intercultural Communication37.V ocabulary Acquisition Techniques in English Language Learning38.Cultural Differences and Their Impact on International Occasions39.The Social Significance of Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudice40.The Social Criticism of George Bernard Shaw’s Mrs. Warren’s Profession41.Translating and the Background Information42.On Translating English Book Titles into Chinese43.A Brief Comment on the Several Chinese Versions of Jane Eyremon Errors in Translation : An Analysis45.English Idioms and the Translation46.How to Deal with Ellipsis in Translating47.Cultural Barriers in Understanding Western Humor48.Factors Affecting Communication49.The Influence of Cultural Factors on Advertisement50.An attitude towards Black People in “Gone with the Wind”51.An Analysis of Scarlet (etc.) in “Gone with the Wind”52.Problems in English Learning /Teaching in China53.Learning Strategies and their Relationship to Learning Achievement54.Culture Learning in Foreign Language Classrooms55.Effective Communication in Today’s Business Environment56.Management of the Style and Tone in Business Messages57.Shaping the Message to the Media for Effective Communication58.Influence of the Advanced Information Technology on Communication in theBusiness World59.Encoding and Decoding of Messages among Peoples of Diversified Cultures60.Business Communication in the Age of Information Technology61.Media Selection and Communication Efficiency62.A Great Woman---Jane Eyre63.The Symbol of Tess of the D’Urbervilles64.D.H. 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A Study of Trademark Translation from the Cultural Perspective169.The Application of Domestication and Foreignization to the Translation of English Advertisements170. A Study of the Translation of English Advertisements from the Cultural Perspective171.On the Translation of Titles of English Commercial Movies172.An Analysis of the Causes of Macbeth’s Tragedy in Shakespeare’s Macbeth莎士比亚《麦克白》中麦克白悲剧的成因之分析173. A Thematic Study of Mark Twain’ s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn马克·吐温《哈克贝利·弗恩历险记》的主题探索174.The Other American Dream-Interpreting Washington Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle”别样的美国梦－解析华盛顿·欧文的《瑞普·凡·温克尔》175.On The Characteristics of Gatsby in Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby菲茨杰拉德《了不起的盖茨比》中盖茨比的性格分析176. A Comparative Study of ____ and _____ 中英两部小说(主题或主人公)的比较性研究177.On the Dual Nature of the Character of Heath cliff in Wuthering Heights178.Reason and Passion: A Study of the Novel Wuthering Heights179.An Analysis of the Tragedy of Catherine in Wuthering Heights180.Darcy’s Transformation in Pride and Prejudice181.Elizabeth and Her Marriage—A Feministic Study of Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudiceparison between chinese and American corporate culturesparision between Chinese and American Education System184.Brief comment on Moyan's works185.The Dark Half of Human nature (the tales of two cities )186. A study on how sound affects sense in poetry187.Intercultural Communication on Business Context188.An overview of Non-verbal Signs in Intercultural Communication pliments in Chinese and American Cultures: On Pragmatic 190.On Body Language in Intercultural Communication191.Effect on Translation from Different English-Chinese Modes of Thinking。

本科生论文题目：1.影视翻译的特点Features of Screen Translation2.从关联理论的视角看双关语的翻译Translation of Pun: the RelevanceTheory Perspective3.从关联理论的视角看移就辞格的翻译Translation of Transferred Epithet:the Relevance Theory Perspective英汉"死亡"隐喻对比研究 A Contrastive Study of "Death" Metaphor in Chinese and English英汉"死亡"委婉语对比研究A Contrastive Study of "Death" Euphemism in Chinese and English英汉人体隐喻对比研究A Contrastive Study of Body Metaphor in Chinese and English英汉多义词"心"的对比研究A Contrastive Study of "Heart" in English and "Xin" in Chinese英汉语言禁忌对比研究A Contrastive Study of Verbal Taboo in Chinese and English英汉语言中的性别歧视Gender Discrimination in Chinese and English 体态语在跨文化交际中的意义差异Semantic Difference of Body Language in Cross-cultural Communication论翻译的不确定性The Indeterminacy of Translation论译者的主体性Subjectivity of the Translator菲勒斯中心主义(男性中心主义) 在《爱情谬误》一文中的投影Phallocentricism in Love Is a Fallacy论《爱丑之欲》一文中的文体突出Stylistic Foregrounding in Libido for the Ugly龚玲讲师硕士英美文学论《坎特伯来故事集》中的人物刻画 On Characterization in The Canterbury TalesHamlet悲剧形象剖析An Analysis of the Tragic Image Hamlet试论《失乐园》中Satan的形象On the Image of Satan in Paradise Lost Fielding小说的现实主义意义The Realistic Significance of Henry Fielding's Fiction《傲慢与偏见》中经济对婚姻的影响The Economic Influence on Marriage in Pride and Prejudice《德伯家的苔丝》中的原型研究 An Archetype Study on Tess of theD'Urbervilles福克纳的南方情结---《致爱丽斯的一朵玫瑰花》William Faulkner's Southern Complex: Based on A Rose for Emily桑提亚哥——海明威笔下的硬汉Santiago: A typical Hemingway's Hero论《呼啸山庄》的叙事结构On the Narrative Structure in Wuthering Heights 论Robert Frost的诗歌创作On Robert Frost's Poetry《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征Symbolism in The Great Gatsby简·爱与女权运动Jane Eyre and Feminist Movement论《呼啸山庄》的爱与恨On Love and Hatred in Wuthering Heights《呼啸山庄》与哥特传统Wuthering Heights and the Gothic Tradition华滋华斯诗歌的自然观On William Wordsworth's Naturalism论马克吐温的幽默On the Humor of Mark Twain由《西风颂》看雪莱的诗歌创作观Percy Bysshe Shelley's Views on Poetry Writing Based on Ode to the West Wind论叶芝诗歌中的宗教思想On Religions Thoughts in W. B. Yeats' Poetry劳伦斯笔下的女性形象On the Female Characters in D. H. Laurence's Fiction 解读爱略特的《荒原》Reading T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land肖伯纳和曹禺戏剧作品之比较A Comparative Study of Bernard Shaw and Caoyu's Dramas曾立教授广告英语和英语教学广告英语转义修辞运用初探A Study of Tropes in Advertising English广告与科技文体准确行文特征对比研究Preciseness in the Conveyance of Information: A comparative Study of Advertising and Scientific Writings 广告中幽默手法的运用及其效用Humor in Advertising:Its Use and Impact on Ad Effectiveness广告祈使句与广告劝说功能How the Imperative Is Used to Achieve Advertising Persuasiveness试析英语写作汉式英语产生的根源An Analysis of the Causes of Chinglish in English Writing利用E-mail, BBS 和 WWW促进英语写作教学On the Integration of English Writing Teaching with E-mail, BBS and WWW英语课堂中的文化教学Culture Teaching in an EFL Class论交际英语课堂教学的活动衔接On the Cohesiveness between Activities in a Communicative English Class论中国英语专业学生词汇学习策略On Vocabulary Learning Strategy for Chinese English Majors文化差别与语用歧义Cultural Differences and Pragmatic Ambiguity试析广告标题中的图文修辞现象A Study of Verbal-Visual Rhetorical Figures in Ad Headlines论广告图文隐喻的认知学理椐On the Semiotic and Cognitive Bases of Verbal-Visual Metaphor in Advertisement文体意识与翻译教学Style Awareness and Translation Teaching试论体语的交际功能On the Communicative Function of Body Language听力理解中的形式逻辑问题研究(On Formal Logic in listening comprehension of English)2,论听力理解与中的意图推理(On intentional reasoning in listening comprehension of English) 3,听力理解与词汇语义逻辑关联(On relations between listening comprehension and semantics) 4,听力能力培养与词汇教学(on the cultivation of listening and teaching of vocabulary)5,词汇认知观照下的听力能力培养(Cultivation of listening in the light of word studying)6,论词汇在翻译中的作用(On the function of words in translation)7,论语法在翻译中的作用(On the function of grammar in translation)8,翻译中的美学思想探讨(research into the aesthetic idea in translation)9,翻译与翻译美学刍议(On the translation and its theory of aesthetics)10,翻译与翻译美学表现形式初论(On translation and its presentation)11,论翻译中不同文化形象转换(On the transfer of different cultural images in translation) 12,翻译与认知语言学研究(On translation and the cognitive linguistics)13,翻译与语用学研究(Study on translation and pragmatics)14,翻译与语义学研究(Probe into the study of translation and semantics)15,翻译心理研究(On translation psychology)16,翻译心理对译文质量作用的研究(Research into the effect of psychology on translation text) 17,翻译心理表现初探(On the presentation of psychology in translation)18,翻译心理与语言心理研究(Study on translation and language psychology)19,翻译心理的文化取向研究(Study on orientation of culture in translation)20,翻译心理的语言习惯取向研究(Study on orientation of language habit in translation)姚雪椿副教授语言学与应用语言学刍议外报外刊阅读与英语阅读能力的培养On Reading Foreign Newspapers and Magazines and Reading Ability Training广告英语双关修辞初探pun in advertising English英语时态和语言中的情态tenses and mood in English language商务英语词汇记忆策略研究an exploration of business English vocabularies learning strategies 英语定语比较与定语从句翻译difference between attributive in Chinese and English and how to translate English attributive clauses A Brief Discussion on the Special Words in Business English英语教学中学生兴趣的激发Cultivation of Students' Interest in English Teaching现代商务英语的界定和内涵The Definition and Connotation of Modern Business English论商务英语对汉语的影响On the Influence of Chinese on Business English商务英语中俚语的风格及翻译On the Style of Slang and its Translation in Business English商务英语创新教学和能力的培养Innovative Teaching and Competence Fostering in Business English商务英语与案例教学法Business English and Case Study Teaching Method怎样组织英语语言学教学中的课堂讨论How to Organize Linguistic Seminars in China商务英语翻译原则与技巧Translation methods and Principles of Business English语用策略与言语行为研究Study of Pragmatic strategies and Speech Act袖珍电子词典对英语专业学生学习英语的影响探析Influence of Pocket Electronic Dictionary for English Majors怎样充分利用第二课堂活动来提高学生语言技能与运用能力How to Make Full Use of the Extra Curriculum to Improve Students' Language Skills their Applying Ability英语臆造商标词初探A Study of English Coined Trademark Words网络交际语言情感符初探A Study of Emoticon in E-language英文电子书信文体特征分析A Stylistic Analysis of English E-mail Writings网络英文广告文体特征分析A Stylistic Analysis of On-line English Advertisements广告英语省略现象初探A Study of Ellipsis in Advertising English中国古诗翻译探析An Analytical Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems图文配合广告的构成与解读Verbal-Visual Advertising: Its Construction and Understanding试论《呼啸山庄》中的象征主义On the Symbolism in Wuthering Heights大卫·科波菲尔的人物性格分析Character Analysis of David Copperfield试析莎士比亚十四行诗的艺术特色On the Artistic Features of Shakespeare's Sonnets试析哈代对英国诗歌之贡献On Hardy's Contributions to English Poetry苔丝的人物悲剧命运初探On the Tragic Fate of Tess罗伯特弗洛斯特几首著名诗作的分析An Analysis of Several Robert Frost's Famous Poems欧内斯特海明威小说中的悲剧色彩The Tragic Color of Ernest Hemingway's Novels马克吐温:一位幽默大师Mark Twain: A Humorist亨利·詹姆斯作品中的心理描写On the Psychological Descriptions in Henry James' NovelsD. H. 劳伦斯小说中女性人物形象分析An Analysis on Women Images in D.H. Lawrence's Novels济慈诗歌中的神话典故Mythic Allusions in John Keats' Poetry爱米丽·迪金森的诗歌艺术特色On Artistic Features of Emily Dickinson's Poetry论华兹华斯诗歌中的孤寂主题On the Theme of Solitude in William Wordsworth's Poems《嘉丽妹妹》的主题分析Comments on the Themes of Sister Carrie试论爱玛的人物性格特征On the Character of Emma简·奥斯汀小说中的爱情婚姻观Attitude toward Love and Marriage in Jane Austen's Novels 欧·亨利短篇小说主题分析The Thematic Analysis of O' Henry's Short Stories《白鲸》中的象征主义手法The Symbolical Methods in Moby Dick杰克·伦敦《海狼》的心理分析Psychoanalysis of Jack London's The Sea Wolf弥尔顿诗歌中的圣经人物形象分析Analysis of Biblical Characters in Milton's Poetry广告英语语言特点分析Analysis on the Language Peculiarities of English Advertisement英汉习语的文化差异及翻译The Cultural Difference and Translation of English and Chinese idioms英汉仿词在广告中的运用Application of Parody Words in English and Chinese Advertisement 英语流行语的文化因素Cultural Factors of English Catchwords浅谈非语言交际中的身势语Body Language in Non verbal Communication英语典故性成语的来源与汉译Derivation and Translation of English Phrasal Literary Quotations 商务英语在中国加入WTO后的新趋势New Trends of Commercial English after China's Entrance to WTO浅谈商贸活动中的会话原则On the Cooperative Discourse Principles in Commercial Activities 科技英语中的语篇衔接On Textual Cohesion of Scientific English中美英文报纸标题和导语的语言选择Language Choice in the Headlines and Guidelines of English Newspapers in China and the U.S.从衔接和连贯谈阅读教学Teaching of Reading Comprehension from the Perspective of Cohesion and Coherence试谈如何使用模拟辩论英语口语教学法The Teaching Methods by Means of Simulating Debate on Spoken English英语语言中的性别歧视及其消除Sexual Discrimination in the English Language and Their Elimination连贯和EFL写作教学Coherence and the Teaching of EFL Writing英语广告中祈使句的功能分析Functional Analysis of a Piece of English Advertisement新闻写作之功能分析Functional Analysis of Journalistic Writing从功能语法角度分析演讲词的语境和衔接Analysis on Textual Context and Cohesion in Speech Writing英语教学中的文化意识Culture Consciousness in the English Language Teaching文化差异与英语词汇教学Cultural Difference and Teaching of English Vocabulary英语教学中汉文化的参与和渗透Participation and Penetration of Chinese Culture in the English Language Teaching周文伟讲师硕士语言学和跨文化交际/大学生英语语用能力研究An Investigation of the Pragmatic Abilities of College Students合作原则与会话含意Cooperative Principles and Conversational Implicature 从"龙"与"dragon"的对译说开去娱乐短信的语用分析语用学中的省力原则语用原则在跨文化交际中的体现合作原则在××文本中的运用Implementation of Co-operative Principles in ××---- A Case Study 话语信息与会话含意的理解语用迁移与语用失误对跨文化交际的影响中介语的语用迁移效应在外语教学\学习中的作用会话含意的认知语言学基础语境再现在阅读理解中的作用语言运用中的性别差异及其根源××词义新探An Investigation into the Meanings of ××英汉语中称谓的差异及其成因论形体语言在交际中的作用Functions of Body Language in Communication英汉语歧义现象研究A Study on Ambiguities in English and Chinese英汉姓名的文化阐释Cultural Interpretations of English and Chinese Names××小说/诗歌的语言特点Language Features of ××'s Novels / Poems英汉指示语的对比分析A Comparative Study on Deictics between English and Chinese石翀讲师硕士语言学和语法交际性语言与英语课堂语境构建Communicative language and the Construction of English Classroom Context话语标记语与英语课堂语境构建Discourse Markers and the Construction of English Classroom Context旅游景点门票的翻译On the translation of Scenic Spot Tickets of Travelling旅游景点门票翻译的语用失误On the Pragmatic Errors of the Translation of Scenic Spot Ticket 高速公路公示牌翻译的语用失误On the Pragmatic Errors of the Translation of Expressway Public Notices语义场与英语词汇教学Semantic Field and English V ocabulary Teaching手机短信的语言特色On the Language Features of Mobilephone Messages利奇的七种意义在英语教学中的作用On the Functions of Leech's Seven Types of Meaning in English teaching新闻英语标题的词汇特点与语境阅读The Lexical Features of Journalistic English Headlines and Context Reading词的理据与文化Word Motivation and Culture多媒体网络教学之利弊探讨The Exploration of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Multimedia Network Teaching论网络语言的规约性On the Conventioanlity of Internet Language战争对语言变异的影响On the Influence of Wars on Language Variation英汉语篇阅读模式差异对英语写作的影响The Influence of English and Chinese Context Patterns on English Writing隐喻与多义词教学Metaphor and the Teaching of polysemes网络语言——汉语的进化还是退化Internet Language---Evolution or Deterioration of Chinese。

A Stylistic Analysis of William Blake’s Poem“The Tyger”Abstract: William Blake’s The Tyger is considered one of his best poems for its marvelous use of illusion and symbols and its musical beauty. In the thesis, the author attempts to make a stylistic analysis of this poem, and the analyses will focus on the phonological, graphological, lexical, syntactical and semantical levels of the poem.Key words: William Blake; the Tyger; stylisticIntroductionWilliam Blake, poet, painter, and visionary, was considered by many one the forerunners of British Romanticism, whose most poems are concerned with creation and full of romantic elements. Among his works, Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience are two famous ones. The Tyger, one poem in Songs of Experience, has been described by one critic as Blake’s most fully developed art --- a process using small revelations leading to greater discoveries through profound use of symbol.Born into a time when the society was experiencing great changes---the Industrial Revolution, Blake was amazed and astonished the creation as well as the destruction the power of the revolution can bring. In this poem, by bringing forth the central image the tiger and describe both the tiger and the creation of the tiger, Blake poses many questions without answering them, leaving the readers to think.In order to get his ideas across, Blake uses many unique techniques in this poem to get the effect of foregrounding if considered under the term of stylistics. So in the following part of the thesis, we will deal with the stylistic features in details at four levels: phonological, graphological, lexical and semantic respectively.I. At the Phonological LevelMeterIn this poem, William Blake adopted the trochaic tetrameter in the whole poem so as to imitate the sound in a forge and set the dignified and stately tone for the whole poem:_V_V_V__V_V_V__V_V_V__V_V_V_By deliberately making the stress sounds fall into the more important words,Blake expresses the power and strength of the tiger, and adds to the musical beauty when reading it.RhymeThe rhythmical sounds in this poem is achieved by the use of regular end rhymes,which is presented by the rhyme pattern aabb ccdd eeff gghh iijj aabb, and such figures of speech as alliteration and repetition.Every two lines have the same end rhyme(bright/night, eye/symmetry,skies/eyes ) and most of the rhymes are masculine rhymes(bright/night, art/heart,see/thee), which strengthen the image of the tiger with an overwhelming momentum; repetition is used for the subject discussed(Tyger! Tyger ) and also the first stanza and the last one are identical so that readers can feel the power of the beast from the very beginning; Blake also employs alliteration abundantly(burning bright, what wings, distant deeps, began to beat, dare its deadly terror clasp, frame thy fearful symmetry ), among which many stops such as /b/ /d/ /t/ /p/ are used to imitate the sound of the hammer, thus paint a vivid image in front of the reader of the making of the tiger, also give them a hint of the destructive force of the beast.II. At the Graphological LevelFormatThe whole poem contains six stanzas and each stanze is a quatrain, adding that the first stanza and the last one are identical, so the poem has a beauty of uniformity in the term of the form. Also the repetition of the stanzas makes the theme profound. PunctuationThrough the unconventional use of punctuation, particularly the question mark, Blake in this poem uses twelve whats(what dread hand? And what dread feet? ) to pose questions to create an atmosphere of mystery, giving the image of the tiger a mysterious and religious color. The exclamations used to address the tiger(Tyger! Tyger! ) help to emphasize the urgency of the question.CapitalizationIn the whole poem, except the first word of each line and the beginning of a sentence, there is still one word capitalized(Lamb in line 20 ), which probably is the intertextuality with Blake’s another poet The Lamb. By the contrast between the tiger and the lamb, Blake emphasizes the strength and the dark power of the former, also by pointing out that both the powerful tiger and the weak lamb are created by the some God, Blake expresses the divine power of the Creator.III.At the Lexical LevelPoetic and archaic wordsMany poetic words are employed by Blake to make the poem elegant and poetic(deeps, aspire, art, symmetry), also the words some times are chosen according to the end rhyme.Archaic words can be found in the poem(tyger/tiger, dread/dreadful, thy/your,thine/yours, thee/you ).Short and powerful wordsWords to show strength and speed (frame, aspire, seize, clasp, make,twist) ,words to show the process of making the tiger (hammer, chain, furnace, anvil) and words to describe the fire (fire, bright, burn) are used not only to express the power of the tiger but also to create the scene of making the tiger so as to emphasize the even greater power of the Creator.I V. At the Semantic LevelSymbolismSome words in this poem bore symbolic meanings. The tiger (the central image in the poem) is considered by many as representing the dark shadow of the human soul. This is the beastly part of ourselves that we would prefer to keep only in our dreams at night. Night(line 2 ) in Blake's poetry often seems to suggest this sort of dream time. The forests(line 2 ) might represent the wild landscape of our imagination under the influence of this beast. The heart (line 10) represents not only the biological engine of the tiger, but perhaps its passion for living.AllusionBlake also employs allusion in this poem since it is somewhat concerned with religion. For example, on what wings dare he aspire (line 7 ) is an allusion from Milton’s Paradise Lost;seize the fire ( line 8) could be a possible reference to Prometheus; and when the stars threw down their spears, and water’d heaven with their tears( lines 17 and 18) is an allusion to Satan and his angels and also to the God of Old Testament. It could be debated that Blake argues here that the Fallen Archangel Lucifer is the creator of the tiger, or the beastly part of our own nature. The abundant use of allusion adds to the ambiguity of the poem, thus leads to many versions of interpretation of this poem.ConclusionIn this thesis, we have given a careful analysis to William Blake’s The Tyger from the stylistic perspective. First, by giving an elaborate account of the phonological characteristics of the poem, we are able to get a more comprehensive understanding of the role the sound patterns played in a poem and the stately momentum created by the use of certain phonological devices such as the use ofarchaic tetrameter, alliteration and repetition. Then, we have looked into the graphological features of this poem so that we have got a better understanding of the theme. Next,through the continuous analysis of the diction of the poem, we are able to get a clear picture of the careful and deliberate choice of the short and powerful words that described the tiger and the creating of the tiger, which helped to highlight the idea the poet wants to convey, that is, the tiger has fury and grounds to believe in its own strength and it could be understood as similar to our psychological view of the ego which is the part of us that believes in its own power, in its own vision, and the creator of this powerful creature is awesome in its own right. Finally, we have analyzed the semantic characteristics, which mainly concern with the figures of speech the poem employed, which, in this case, is symbolism and allusion particularly.After this stylistic study of William Blake’s The Tyger, we are able to have a more comprehensive understanding both this poem and the importance of stylistics in analyzing and appreciating poems.References康利英. 2012.从文体学角度分析威廉·布莱克诗歌《老虎》隐喻意义的体现——以威廉·布莱克的《老虎》为例[J]. 忻州师范学院学报,(6):68-70.李菁菁. 2012.歌唱光明与驱逐黑暗的统一——布莱克的“羔羊”意象与“老虎”意象解析[J]. 大众文艺,(21):34-37.刘云雁,吴虹. 2012.威廉·布莱克诗歌的泛神主义倾向[J]. 湖南大学学报(社会科学版),(1):111-114.唐梅秀. 2010.威廉·布莱克:文化边缘的履冰者——《老虎》与《羔羊》诗的互文性解读[J]. 长沙理工大学学报(社会科学版),(2):67-71.王博. 2010.威廉·布莱克诗歌的文体分析[D]. 辽宁:辽宁大学.汪雪盈. 2010.《老虎》的象似性解读[J]. 长江大学学报(社会科学版),(2):161-162.杨志刚. 2009.论布莱克作品中的圣经元素[D]. 石家庄:河北师范大学.曾令富. 2010.布莱克诗歌《老虎》的永恒魅力与其语言的含混[J]. 宜宾学院学报,(4):29-32.。

华中师范大学网络教育学院《英美文学史》测试题答案1. Write the names of the authors of the following literary works.1. Samuel Richardson2. Henry Fielding3. Richard Brinsley Sheridan4. Samuel Johnson5.Thomas Gray6.William Blake7.Robert Burns8.William Wordsworth9.Samuel Taylor Coleridge10.Robert Southey11.Walter Scott12.William Makepeace Thackeray13.Charlotte Bronte14.Emily Bronte15.George Eliot16.Robert Louis Stevenson17.Oscar Wilde18.John Galsworthy19.Thomas Hardy20.Bernard Shaw21.William Butler Yeats22.David Herbert Lawrence23.Virginia Woolf24.Charles Dickens25.Percy Shelley26.Christopher Marlow27.Jonathan Swift28.Jane Austen29.Henry Fielding30.Thomas Hardy31.William Shakespeare32.George Gordon Byron33.Samuel Taylor Coleridge34.r Edmund Spenser35.Alexander Pope36.Richard Brinsley Sheridan37.George Eliot38.James Joyce39.Poesy John Drydenurence Sterne41.Percy Shelley42)Thomas Jefferson43) Fenimore Cooper44) Washington Irving45) Emerson46) Henry David Thoreau47) Nathaniel Hawthorne48)Herman Melville49)Edgar Allan Poe50) Walt Whitman51)Walt Whitman52)Emily Dickinson53) Robert Frost54) Edgar Allan Poe55) Harriet Beecher Stowe56) William Dean Howells57) Henry James58) Mark Twain59) O. Henry60) Jack London61) Stephen Crane62) Frank Norris63) Theodore Dreiser64) Ezra Pound65) Ezra Pound66) Wallace Stevens67) Carl Sandburg68)T. S. Eliot69) John Steinbeck70) Fitzgerald71) William Faulkner72) Ernest Hemingway73) Eugene O’Neill74) Arthur Miller75) William Faulkner76) T. S. Eliot77) Longfellow78) John Steinbeck79) Mark Twain80)John Doss Passos2. Choose the right answer. 1Answer: D2Answer: B3 Answer: D4. Answer: C6. Answer: B7. Answer: D8. Answer: B9. Answer: B10. Answer: A11. Answer: C12. Answer: C13. Answer: B14. Answer: B15. Answer: B16. Answer: B17. Answer: C18. Answer: B19. Answer: D20. Answer: C21. Answer: B22. Answer: C23. Answer: B24. Answer: B25. Answer: A26. Answer: D27. Answer: A28. Answer: D29. Answer: A30. Answer: B31. Answer: C32. Answer: D33. Answer: B34. Answer: C35. Answer: D36. Answer: C37. Answer: D38. Answer: B39. Answer: A40. Answer: B41. Answer: A42. Answer: A43. Answer: B44. Answer: C45. Answer: B46. Answer: D47. Answer: C48. Answer: A50. Answer: A51. Answer: B52. Answer: A53. Answer: D54. Answer: A55. Answer: D56. Answer: D57Answer: D58. Answer: A59. Answer: A60. Answer: A61. Answer: D62. Answer: C63. Answer: A64. Answer: B65. Answer: A66. Answer: A67. Answer: B68. Answer: C69. Answer: B70. Answer: A71. Answer: D72. Answer: B73. answer: D74. Answer: A75. Answer: B76. Answer: A77. Answer: D78. Answer: D79. Answer: C80 Answer: A3. Answer the following questions briefly.1)What is Chaucer's contribution to English language?Chaucer's language is vivid and exact. His verse is smooth. His words are easy to understand. He introduced from France the rhymed stanzas of various types, especially the rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter which was later called the "heroic couplet." Though drawing influence from French, Italian and Latin models, he is the first important poet to write in the current English language. Chaucer did much in making the dialect of London the foundation for modern English language.2)What was the English Renaissance?The English Renaissance was an intellectual movement or rebirth of letters. There were two striking features. The first was the revived interest in classical literature. People were thirsty for works of Greek and Latin. Another feature washumanism. People began to see themselves as important beings, not only living for God and a future world. Interest in beauty and achievement rose. This was the outlook of the new bourgeois class. They believed in their strength. They expected the promising world opening to them. They believed that they could make the world according to their desires.3)What are the themes of "Robinson Crusoe"?1) The novel sings high praises of self-reliance. It demonstrates that man can remake the world with his own power. He can rely on himself in difficult situations.2) This novel is also an exhibition of man's capacity. Man has boundless energy. Together with his persistence and strong will power, he can do anything that may seem impossible previously.3) This novel also glorifies human labor. It is labor that saves Robinson Crusoe from despair, and labor is also a source of pride and happiness.In short, Robinson Crusoe is representative of the English bourgeoisie at the early stage of its development.4) This novel also touches upon the theme of colonization. Crusoe makes Friday his servant, and he himself master of the island and Friday. This plot is in accordance with the exploitation of the English bourgeois class out of Britain.4)Summarize Shelley's significance in the English literature.Shelley is one of the leading Romantic poets, an intense and original lyrical poet in the English language. Like Blake, he has a reputation as a difficult poet: erudite, imagistically complex, full of classical and mythological allusions. His style abounds in personification and metaphor and other figures of speech which describe vividly what we see and feel, or express what passionately moves us.5) What are the periods of Shakespeare’s dramatic composition? And what are their respective features?Three periods: 1. Period of historical plays and comedies. This period is characterized by happiness and optimism. This period can be further put into two phases: the phase of apprenticeship and the phase of maturation. 2. Period of tragedies. This period is characterized by gloom. 3. Period of romances or tragic-comedies. This period is characterized by reconciliation.6) What are the principles of classicists? Tell three representative classicists in the English literature and their representative works.1) The classicists modeled themselves on Greek and Latin authors, and tried to control literary creation by some fixed laws and rules drawn from Greek and Latin works. Rimed couplet instead of blank verse, the three unities of time, place and action, regularity in construction, and the presentation of types rather than individuals—these were some of the standards the classicists required of drama. Poetry, following the ancient divisions, should be lyric, epic, didactic, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by some peculiar principles. Prose should be precise, direct and flexible. The English classicists followed these standards in thei r writing. 2) Addison and Steele, “The Tatler,” and “The Spectator.” Alexander Pope, “Essay on Criticism,” and “The Rape of the Lock.”7)Summarize Eliot's influence briefly.The novels of George Eliot mark the beginning of a new stage in the development of English critical realism following that of Dickens and Thackeray. In one respect her work had an advantage over her predecessors. Her characters were not grotesque types, but real, common men and women, whose psychology Eliot revealed very skillfully to the reader. But in other respects her work marks a retrogression. She shifted the center of gravity in the novel from the social problems to the problems of religion and morality. Though aware of the evils of bourgeois society, she did not attack the social system. She believed in the sentimental "religion of humanity", and cherished the illusion that humanity and love could do away with the evils of capitalism.8)Why is Hamlet a representative of humanism?Hamlet is a humanist, a man who is free from medieval prejudices and superstition. He has an unbounded love for the world instead of the heaven. Such love for nature and man is characteristic of the humanists of the Renaissance. Hamlet is also a man of strong moral standards. He loves good and hates evil. He treats everybody as equal. This democratic tendency is based on his humanist thought. His intellectual genius is outstanding. He is a close observer of men and manners. He easily sees through people, so he is always unmasking the world. His image reflects the versatility of the men of the Renaissance.9) What are the characteristics of the American writings in the Romantic Period?Most of the American writings in the Romantic Period share the following characteristics: 1) there was a new emphasis upon the imaginative and emotional qualities of literature, which include a liking for the picturesque, the exotic, the sensuous, the sensational, and the supernatural. 2) The Americans also placed an increasing emphasis upon the free expression of emotions and displayed an increasing attention to the psychic states of their characters. Heroes and heroines exhibited extremes of sensitivity and excitement. 3) The strong tendency to exalt the individual and the common man was almost a national religion in American. 4) The more colorful aspects of the past are used in the literary works. 5) American Romanticism is derivative and typically American.10) How does “Rip Van Winkle” reveal Washington Irving’s conservative attitude?1) Washington Irving was a conservative and always exalted a disappearing past, which is obvious in “Rip Van Winkle”. Rip went to sleep before the War of Independence and woke up after it. The change that had occurred in the twenty years he slept was to him not always for the better. Instead of feeling happy about the country finally independent from the yoke of British colonial rule, Rip was pleased with his new life chiefly because “he had got his neck out of the yoke of matrimony”.2) The story might be taken as an illustratio n of Irving’s argument that change—and revolution—upset the natural order of things, and of the fact that Irving preferred the past to the present, a dreamlike world to the real one, and never seemed to accept a modern democratic America.11) What is Hawth orne’s writing style?1) As a man of literary craftsmanship, Hawthorne is extraordinary in that the structure and the form of his writing are always carefully worked out to cater of the thematic concern. 2) With his special interest in the psychological aspect of human beings, he is good at exploring the complexity of human psychology. 3) Hawthorne is a great allegorist and almost every story can be read allegorically. 4) Hawthorne is a master of symbolism, which he took from the Puritan tradition and bequeathed to American literature in a revivified form.12) Comment on the language of Whitman’s poems1) Contrary to the rhetoric of traditional poetry, Whitman’s language is relatively simple and even rather crude. 2) An often-used method in Whitman’s poem s if to make colors and images fleet past the mind’s eye of the reader. 3) Another characteristic in Whitman’s language is his strong tendency to use oral English.13) What is Dreiser’s writing style?Dreiser’s contribution to the American literary hist ory is great.1) He broke away from the genteel tradition of literature and dramatized the life in a very realistic way. His style is not polished but very serious and well calculated to achieve the thematic ends he sought. 2) However, his writings appear more inclusive and less selective, and the readers are sometimes burdened with massive detailed descriptions of characters and events. 3) He has been accused of being awkward in sentence structure, inept and occasionally flatly wrong in word selection and meaning, and mixed and disorganized in voice and tone.14) What is the Imagist Movement?1) Flourished from 1909 to 1917 and involved quite a number of British and American writers and poets, Imagist Movement is a movement that advanced modernism in arts which concentrated on reforming the medium of poetry as opposed to Romanticism, especially Tennyson’s worldliness and high-flown language in poetry.2) The Imagist Movement15) What is the basic concern of The Hairy Ape?1)Sister Carrie The play concerns the problem of modern man’s identity. 2) Yank’s sense of belonging nowhere, hence homelessness and rootless, is typical of the mood of isolation and alienation in the early twentieth century in the United States and the whole world as well.16) What is the theme of The Old Man and the Sea?1) A short novel by Hemingway which brought him the Nobel Prize, The Old Man and the Sea is about an old Cuban fisherman Santiago and his losing battle with a giant marlin. 2) In a tragic sense, it is a representation of life and as a struggle against unconquerable natural forces in which only a partial victory is possible. Nevertheless, there is a feeling of great respect for the struggle of mankind.17) Sea adventures are Melville’s favorite subject; "Moby-Dick" is a great novel in the theme, which is also noted for its symbolism, please analyze it in detail.1) About the sea adventure: it symbols the voyage of the mind in quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe; a spirit exploration into man’s deep re ality and psychology;2) About the boat; it symbols the society, and the crew symbol all kinds of peoplewith different social and ethnic ideas;3) About the white whale: To the author, it symbols nature, it is a complex, unfathomable and beautiful; To the captain Ahab, it is evilness, is a wall. So he will lead all his crew to cut through the wall to dig out all the unknown, mysterious things behind it. To the narrator, Ishmael, it is a mystery.18) Why Modernism is different from Realism?In many aspects, Modernism acts against Realism; 1) Modernism rejects rationalism, while Realism stresses it; 2) Modernism includes internal, subjective, psychological world, while Realism stresses external, objective, and material world;3) Modernism advocates new forms and new techniques, and it casts away all the traditional elements such as: story, character, etc. while Realism stresses it. 4) Modernism works are called anti-novel, anti-poetry, anti-drama etc.4. Answer the following questions in detail.1)What are the general features of Shakespeare's plays?1. Realism & Humanism. Shakespeare is regarded as one of the founders of realism in world literature. His theory of drama is "to hold, as it were, the mirror to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure." This is in agreement with Engels' definition of realism: "Realism implies the truthful reproduction of typical characters under typical circumstances."Humanism is also keynote of Shakespeare's drama. Many of his characters are representatives of Shakespeare's humanistic thoughts. The women characters are such examples. Women in Shakespeare's plays are usually braver and more capable than men characters. They are no longer restrained by the feudal fetters. Falstaff, in "Henry IV," also shows Shakespeare's humanistic belief. Falstaff is fat, old, ugly, gross and guilty of many sins. He is boastful and greedy. He takes bribes. These are included in The Seven Deadly Sins. However, Shakespeare didn't create him as a bad example. On the contrary, his characterization of Falstaff is comic, not criticizing. In fact, it is said that this character was so amusing that Queen Elizabeth asked Shakespeare to write another play imply devoting to Falstaff. From the creation of Falstaff, we can see that Shakespeare is free from the religious constraints. This is an important feature of humanism.Shakespeare's histories also demonstrate hi belief in unity of the country and an ideal king, for example, "Henry IV" and "Henry V." This is also what the English people was expecting after many years' war in the Middle Ages.2. Shakespeare used a lot of adoptions. He borrowed his source materials from a variety of sources: Greek legends, Roman history, Italian stories and English historical records. However, he was always able to put a new meaning on the old stories, thus reflecting the reality of England of his time.3. Shakespeare is a master of drama. He broke the classical rules of three unities, thus caused English drama to flourish.4. Shakespeare is skillful in many poetic forms. He is especially good at sonnets and blank verse.5. Shakespeare is a master of the English language. He used about 16,000 words.Many of his coined words have remained in the English language. Shakespeare and the King James Bible are the two great treasuries of the English language.2)Summarize Byron's chief contribution and significance in the Englishliterature.As a leading Romanticist, Byron's chief contribution is his creation of the "Byronic hero," a proud, mysterious rebel figure of noble origin. With immense superiority in his passions and powers, this Byronic hero would carry on his shoulders the burden of righting all the wrongs in a corrupt society, and would rise single-handedly against any kind of tyrannical rules either in government, in religion, or in moral principles with unconquerable wills and inexhaustible energies. The conflict is usually one of rebellious individuals against outworn social systems and conventions. The image of this hero is to some extent modeled on the life and personality of Byron himself, and makes Byron famous both at home and abroad. Byron's poetry was immensely popular at home and also abroad, where it exerted great influence on the Romantic movement. This popularity owes to the author's persistent attacks on "cant political, religious, and moral," to the novelty of his oriental scenery, to the romantic character of the Byronic hero, and to the easy, fluent and natural beauty of his verse. Byron's diction on the whole has a freedom, copiousness and vigor. His descriptions are simple and fresh, and often bring vivid objects before the reader. The glowing imagination also adds to the charm of his poetry.Byron uses Ottva Rima (Octave Stanza) as the form of his poetry.Byron's poetry has great influence on the literature of the whole world. Across Europe, patriots and painters and musicians are all inspired by him. Poets and novelists are profoundly influenced by his work.3) What are the three periods of Yeats’s literary career? Enumerate some representative works at each period.Yeats' literary career can be divided into three periods. During the early years of his literary career, he wrote romantic poetry under the influence of Spenser, Shelley and the Pre-Raphaelites. He also made an intensive study of William Blake whose symbolism and mysticism attracted him very much. His early poems were full of dreams and fairies. The major themes are usually Celtic legends, local folktales, or stories of the heroic age in Irish history. Many of these poems have a dreamy quality with melancholy, passive and self-indulgent feelings. Famous poems composed in this period include "The Lake Isle of Innisfree." Collections of his early poems are: "Crossways" (1899), "The Rose" (1893), and "The Wind Among the Reeds" (1899). The first two decades of the 20th century were Yeats' period of transition, during which he departed from the romanticism of his early period and developed into modernism, influenced by the poetry and criticism of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. He also studied the works of John Donne, the 17th century metaphysical poet. By finding a new force, a new dimension, and a new reality to his verse, Yeats began to write with realistic and concrete themes on a variety of subjects, exploring the profound and complicated human problems, such as life, love, politics and religion. With the combination of his appreciation of beauty and a sense of tragedy in life, Yeats gave asignificance to the ordinary events of life in his poetry. The new vigor of his verse is reflected in the precise and concrete imagery, the strong passion and the active verb forms. Through vivid images, rich symbols and controlled rhythms, the meaning of his poems was pressed disturbing home. His style is both simple and rich, colloquial and formal, with a quality of metaphysical wit and symbolic vision, which indicates that Yeats has already been on his way to modernist poetry. His famous poems composed in this period include: "No Second Troy," "September 1913," "Easter 1916" and "The Second Coming."The years 1919-1939 were Yeats' final period of maturity, in which he published many volumes of his representative poems, which include "The Wild Swans at Coole" (1919), "The Tower" (1828), "Sailing to Byzantium." In his late works he deals with the rise and fall of civilization, with eternal beauty in the world of art, with contrast between youth and old age, and with love. He created an elaborate system of symbols of his own in his poems.4) What are the characteristics of Romanticism in English literature? Give examples to illustrate them.English Romantic literature has the following characteristics: 1) sensibility; 2) primitivism; 3) love of nature; 4) mysticism; 5) individualism; 6) sympathetic interest in the past, especially the medieval; 7) against whatever characterized classicism.We can easily find examples of romantic writers whose works have the above features. Generally speaking, all romantic writers focus on the sensibility, especially the natural flow of feelings, rather than the outside world. Many romantic writers sing high praises of nature. Wordsworth is a good example. It’s said that his poetry about nature is his best poetry. A strong interest in nature naturally causes some poets to take a liking to primitive life, to idealize rural life and even to show sympathy for animal life. Goldsmith and Cowper are two examples. Mysticism, and even Gothicism, is another feature. Poets like Keats include mysterious stories in their poems. Some other poets like Percy have a strong interest in the medieval literature, while others like Burns find sources from folk songs or ballads. Individualism is an important feature of romantic literature. Lord Byron’s Don Juan is a remarkable poem in high praise of individualism. On the whole, romanticists are against whatever classicists support. They abandon the heroic couplet in favor of blank verse, the sonnet, the Spenserian stanza and many experimental verse forms. They drop the conventional poetic fiction in favor of fresher language and bolder figures. Typical literary forms of the romantic writers include the lyric, especially the love lyric, the reflective lyric, the nature lyric and the lyric of morbid melancholy and sentimental novel.5) Comment on the similarities and differences of the three dominant figures—William Dean Howells, Henry James and Mark Twain of the Realistic period.The three dominant figures of the Realistic period are William Dean Howells, Henry James and Mark Twain.a. Their similarities:Together they brought to fulfillment native trends in the realistic portrayal of the landscape and social surfaces,brought to perfection the vernacular style, and explored and exploited the literary possibilities of the interior life. They recorded and made permanent the essential life of the eastern third of the continent as it was lived in the last half of the nineteenth century on the vanishing frontier, in the village, the small town, or the turbulent metropolis. They established the literary identity of distinctively American protagonists, specially the vernacular hero and the “American Girl”, the baffled and strained middle-class family, the businessman, and the psychologically complicated citizens of a new international culture. Together, in short, they set the example and charted the future of course for the subjects, themes, techniques and styles of fiction we still call modern.b. Their differencesThough the three prominent writers wrote more or less at the same time, they differed in their understanding of “truth”. While Mark Twain and Howells seemed to have paid more attention to the “life” of the Americans, Henry James had apparently laid a greater emphasis on the “inner world” of man. He came to believe that the literary artist should not simply hold a mirror to the surface of social life in particular times and spaces. In addition, the writers should use language to probe the deepest reaches of the psychological and moral nature of human beings. He is a realist of the inner life. Though Mark Twain and Howells both shared the same concern in presenting the truth of the American society, they had each of them different emphasis. Howells focused his discussion on the rising middle class and the way they lived, while Mark Twain preferred to have his own region and people at the forefront of his stories. This particular concern about the local character of a region came about as “local colorism”, a unique variation of American literary realism.6) The background of American Modernism1)Social backgroundThe 20th century began with a strong sense of social breakdown. A series of wars fought on the international scene during the first part of the century were to affect the life of Americans and their literary writings. With all these wars the world had undergone a dramatic social change, a transformation from order to disorder. So had the United States. Despite its booming industry and material prosperity, there was a sense of unease and restlessness and underneath.2) Along with the changes in the material landscape came the changes in the non- material system of belief and behavior. The First World War had made a big impact on the life of Americans. In a word, there was a decline in moral standard and the first few decades of the twentieth century was best described as a spiritual wasteland. The First World War brought feelings of fear, loss, disorientation and disillusionment to the Americans.3) Between the mid-19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, there had been a big flush of new theories and new ideas in both social and natural sciences, as well as in the field of are in Europe, which played an indispensable role in bringing about modernism and the modernistic writings in the United States. The implicationsof modern European arts to modern American writings can also be strongly felt in the American literature between the wars, even thereafter.7) What is Hawthorne’s “black” vision of life and human beings?1) Hawthorne’s liter ary world is very disturbed, tormented and problematical because of his “black” vision of life and human beings. He rejected what he saw as the Transcendentalists’ transparent optimism about the potentialities of human nature. Instead he looked more deeply and perhaps more honestly into life, finding it much suffering and conflict but also finding the redeeming power of love. 2) According to him, “There is evil in every human heart”, and a piece of literary work should “show how we are all wronged and wrong ers, and avenge one another”. So in almost every book he wrote, Hawthorne discusses sin and evil. One source of evil Hawthorne is concerned most is over-reaching intellect, which usually refers to someone who is too proud, too sure of himself. The tension between the head and the heart constitutes one of the dramatic moments when the evil of over-reaching intellect would be fully revealed. 3) Hawthorne’s intellectuals are usually villains, dreadful because they are devoid of warmth and feeling. What’s more, they tend to go beyond and violate the natural order by doing something impossible and reaching the ultimate truth, without a sober mind about their own limitations as human beings. Chillingworth, Dr. Rappaccini in “Rappaccini’s daughter” are but a few specimens of Hawthorne’s chilling, cold-blooded human animals.8) Analyze the theory of Theodore Dreiser’naturalism with example.1) His naturalism emphasized heredity and environment as important deterministic forces shaping individualized characters that were presented in special and detailed circumstances. At bottom, life was shown to be ironic, even tragic.2) The characters in his books are often subject to the control of the natural forces, especially those of environment and heredity. For example, th e hero Hurstwood’s tragic death showed the theory.3) The effect of Darwinist idea of "survival of the fittest" was shattering. It is not surprising to find in Dreiser’s fiction a world of jungle, where "kill or to be killed" was the law.4) He criticizes materialistic to the core, living in such a society with such a value system, the human individual is obsessed with a never-ending, yet meaningless search for satisfaction of his/her desires. One of the desires is for money which was a motivating purpose of life in the United States in the late 19th century. For example in his masterpiece "Sister Carrie" he traces the material rise of Carrie Meeber, which indicates the critical attitude of the author.5) Sexual beauty symbolizes the acquisition of some social status of great magnitude.9) Take examples to analyze the style and theme of Mark Twain.Mark Twain is a great literary of America, H. L. Mencken considered him "the true father of our national literature".1) Twain’s works like "Adventure of Huckleberry Finn" and "Life on the Mississippi" shaped the views of America and combined American folk humor and serious literature together;。

Analysis of William Wordsworth's“She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways”As we all know, love was and isstill a major theme in the romantic poetry. Consequently, when I asked myself which is my favorite English poem, lots of love poems came into my mind. They are so exquisiteand beautiful that I cannot make up my mind. However, when I took a second glance at this short poem ofWilliam Wordsworth, I was deeply bewitched by its beautiful lines and touched by the light sorrow conveyed by the poet. Therefore, Idid not hesitate any longer and cannotresist my impulse to share this poem with you.She Dwelt among the Untrodden WaysBy William WordsworthShe dwelt among the untrodden ways Beside the springs of Dove.A Maid whom there were none to praise, And very few to love:A violet by a mossy stoneHalf hidden from the eye! Fair as a star, when only oneIs shining in the sky.She lived unknown, and few could know When Lucy ceased to be;But she is in her grave, and, oh,The difference to me!Background and contentWilliam Wordsworth wrote the poemwhen he was 28 years old, while sojourning in Germany in 1798. “She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways”is one of famous five “Lucy”poems ofWordsworth which are poems centering on a woman named Lucywho died young. It is unknown whether she was a real person whom Wordsworth encountered whileliving in England. The poem is set in northern England in Cumbria County's Lake District, near the village of Grasmere, where Wordsworth maintained a cottage.The poem describes the "growth, perfection, and death" of Lucy. The story-line is strikingly simple. Lucy lives an isolated life, her beauty largely unnoticed. She dies. Her death is seen through the eyes of the one person who appears to have loved her, although who he is remains a mystery.It was composed both as a meditation on his own feelings of loneliness and loss, and as an ode to the beauty and dignity of an idealized woman who lived unnoticed by all others except by the poet himself. In the poem, Wordsworth is concerned not so much with his observation of Lucy, but with his experience when reflecting on her death.Style and analysis“She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways” is a three-stanza poem with characteristics of an elegy (in that the poem laments a person's death) and a ballad (in that the poem tells a bit of a story).The rhyme scheme is abab, cdcd, efef.The verse format consists mainly of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, as in lines 3 and 4 and lines 11 and 12.And the author utilized several figures of speech in this poem, such as alliteration (H alf h idden in line 6),metaphor (line 5 ----A violet by a mossy stone (comparison of Lucy to a violet)) and simile (line 7----Fair as a star(comparison of Lucy to a star))etc.The title line implies Lucy lived unknown and remote, both physically and intellectually.In the openingquatrains, the poet introduces the home of “Lucy”which indicates herpurity and innocence by locates her home in an isolated and untouched area---- beside the spring of dove.Lucy's "untrodden ways" are symbolic to the poet of both her physical isolation and the unknown details of her mind and life, which also impliesthat it is because Lucy lived in a remote place that make few people contact with her, not because she is a woman who made herself agreeable nowhere.In the following stanza, William Wordsworth conveys Lucy’s dignity and unaffected flowerlike natural by comparing her to a violetby a mossy stone, echoing to t he untrodden ways in the former stanza, which also convey the meaning that her innocence is explored as a hidden flower. In the latter part, the poet shows the beauty and charm of Lucy and his admiration towards herthrough the simile which compare her to an only fair starshining in the sky. The author employsa pair of complementary but opposite imagesto intensify Lucy’s hidden beauty: a solitary violet, unseen and hidden, and Venus, emblem of love, and the first star of evening, public and visible to all.The final stanza laments Lucy's early and lonesome death, which only he notices, expresses the importance of Lucy to the poet through thefinal verse ----The difference to me!Whether Wordsworth has declared his love for her is left ambivalent, and even whether she had been aware of the poet's affection is unsaid.This line unfolds his remain unrequited feelings and which make us full of sadness and shed tears unconsciously.Wordsworth uses simple language, mainly words of one syllable throughout the poem with intertwined sadness and ecstasy. This poemdisplays a theme that noble and virtuous sometimes receive little or no attention during their journey through life. They are blazing stars who soar through the heavens unnoticed or seldom seen, then burn out and die. My reflectionDue to his life experience and successive death of his dear friends and relatives, he can help thinking the subjects of life and death. WhileIn this poem, the poet doesn’t use a lot of words to show how desperate and heart-broken he was when Lucy died, but I can feel intensive sadness and loneliness of both spirit and body in these muted lines. And we can see that life is easy to fade as well as beauty,。

Stylistic Devices (Rhetorical Devices, Figures of Speech)Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you to get and keep your reader‟s / listener‟s attention.Stylistic DevicesAlliteration : repetition of initial consonant soundThe initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.Examples:Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not theconsonants themselves.Examples:▪killer command▪fantastic philosophy▪ A neat knot need not be re-knotted.If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated.Examples:▪ a Canadian child▪honoured and humbled (the …h‟ in honoured is silent)Allusion is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.:▪famous people▪history▪(Greek) mythology▪literature▪the bibleIf the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enou gh to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers‟ minds. The advantages are as follows:▪We don‟t need lengthy explanations to clarify the problem.▪The reader becomes active by reflecting on the analogy.▪The message will stick in the reader's mind.Examples:▪the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dicken‟s “Christmas Carol”)▪The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) ▪Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah)Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the bible have become famous idioms.Examples:▪to meet one‟s Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo)▪to wash one‟s hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.)▪to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Joseph‟s grandfather, who was 969 years old according to the Old Testament)▪to guard sth with Argus‟s eyes (allusion on the giant Argus from Greek mythology, who watched over Zeus‟ lover Io.)The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.Example:▪Every child must be taught these principles. Every citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, makes our country more, not less, American. (2)▪If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. (Anne Bradstreet)▪The beginning of wisdom is silence. The second step is listening. (unknown)▪ A man without ambition is dead. A man with ambition but no love is dead. A man with ambition and love for his blessings here on earth is ever so alive. (Pearl Bailey)Anaphora is often used in conjunction with parallelism or climax.Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas. The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the reader's / listener's attention directly to the contrast.Examples:▪That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)▪To err is human; to forgive, divine. (Pope)▪It is easier for a father to have children than for children to have a real father. (Pope)Hyperbole : deliberate exaggerationUsed sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the attention to a message that you want to emphasise.Example:▪I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant.▪I have told you a thousand times.The author / speaker raises a question and also gives an answer to the question. Hypophora is used to get the audience's attention and make them curious. Often the question is raised at the beginning of a paragraph and answered in the course of that paragraph. Hypophora can also be used, however, to introduce a new area of discussion.Example:▪Why is it better to love than be loved? It is surer. (Sarah Guitry)▪How many countries have actually hit […] the targets set at Rio, or in Kyoto in 1998, for cutting greenhouse-gas emissions? Precious few. (6)Litotes is a form of understatement which uses the denied opposite of a word to weaken or soften a message.Examples:▪That's not bad. (instead of: That's good/great.)▪Boats aren't easy to find in the dark. (4) (instead of: Boats are hard/difficult to find in the dark.)Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile (A is like B.), “like” is not used in metaphor (A is B.).Example:▪Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food. (Henry Ward Beecher)▪Through much of the last century, America's faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations. (2)Metonomy (unlike metaphor) uses figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or background. The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (see synecdoche).Examples:▪The White House declared … (White House = US government / President)▪The land belongs to the crown. (crown = king / queen / royal family / monarchy)▪Empty pockets never held anyone back. Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that.(Norman Vincent Peale)▪(empty pockets = poverty; empty heads = ignorance / dullness / density; empty hearts = unkindness / coldness)▪the spit-and-polish command post (meaning: shiny clean) (3)First-person narratorThe narrator tells the story from his / her point of view (I). It is a limited point of view as the reader will only know what the narrator knows. The advantage of the first person narration is that the narrator shares his / her personal experiences and secrets with the reader so that the reader feels part of the story.Example:▪Charlotte Bronte: Jane EyreThird-person narratorThe narrator is not part of the plot and tells the story in the third person (he, she). Usually the narrator is all-knowing (omniscient narrator): he / she can switch from one scene to another, but also focus on a single character from time to time.Example:▪Charles Dickens: Oliver TwistThe third-person narrator can also be a personal narrator (point of view of one character) who tells the story in the third person (he, she), but only from the central character's point of view. This point of view is rarely used.Example:▪James Joyce: UlyssesThe pronounciation of the word imitates a sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it's often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting by the use of onomatopoeia.Examples:▪The lion roared.▪The steaks sizzled in the pan.▪The bomb went off with a bang.Successive clauses or sentences are similarly structured. This similarity makes it easier for the reader / listener to concentrate on the message.Example:▪We are bound by ideals that move us beyond our backgrounds, lift us above our interest, and teach us what it means to be citizens. (2)▪The mediocre teacher tells, The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates.The great teacher inspires. (William A. Ward)▪The mistakes of the fool are known to the world, but not to himself. The mistakes of the wise man are known to himself, but not to the world. (Charles Caleb Colton)▪Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn. (Benjamin Franklin)Note: When writing, parallelism is a useful device for instructions. Due to the parallel structure, the reader can concentrate on the message and will immediately know what to do (see examples below).Example 1 (no parallelism):▪Open the book first.▪You must read the text now.▪There are pictures in the book–Look at them.▪The questions must be answered.Example 2 (parallelism):▪Open the book.▪Read the text.▪Look at the pictures.▪Answer the questions.You surely agree that the second instruction is easier to follow (and to remember) than the first one. The change of structure in the first example is confusing and distracts the reader from the actual message. It might be okay withsimple messages like the ones we used here. But following more complex instructions is really hard if they are not in parallel structure.The normal progression of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence.Examples:▪We (myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat 'Lynn', a Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays' Chirk boatyard. (4)▪The boats have remarkably few controls and we were given a thorough briefing about 'driving' ours–along with advice on mooring, lock operation and safety considerations–by Pauline, who even set off with us for a few minutes to ensure we were confident. (4)Personification:attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractionsAnimals, inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics(behaviour, feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively.Examples:▪Why these two countries would remain at each other's throat for so long. (3)▪I closed the door, and my stubborn car refused to open it again.▪The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us.▪The frogs began their concert.Repetition : repeating words or phrasesWords or phrases are repeated throughout the text to emphasise certain facts or ideas.Examples:▪Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to an end! »I wonder how many miles I've fallen by this time?« she said aloud. […]Down, d own, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. […] (5)▪America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility. A civil society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair dealing and forgiveness. […]America, at its best, is also courageous. Our national courage […]America, at its best, is compassionate. In the quiet of American conscience, we know that deep, persistent poverty is unworthy of our nation's promise. […] (2)Rhetorical Question : question without a direct answerThe author / speaker raises a question, but doesn't answer it directly as he/she sees the answer (usually Yes or No) as obvious.Rhetorical questions are used to provoke, emphasise or argue.Examples:▪When public money brings windfalls to a few, why should the state not take a share? (6)▪But was the best way to win them over to threaten to ignore them altogether? Like so many things this week, the adminitstration's diplomacy needs a smoother touch. (6) (Note that thesentence following the question is not an answer to it.)Simile : direct comparisonTwo things are compared directly by using 'like' (A is like B.).Other possibilities are for example:▪ A is (not) like B▪ A is more/less than B▪ A is as … as B▪ A is similar to B▪ A is …, so is B▪ A does …, so does BExamples:▪conrete box-style buildings are spreading like inkblots (3)▪The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel (5)▪Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower. (Charles Schwab)▪My friend is as good as gold.Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or specification that uses a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common:Part used instead of the wholeExample:▪Turning our long boat round […] on the last morning required all hands on deck… (hands = people) (4)Whole used instead of a partExample:Specific term used instead of a general one:Example:A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to sound more polite.Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language (especially British English) used in everyday-life situations.Examples:▪I know a little about running a company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.)▪I think we have slightly different opinions on this topic. (instead of: I don't agree with you at all.)。

第9章语言与文学Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is called _____. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.【答案】Stylistics【解析】文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究文学文体中语言的特征，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。

2. The term _____ was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his principle of Psychology (1890) to describe the free association of ides and impression in mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.【答案】stream of consciousness【解析】意识流写作起初是由威廉姆·詹姆斯用来描述思维中印象和观念的自由联系，这种方法的句子结构高度省略。

之后许多作家如威廉·福克纳，詹姆斯·乔伊斯，弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫也都在写作中有所用到。

3. At different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. Among them, _____ consists of lines in iambic pentameter which does not rhyme.【答案】blank verse【解析】不同时代，诗会有不同的韵律模式和语音模式。

北京理工大学珠海学院外国语学院课程学期论文Stylistic Analysis of O.Henry's The Gift of the Magi姓名：许颖淑班级：11级英语10班学号：111002101009Stylistic Analysis of O.Henry's The Gift of the MagiIntroductionAs one of the three masters of short stories in the literature history, 0.Henry was an outstanding American writer who is very familiar to and is popular with readers around the world.O. Henry's short stories are known for their wit, wordplay, warm characterization, and clever twist ending.Those his great works must have their own characteristics, which are shown in vocabulary, sentence and grammar, etc. In this thesis, I will select one of the famous short stories of 0.Henry and try to analyze it from the angle of stylistics and to describe the most significant stylistic features of it.The Gift of the Magi is one of the most famous one among O.Henry's short stories. I will make an analysis of it based on the stylistic theory and mainly discuss the following aspects: graphology, lexicon, syntax and semantics.I At the Lexical Level1. V ocabularyV ocabulary is one of most important aspects in influencing the difficulty and the acceptance of the story. It is known that 0.Henry is good at and famous for writing short stories. One of the reasons why he and his works are popular is that the stories are simple and easy to read and understand. It is hardly found there are difficult and elusive words in his works so that they are welcomed by all kinds of readers around the world. We can find that most words in this text are common words we often use.2. Word LengthWord length is an important stylistic marker. The longer and more complicated the words are, the more formal the texts are. 0.Henry uses more short words to make the stories more vivid, which also help the readers to understand what the writer tends to convey. On the other hand, due to the familiar and conversational words are employed among characters dialogues, a wide use of colloquial worddecrease the mean word length to a certain degree. Since the great storyteller depicts the daily life of common people，the short words can help to make the story more living and closer to the real situation, and at the same time, can also attract the readers to go on reading with ease.3. Word Class0.Henry makes a quantity of description of environment and people，which needs a lot of nouns during writing such as names of characters and places. More employment of nouns can also help the writers to convey the idea more explicitly, and reducing the possibility of confusion and misunderstanding. For example：Suddenly Della turned from the window and stood before the glass mirror and looked at herself.Her eyes were shining, but her face had lost its color within twenty seconds.Quickly she pulled down her hair and let it fall to its full length.The use of nouns in the examples he1ps the stolyteller with the clearness of the environment and characters, and meanwhile the misunderstanding and confusion is reduced when the readers appreciate the narrative.II At the Graphological Level1. PunctuationPunctuation is "the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading, both silently and aloud, of handwritten and printed texts."[1] Another description is: "The practice, action, or system of inserting points or other small marks into texts, in order to aid interpretation; division of text into sentences, clauses, etc., by means of such marks."[2].Much question marks and exclamation marks are used in the story to express the feeling of the characters. "If Jim does not kill me before he takes a second look at me," she said to herself, "he'll say I look like a song girl. But what could I do--oh! what could I do with a dollar and eighty-seven cents?" But she held the combs to herself, and soon she was able to look up with a smile and say, "My hair grows so fast, Jim!" \Then Della jumped up like a little burned cat and cried, "Oh, oh!". Through the use of exclamation mark and question mark，the example above reflects the heroin Della's complicated mood and feeling after she cut off her hair and sells it, as well as her astonishment after seeing the gift that is given by her husband.Therefore,we can know punctuation is used as one of the visual connective devices that helpto communicate grammatical and other distinctions in written English. Much question marks and exclamation marks are used in the story to express the feeling of the characters.2. ParagraphingParagraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs (consisting of one or more sentences). A paragraph has,on the one hand a relatively strong and tight sense of internal coherence and on the other hand a relatively loose linkage with the textual material before and after it. The paragraph length of The Gift of the Magi is relatively short compared to some other short stories, for there are many paragraphs consisting of the communication between the couple by speech. "You have cut off your hair?" asked Jim, slowly, as if he had not accepted the information even after his mind worked very hard."Cut it off and sold it," said Della. "Do you not like me just as well? I am the same person without my hair, right?Jim looked about the room as if he were looking for something."You say your hair is gone?" he asked.The paragraphs look simple and concise, and it is easy to understand and readers seem to be in the real context when they read the stories.III At the Syntactic Level.1. Sentence LengthThe average sentence length of different variety is different. Generally speaking the longer the sentence is, the more difficult it is to be understood and the more formal the variety. Academic writing tends to use long sentences to achieve seriousness and preciseness. In literary works, long sentences are employed to describe detail and events while short sentences contain simpler grammatical structures and are quite easy to understand. O.Henry prefers to use short sentences in this selected story. In fact, many conversations exist in the short stories, and speakers tend to utter simple and short words in communication, and it is proper to describe the simple life of poor people at the bottom of the society with short and simple sentences in short stories.The employment of short sentence can reduce the difficulty of understanding and lead to popularity of the works. The related examples can be seen in the discussion of paragraphing.2. Use of Sentence FragmentSentence fragment refers to the incomplete sentence which lacks sentence component. A noun or a phrase beeomes a sentence due to some specific demand. It can be seen that there are such sentence fragments as mentioned in this work. 0.Henry achieves felicitous effects by breaking grammar. The stories are narrated as if someone were telling it to you face to face. There are some examples:One dollar and eighty-seven cents.A furnished flat at $8 per week.Only $1.87 to buy a present for Jim.HerJim.These are not complete sentences but noun phrases and the readers can easily catch what the author wants to tell us from such sentence fragments.IV At the Semantic LevelRhetorical DeviceIn short stories, in order to better convey meanings, figurative language is often employed. We can find the use of different figures of speech in this short story.1) SimileO’Henry pays more attention to the simile. O’Henry uses simile not only in the frequency of usage but also in other aspects.Of all kinds of figures,colorful and varied in scenery,common things and phenomenon in daily life which always having simile only enter the story world of O’Henr.It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the as or like.And them Della leaped up like a little singed cat and cried，“Oh，oh!”Jim stopped inside the door, as immovable as a setter at the scent of quail.So now Della's beautiful hair fell about her rippling and shining like a cascade of brown waters.In the above three examples the things of different categories are compared: a woman and a little singe cat, a man and a setter which smells the scent of quail，a woman's long and beautiful hair and a cascade of brown waters. The description can make the scene in the stories more vivid and striking and help readers to further understand.2) MetaphorIn O’Henry’s writing,metaphor is another feature which is worth mention.”A symbol differs from ametaphor in that its application is left open as an unstated suggestion.It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison, but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word as or like.It reached below her knee and made itself almost a garment for her.Down rippled the brown cascade.In the examples, a woman's long hair is compared to her garment and the brown cascade,which tells readers how beautiful the hair is.3) HyperboleHyperbole is a type of exaggeration that is used in literature. It is a figure ofspeech, in which the diction exaggerates the subject.In the vestibule below was a letter-box into which no letter would go，and an electric button from which no mortal finger could coax a ring.The example means that the flat is very shabby and poor. Obviously the hero and heroin living in such a place can not afford to buy luxurious gifts for each other. But they want to give their lovers satisfying and surprising Christmas gifts, so it is reasonable to sell the most precious possessions of the family.4)O’Henry uses Soapy as the typical figure in the novel. The Gift of the Magi and takes Ameriscan New York as an example reflects truly the poor people’s hard life at that time and uses ironic mannter to criticize the unfair of society and shows the strong5) AllusionAn allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference or representation of or to awell-known person，place，event，literary work，myth, or work of art.In The Gift of the Magi, 0.Henry tells a story of a couple who sacrifice their very valuable hair and watch in order to buy Christmas gifts for each other. At the end of the story, the author praises them with the words "the wisest", and "they are Magi". In Christian tradition, the Magi refers to as the Three Wise Men, three kings ,or kings from the East, who are said to have visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, myrrh and frankincense. Gold symbolized Christ's kingship on earth. Frankincense (an incense) symbolized Christ's role as priest. Myrrh，which was commonly used as an embalming substance，symbolized Jesus' death on the cross. The story ends with the narrator comparing the couple's mutually sacrificial gifts of love with those of the Biblical Magi. The mostprecious they possess are their love for each other. The readers are moved by the true love, and at the same time they can learn from the hero and heroin the real meaning of giving gifts.ConclusionWe can see from the analysis above that O.Henry uses more question marks and exclamation marks than the other punctuation marks in the text. He is good at using very short items, such as the simple words, the short sentences, and the sentence fragments, all these can reduce the difficulty of understanding and lead to vividness and popularity of the work. And also some rhetorical devices are applied to achieve brevity and vividness in this text. All those together had made The Gift of the Magi notable and wellknown around the world.BibliographyJump up ^Encyclopaedia BritannicaJump up ^Oxford English Dictionary, definition 2a.Noam Chomsky .(1957). Syntactic structures[M].TheHague:Mouton University Press.O.Hellry.(1995).O.Henry 100 Selected stories[M]. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth.Wang Shouyuan.(2000).A Course in English Stylistics[M].Shandong:Shandong Education Press. ChengYumin.(1988).Readings in Stylistics[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.曹佳源.(2007).对情景喜剧《老友记》的文体学分析[J].北京:首都师范大学.胡曙中.(2002)英语修辞学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.夏立娟.(2007).简·奥斯丁作品的文体学分析[J].大连:大连海事大学.。

When Y ou Are Old (1893)William Butler Y eats When you are old and gray and full of sleepAnd nodding by the fire, take down this book,And slowly read, and dream of the soft lookY our eyes had once, and of their shadows deep;How many loved your moments of glad grace,And loved your beauty with love false or true;But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you,And loved the sorrows of your changing face.And bending down beside the glowing bars,Murmur, a little sadly, how Love fledAnd paced upon the mountains overhead,And hid his face amid a crowd of stars.当你老了，白发苍苍，睡意沉沉，倦坐在炉边，取下这本书来，慢慢读着，追梦当年的眼神那柔美的神采与深幽的晕影。

多少人爱过你青春的片影，爱过你的美貌，出于虚伪或真情，唯独一人爱你那朝圣者的灵魂，爱你哀戚的脸上岁月的留痕。

在炉栅边，你弯下了腰，低语着，带着浅浅的伤感，爱情是怎样逝去，又怎样步上群山，将面庞藏在了繁星之间。

Stylistic AnalysisI. The first level1. Phonological featuresA. Sound repetition①alliterationSlowly, soft (line 3)glad, grace (line 5)②assonanceDown, glowing, how, mountains③ rhyming scheme: a-b-b-aB. Stress and rhythm:iambic pentametreC. T empo: slow2. Graphological featuresCapitalization of “Love”Function: Through the use of the capital “L” in “love” Y eats has once again injected himself in the poem wi thout the use of the word “I”.II. The second level1. Grammatical featuresThe use of enjambment2. Lexical featuresA. Lexical reiterationRepetition of “And” in Stanza 1 for six timesFunction: ①slow down the tempo, as the speaker imagines his love is an old woman. ② glidingRepetition of “loved” in Stanza 2 for five times.Function: The five “loved” brighten the tone of the second stanza, and reveals the speaker’s relationship with the subject.B. General wording inclinationIn the whole poem, the poem always uses words with soft sound, to create a picture of an old person, such as words begin with “s”, and words containing vowels, which are always soft.III. The third levelSemantic features1. Cohesive devices: the use of “And” in Stanza 1 for six times (polysyndeton)2. Rhetoric devices※contrast (how many loved your moments of glad grace and loved your beauty with love-false or true, but one man loved the pilgrim soul in you)※ reference ( pilgrim soul, line 7)※ allusion(changing face, line 8)※personification (how Love fled And paced upon the mountains overhead, And hid his face amid a crowd of stars.)※paradox(And hid his face amid a crowd of stars) (The night sky is usually a very romantic thing but his love tries to hide in it away and out of the reach of Maud Gonne.)《When You Are Old》这首爱情诗写于1893年，叶芝当时29岁。

中考英语文学批评方法单选题40题1. In the story of "The Little Prince", when we analyze why the Little Prince left his planet, which of the following is the most relevant to the purpose of literary criticism?A. Just for funB. To find a new place to liveC. To explore the meaning of relationship and lonelinessD. Because he was bored with his rose答案：C。

解析：文学批评的目的包括分析作品中的深层意义等。

A选项只是说好玩，没有涉及到文学批评层面的意义。

B选项寻找新的居住地比较表面，不是文学批评关注的重点。

C选项探讨关系和孤独的意义，这是从文学作品中挖掘深层次内涵，符合文学批评目的。

D选项因为厌烦玫瑰也比较浅显，没有触及文学批评的要点。

2. For the novel "Pride and Prejudice", literary criticism might focus on which aspect when considering Elizabeth's first impression of Mr. Darcy?A. Only her dislike of his appearanceB. The social class difference shown in her impressionC. Just the weather on that day affecting her moodD. Her random thought without any reason答案：B。