Coherence & Cohesion

Van Dijk把连贯看作一个语义概念 (semantic concept)。连贯不仅是线性的 (linear)、顺序性(sequential)的、也是层级 性的(hierarchical);不仅有微观结构(microstructure)，还有宏观结构(macrostructure)。
Danes在其主位推进程序理论中，以连接性 来讨论连贯概念。他强调主位在语篇组织 中的积极作用。语篇的连贯程度由主位推 进程序的连续性表现出来，而主位推进程 序则由相似语言中一位之间的连接体现出 来。如果这种连接出现空缺，主位推进程 序就会出现不连续现象，造成语篇连贯的 中断。
在语言交际中的许多实例都证明， 连贯的语篇不一定都是衔接的。 如:
(3) A: How did you like the performance?
B：It is a nice theater.
从语篇角度看，这两句话缺乏必 要的衔接机制，但从含义理论的 角度看，A和B的话语是连贯的， B的回答故意违背了“质准则” 和“方式准则”，其含义为“表 演差极了”。
2. Van Dijk的宏观结构理论(macrostructure theory)；
3. Widdowson的言外行为理论 (illocutionary act theory);
4. Brown和Yule的心理框架理论 (psychological framework theory ).
综合起来,这些理论可以分为两大类: 1.认为语篇连贯有形式上的体现(formal
连贯 coherence
衔接(cohesion) 语篇的有形网络
(tangible network)
连贯(coherence) 语篇的无形网络
(intangible network)

Cohesion and CoherenceCohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link one part of a text to another. This includes use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical reference, etc. For example, 'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer to an idea previously mentioned. 'First of all', 'then' and 'after that' help to sequence a text. 'However', 'in addition' and 'for instance' link ideas and arguments in a text.Coherence can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to each other. Typical examples would be general> particular; statement> example; problem> solution; question> answer; claim> counter-claim.What does cohesion mean?You might think of cohesion as a means of establishing connections within a text at all sorts of different levels, e.g., section, paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.How is cohesion different from coherence? It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence as the text making sense as a whole at an ideas level,and cohesion as rather more mechanical links at a language level.You can imagine that it is possible for a piece of writing to contain plenty of cohesion yet little coherence.Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and phrases, such as therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion.Cohesion DevicesLexical level:RepetitionWord family repeatedSynonyms, antonyms, other word relationsThematically related words (lexical set)Substations with one/onesGrammatical level:Reference: article, pronouns, normalizationSubstitution of clause elements using so, not, do/does/did, etcEllipsis of clause elementsLinking words: conjunctions and conjunctsComparativesVerb tenseRhetorical techniquesQuestion and answerParallelismCoherenceWhen sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that readers need, you can use the methods listed here.Repetition of a Key Term or PhraseThis helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track. Example: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.SynonymsSynonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed.Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.PronounsThis, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.Transitional WordsThere are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. Words such as “however”, “therefore”, “in addition”, “also”, “but”, “moreover”, etc. Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.Sentence PatternsSometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together.。

1. 3文化语境建立连贯


在某些情况下文化语境也是实现 语篇连贯的隐含手段。任何一个 语言使用者都属于某个特定的言 语社团，每个言语社团都有长期 形成的历史、文化、风俗、人情、 习俗和价值标准。它们必然反映 于语言社团的共同语中，因此， 对语篇的理解还得联系文化语境， 才能获得连贯。 例如:

About Coherence
Halliday认为语篇连贯必须满足两个条 件:一是上下衔接，由衔接手段来体 现；一是符合语域(register)一致的 要求。Halliday和Hasan认为，衔接 是连贯的必要但不充分条件 (necessary but insufficient condition)，连贯是衔接的结果.衔接 链越多,语篇的连贯性越强。

由此可见，在有些情况下，语篇 的连贯是通过语言形式明确表示 出来的，但在另外一些情况下， 语篇的连贯性则表现得不那么清 晰明显，往往需要从意义和语用 功能 (pragmatic function) 上来解 释语篇的连接关系。
Classification of Coherence


explicit & implicit 显性连贯的语篇即语篇具有明显的形 式衔接手段，这方面的研究当以 Halliday和 Hasan(1976, 1985)对英语 的研究最具代表性。他们提出英语衔 接手段分为语法衔接(grammatical cohesion)和词汇衔接(lexical cohesion)两类.前者包括：照应 (reference)、替代(substitution)、省 略( ellipsis)和连接(conjunction)；后 者包括词汇复现(reiteration)和词汇同 现或搭配（collocation）。他们先后 多次强调形式衔接手段的重要性，并 认为衔接是连贯的必要条件之一。

Lecture 5 CoherenceⅠIntroductionLast lecture we learnt cohesion in discourse, as a means to make discourse logical and acceptable, it refers to the grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of a discourse. While sometimes we find it still needs coherent in the meaning of discourse, by which we can understand discourse better in real communication .that is to say, it is necessary to introduce coherence in our study. So from this lecture, we will focus on coherence in discourse.ⅡWhat is coherence1) According to Richard‟s Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, coherence refers to the relationships which link the meaning of utterances in a discourse or of the sentence in a text.2) According to Guy Cook‟s Discourse and Literary, coherence as a result of the interaction of text and receiver, which, through it may be aided by cohesion, is distinct and independent from it.3) 胡壮麟: 连贯指交际行为之间的统一关系。