语言学第三章chapter3

Chapter 3 LEXICON3.1. Basic conceptions of wordsWordQuestion: What is a “word”?(1) “A word is a speech sound or combination of sounds having meaning and used as a basic unit of language and human communication.” (Longman Modern English Dictionary, LMED1[1] 1968)Disadvantages:●phrases could be combination of sounds: ex. a piece of●morpheme is also a “basic unit” of language(2) “A word is one or more sounds which and be spoken (together) to represent an idea, object,action, etc.”(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, LDCE2[2] 1978) Disadvantages:●The combination of “one or more sounds” does not necessarily result in a word.● A sound is likely to be a word or a morpheme, ex. (-)a●Written forms are missing(3) “词是具有完整意义并在口语或书面语中可独立使用的最小语言单位。

”(“A word is theminimal free form with full meaning, the smallest form that may occur in isolation in spoken or written form.”) (王文斌2001: 4)3.1.1. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses orblanks(2) LexemeEx. “SHARE” for share, shared, shares, sharing(3) A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group/phrase in the lexicalgramaticalhierarchy.sentenceclauseword group/phrasewordmorphemeQuestion: How to classify would like, electronic mail (word phrase or word), work (free morpheme or word)3.1.2. Properties of words●Stability●Relative uninterruptibilityE.g. dis+ appoint+ ment(Even) Paul (even) didn’t (even) love (even) Jane (even).● A minimum free formE.g. ---- Is Jane coming this evening?---- Possibly.●Discreteness●Intuitive3.1.3 Classification of words(1)Variable & invariable words (variability)Variable words1[1] Watson, O., 1968. London: Longman Group Limited.2[2] Pocter, P. 1978. London: Longman Group Limited.Ex. follow, follows, following, followedInvariable words: words which are comparatively constantEx. when, seldom, net, hello(2) Grammatical words and lexical words (functional words and content words) (meaningexpressed by the word)Grammatical words (functional words):E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns (?)Lexical words (content words)E.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbsFurther questions :1.Do pronouns belong to content words or functional words?2.Do English adverbials correspond to Chinese adverbials?(3) Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-classE.g. due to, because of, be going to, and, with regard to, 和, 关于Open-classE.g. navigate the internet, EuroNote: METAPHOR(4) Word class●Classification standard: grammatical, semantic and phonological properties; formalsimilarities in terms of inflections and distribution;●Similar to parts of speech in Latin and Greeki. Particles : to, not, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as into, up, etc.ii.Auxiliaries: do, caniii.Pro-formEx. (a) John is very tall and so is Mary.(b) I like films and John does too.(c) I think so.iv. DeterminersEx. the (definite), a(n)(indefinite), some(partitive), all(universal)NOTE: Quirk (1985: 253)’s classification: predeterminers (all, both, twice), central determiners (this, that, any, some, his), and postdeterminers (next, last, many)3.2 The formation of wordQUESTION: What is in a word?3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphemeMorphologyEx. horrify, terrify, simplify, purifyNOTE: c.f. word & morphemeThe minimal meaningful unit; free or not free3.2.2. Types of morphemes(1)Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemesEx. cut, speak, careCOMPOUNDSEx. homemade, laptop, conscience-strickenBound MorphemesEx. mis- in misfortune, -ful in careful, -ed in kicked(2)Root, affix and stemROOTEx. -rage in enrage (free), -cide in suicide (bound)●Meaningful and unanalyzable●Free or boundNOTE 1: All words contain a root morpheme.NOTE 2: Some English roots may have both free and bound variants.Ex. sleep and slep- in sleptAFFIXPrefix: dis-, im-, un-●Suffix: -ify, -ize, -ation●Infix: foot/ feet, goose/geeseSTEMEx. friend and friendly in unfriendlyQUESTION: Does a morphemic shape, such as–er donate only one meaning?C.f. clever, teacher, and typewriter(3)Inflectional affix vs. derivational affix(or inflectional morpheme vs. derivational morpheme)Inflectional affixNoun+ -’s, -sVerb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -enAdjective+ -er, -estEx. Let me tell you about Jim’s sisters.One likes to have fun and is always laughing.The other liked to study and has always taken things seriously.One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse.Derivational affixEx.–ness, -ful,-less, -ish, ex-, co-, pre-, etcC.f. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflectionalDerivationallexicalfree functionalMorpheme derivationalbound inflectional3.2.3. Inflection and word formation(1) INFLECTION (INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY)Ex. Person, finiteness and aspectopen/opens/opening/opened(2)WORD FORMATION (LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY): the process of word variationssignaling lexical relationshipsi. CompoundEx. classroom, table tennis, sunrise(a) Classification(b) Orthographical classificationOpen form: cold war, sun beamHyphenated form: tax-free, cease-fireSolid form: skybus, heartfelt(c) Endocentric compound vs. exocentric compound●endocentric compound: verbal compound/synthetic compound (综合复合词), X+VE.g. self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable, virus-sensitiveHEAD●exocentric compound: V+XE.g. scarecrow, sit-down, take-home, breakneckNOTE: Syntactic structures of morphemes of noun compounds and adjective compoundsii. DerivationDERIV ATION shows the relation between roots and affixesNOTE: Inflections make the word class of the original word changed, and derivations can make the word class either changed or unchanged. (Pp 91)(a)Word class changeN V length + -en lengthen(b)Word class unchangedN N book + -let bookletOTE: open and large derivational forms; multiple derivational affixes are allowed for one word inflectional morphology (Inflection)Morphology compound (endocentric, exocentric) lexical morphology (Word formation)derivation3.2.4. The counterpoint of phonology and morphologyQUESTION: How to represent a morpheme? A phoneme? A phonological structure?(1)Morpheme & phonemeMorpheme: the smallest unit in grammarPhoneme: the smallest unit in soundInterface: Morphophonology/morphophonetics(2)Morphemic structure and phonological structureMonophonemic catsMonosyllabic most + lyPolysyllabic tobacooNOTE: Morphemic (grammatical) structure and syllabic (phonological) structure do not necessarily correspond.C.f. teller & bigger(3)AllomorphAllomorphEx. allomorphs of plural morpheme (Pp 94)-s～-z～-iz～-ai～-i:～-n～-øMorpheme:(4)Morphophonology or MorphophonemicsMorphophonology (morphonology) or Morphophonemics (morphonemics)i. Phonologically conditioned●AssimilationEx. irregular, infirm, impossible, imperfect/n/(alveolar nasal), /m/(bilabial nasal), /p/(bilabial)●DissimilationEx. marbre (French) marbleii. Morphologically conditionedThree requirements:(a) common meaningE.g. -s～-z～-iz～-ai～-i:～-n～-ø(b) complementary distribution(c)parallel formation (Pp 96)3.3 Lexical change3.3.1. Lexical change proper(1)Invention/Coinage: AIDS, SARS, dink, drink-straw, 菜鸟, 小强Assignment: at least three coinage(2)Blending(3) E.x. breakfast + lunch brunchswear + curse swurseFusion (溶合): the blending at the cognitive levelE.x. ripple + shuffle riffle(4)Abbreviation/Clipping(5)Back clipping: ad, auto, bike, dorm,Front clipping: phone telephoneFront and back clipping: flu influenzaName abbreviation: Bob for RobertAbbreviation in education domain: exam, math, lab(6)Acronym/Initialism: result of word formation in which the first letters or syllables of wordgroups are written and pronounced as words.Acronyme.x. NATO, TOFEL, 老少边穷地区, 机考Initialisme.x. BBC, DIY, GRE, ID card, USA, UN, VIP, VOA, WHO, Y2Kyuppies = young urban professionals, buppies, Juppies, guppies, puppiesaids = acquired immune deficiency syndrome(7)Back formationE.x. burgle burglar(8)Analogical creationE.x. work wrought, worked(9)Borrowingi. Loanwordse.x. bravo, fiancé, cliché, coup d’étatii. Loanblende.x. coconut, Chinatowniii.Loanshifte.x. foul (fair dirty in Spanish)iv.Loan translation /Calquee.x. running dog(走狗)(10)F unctional shift/conversione.x. dos and don’tsThe policeman dogged the suspect.(11)P roper nameE.x. hoover, waterloo, Samaritan, Spartan(12)C ompounding:e.x. earthquake, moonwalk, round-the-clock, kowhow, instant coffee, instant soldiers, instant speech, instant star, pickpocket, diehard.(13)D erivativesE.x. telecon(电话会议), antiabortionists, solarium, bibliophobia,sputnik(前苏联人造地球),beatnik, cinenik, computernik3.3.2. Phonological changeChanges in sound leading to changes in form.(1) LossE.x. /x/ øO.E. niht /nixt/ night /nait/(2) AdditionE.x. studium (Latin) estuide (O.F.), estudio (Spanish), estudo (Portugese)(3) MetathesisE.x. ask ——/aks/(4) AssimilationContact /contiguous assimilationNon-contact / distant assimilation3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change(1)Morphological changeE.x. third person singular——do(e)th, goeth, has,etc.(2)Syntactical changeSplit infinitive, postponed prepositions, objective case of relative pronoun; fusion/blending3.3.4. Semantic changea word with multiple meanings, ex. polysemyBroadeningNarrowingMeaning shiftClass shift/zero-derivationFolk etymology (俗词源学):E.x. sparrowgrass asparagus (文竹)3.3.5. Orthographic changeORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGE: changes found at the graphetic level (Pp110) E.g. Iesus Jesus ; sate sat ; sunne sun。

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write”is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relativepositional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “th e minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, byitself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have noinflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles,etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced intolinguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can bedivided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term forthe type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That isto say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, afterthe removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. Aroot may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceiveand perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a freeroot morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. Astem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g.friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can beequivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class ofthe stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g.toys, walks, John’s,etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. Incontrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower,flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small andsmallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the wordthey attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes tonavigate on the internet.”is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereasderivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice ofclever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever”or wewant to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums,walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway,rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, thefirst member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, andV + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc.Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring to theanalysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacentsound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon thearticulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of thetwo words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial partsof the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in thisprocess.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressedwords.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e.the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion toa process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?•definition: It is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”:a. a physically definable unit;b. the common factor underlying a set of forms;c. a grammatical unit•a physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.It is wonderful.–Three words are recognized.–However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes–It‟s wonderful.–Are they two words or three?b. the common factor underlying a set of forms•-- walk, walks, walking, walked•How many words are there? (considered only one word/lexeme walk in dictionary)•I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.•How many times did the word “have” occur?•Lexeme: the abstract and smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which can be distinguished from another smallest unit.e.g. “write” is the lexeme of the set of the following items:write wrote written writing writesc. a grammatical unit•Language is hierarchy.3.1.2. Identification of words•stability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc•relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word•a minimum free form:(suggested by Bloomfield)maximum→ sentenceminimum→ word3.1.3 Classification of words•Variable vs. Invariable Words:–Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.–Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.•Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:–Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.–Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.•Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:–Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.–Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.•Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Word class–Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. •Some new word class:–Particles:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.–Auxiliaries: do, have–Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.–Pro-form–DeterminersPro-forms•Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.–Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone–Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.–Pro-verb: He spoke English better than she did.–Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.–Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner•Determiner: words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.•There are 3 classes of determiners:predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third…central determiners: this, that, every, each, either, my…post determiners: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, next, last, other, many, few, a great many o f…•Their positions are fixed:Predeterminers + central determiners +post determiners;•E.g. all her many good ideasP C P modifier•*their all trouble•*five the all boys•*all this boy•*all both girls3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphology•Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.e.g. dis appoint ment (3)•Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.•Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.2.2 Types of morphemes•Free morphemes & Bound morphemesFree morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes fall into two categories:Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g. mooncake Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2) Root, affix and stem•Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.•Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into–prefix (dis-, un-)–suffix (-en, -ify) and–Infix( feet, goose).•Stem : it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem can be bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3) Inflectional and Derivational AffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational•Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.•- (e) s: plurality of nouns•- (e) s: third person singular, present tense•- (e) d: past tense for all three persons•- (e) d: past participle form of verbs•- ing: progressive aspect•- er : comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- est: superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- …s: the possessive case of nouns•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Difference Between Roots ,Base and Stem ?•Some linguists consider the base to be the equivalent to the term root; that is, the base form of a word or that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved .•Some other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem.( in the word unhappiness, unhappy may be the base, happy is the root )•A stem is the main part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added and it can be a bound root, afree morpheme, or a derived form itself. The stem and the root often coincide( stars: root=stem); 1 stem=2 root/free morphemes (motherlands)3.2.3 Inflection and Word FormationThere are 2 fields Morphology concerns:the study of Inflections (Inflectional Morphology) andWord Formation ( Lexical or Derivational Morphology).•Inflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy’s ) do not change the grammatical class of the stems•Derivation: shows the relations between roots and affixes, e.g.lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)(2) Word Formationi. compound•Compounds: two or more free roots combine to make a new word.–Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill–Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit–Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree–Preposition compounds: into, throughout•Endocentric & exocentric compounds•Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg–self-control: a kind of control–armchair: a kind of chair•E xocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg–scarecrow: not a kind of crow–breakneck: not a kind of neck•Written forms of compounds–Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard–Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length–Open: coffee table, washing machine•Free variation:–businessman, business-man, business man–winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle–no one, no-one, nooneii. Derivation•Word class changed:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Word class unchanged:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change proper3.3.2 Morphosyntactic change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change3.3.1 lexical change proper1. Invention (coinage)one of the least common process of word formation in English. The invention of totally new terms.e.g. kodak, nylon2. BlendingTwo words are blended by joining the initial part of the first one and the final part of the second, or by joining the initial part of the two parts, e.g.–transfer +resistor>transistor–smoke+fog>smog–motorist+hotel>motel–breakfast+lunch>brunch–modulator+demodulator>modem–dance+exercise>dancercise–advertisement+editorial>advertorial–education+entertainment>edutainment–information+commercial>infomercial3. Abbreviation/ Shortingwords can be formed by the reduction of other words or phrases.•(1)initialism•(2)acronym•(3)clipping•Initialism–AI: artificial intelligence–a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible–ECU: European Currency Unit–HIV: human immunodeficiency virus–PC: personal computer–PS: postscript–RSVP: répondez s‟il vous plait (…please reply‟ in French)•4. Acronym–AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome–ASAP: as soon as possible–CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory–WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant–dink(y): double income, no kids–nilk(y): no income, lots of kids•Clipping–Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s–Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake–Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)5. Back-formationa word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type, e.g--diagnose < diagnosis–enthuse < enthusiasm–laze < lazy–liaise < liaison–reminisce < reminiscence–statistic < statistics–televise < television6. Analogical Creation–From irregular to regular:old new•work: wrought > worked•beseech: besought > beseeched•slay: slew > slayed•go: went > goed???7. Borrowing (loan words)•French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, •Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor•Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy•Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla•Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano •Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht•Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero•Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga•Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan words•Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed.–au pair, encore, coup d‟etat, kungfu, sputnik•Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, the meaning is fully borrowed.–coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)–Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)•Loanshift: form is native, meaning is borrowed.–bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte•Loan translation, or calque: each morpheme is translated in the equivalent morpheme in another language–free verse < L verse libre–black humor < Fr humour noir–found object < Fr objet trouvé8. CompoundingCompounding : to join two separate words to produce a single form.•(1) When the two words are in the same grammatical category ,the compound will be in this category :N + N = N : boyfriend ,elevator-operator, fighter-bomber, landlordAdj. + Adj. = Adj. icy-cold, red–hot•(2) When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound:N. + Adj. = Adj.: headstrong ,watertight, lifelongV. + N. = N. : daredevil, sawbones•Compounds formed with a preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compound:Overtake: prep + v. = v.Hanger-on: n. + prep. = n.Uplift: prep. + v. = v.Sit-in: v. +prep. = v.•(3)Though two-word compounds are the most common in English , it would be different to state an upper limit: e.g.Three-time loserFour-dimensional space-timeA middle-income-familyThe one –child-family policyA sentence in Washington post reads:“The air force is bei ng weaned away from the bomb-them-into-the-stone-age-with-the-biggest-fiercest-planes-imaginable-philosophy9. Derivationshow the relation between roots and affixes, e.g. nation, national, nationalize, nationalization, international;•Class-changing:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Class-preserving:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant10. Conversiona change in the function of a word,e.g a noun is used to be a verb: to dust11. Onomatopoeia•The use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing, like hiss, boom…3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change•Morphological change:–third person singular present tense:-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds–the campus of the university >the university‟s campus•Syntactical change:–He saw you not. > He d idn‟t see you.–I know not where to hide my head. > I don‟t know where to hide my head.•Fusion/blending:–equally good + just as good > equally as good–It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use in getting there before nine > There‟s no use getting there before nine.3.3.3 Semantic change•1) Broadening:–holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest–bird: young bird > any kind–task: tax > work•2) Narrowing:–meat: food >–girl: young person > young woman–deer: beast > a special kind of animal•3) Meaning shift:•bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood•4) Class shift: conversion to other word classes–engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)•5) Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .–history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.–his story > herstory•Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology–Manhattan: man with hat on–MBA: married but available–PhD: perhaps have divorced–golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.3.4 phonological change•phonological change: refers to changes in sound leading to changes in forms.•Types: (1) loss(2) addition(3) metathesis 换位(4) assimilation 同化•Loss of sound:–loss of sound in fast speech, eg cabinet, laboratory –and > ‟n in connected speech, eg rock-‟n-roll •Addition of sound:–L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo –English: strike > sutoraiki (Jap.) •Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound–O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask •Assimilation:–impossible, immovable–irregular, irresponsible–illogical, illegal3.3.5 Orthographic change•Change of spelling:–Iesus > Jesus–sate > sat–Sunne > Sun。

Chapter 3: Tables and ExercisesTable 3.2 Some of the features required for classifying English sounds.Feature name ClassificatorypossibilitiesEnglish segmentsV oice [+voice] b, d, g, m, n, v, 3 ,dз , ŋ , ð , z, w, r, l, j (and all vowels) [-voice] p, t, k, f, s, θ, ʃPlace [labial] p, b, m, f, v[denti-alveolar] θ, ð , t, d, n, s, z, l, r[palatal] ʃ, 3, j (and front vowels)[velar] k, g, w ( and back vowels)Stop [stop] p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n[fricative] f, s, v, z, ʃ, 3, θ, ð[Approximant] w, r, l, j (and all vowels)Nasal [+nasal] m, n, ŋ[-nasal] ( all other speech sounds)Lateral [+lateral] l[-lateral] ( all other speech sounds)Sibilant [+sibilant] s, z, ʃ, 3 , tʃ, dз[-sibilant] ( all other speech sounds)Height [maximum] ( all consonants except w, j )[4 height] i: , u:, w, j[3 height] ei, i, əu, u[2 height] e, ɔ[1 height] æ, ɑ:Back [+back] u: , u, ɔ:, ɔ, əu, ɑ:, w, k, g[-back] i, i:, ei, e, æ ( and all other consonants) Syllabic [+syllabic] all vowels and some consonants as m, n, ŋ , l, r [-syllabic] all other consonants, including w, j .(Taken from Ladefoged, P. 1982: 39 with some minute revision)音节◌ɹn̩成音节◌e̯ʊ不成音节除阻◌ʰtʰ送气[a]◌d̚无声除阻◌ʱdʱ◌ⁿdⁿ鼻音除阻◌ˡdˡ边音除阻发音◌n̥d̥浊音清化◌s̬t̬浊化◌b̤a̤漏气音[b]◌b̰a̰吱嘎音发音部位◌t̪d̪齿化◌t̼d̼舌唇化◌t̺d̺舌尖化◌t̻d̻舌叶化◌u̟t̟较前◌i̠t̠较后◌ëä较央◌e̽ɯ中央化◌e̝ɹ较高（抬）(ɹ = 有声齿龈嘶音擦音)◌˔˔◌e̞β̞较低（降）(β̞= 双唇近音)◌˕˕协同发音◌ɔx̹更圆唇◌ɔx̜ʷ更展唇◌ʷtʷ dʷ唇化或唇-软颚化◌ʲtʲ dʲ颚化◌ˠtˠ dˠ软腭化◌ˤtˤ aˤ喉壁化◌ᶣtᶣ dᶣ唇-卷舌化◌̴ɫz̴软腭化或喉壁化◌e̘o̘舌根前移◌e̙o̙舌根后移◌ẽz̃鼻音化◌˞ɚɝ卷舌化( 2 ) V(owel) [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $This rule can be explained in the following way piece by piece:V [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $Vowels become nasalized in the before nasal within aenvironment segments syllable(8)The syllable structure for the words with one syllable:σOnset RhymeNucleus Codas p l i n t s →[splints] (10). The syllable structure for words with more than one syllableσσOnset Rhyme Onset RhymeNucleus Coda Nucleus Codas e n t r əl [sentrəl] central(11) Some examples for the words with one syllable.Front onset onset back onset vowel front coda coda back coda back coda back coda（1）（2）（3）Nucleusonset (peak)codae.g.: eye ai [ai]it i t [it]me m i: [mi:]bit b i t [bit] scrimps s k r i m p s [skrimps] screen s k r i: n [skri:n] twelfths t w e l f θs [twelfθs](12) Different intonations representing different attitudes of the speaker(Radford 2000:48).a. b. c. d. e.me me ? me! me me ?!eat peas eat peas ? eat peas ! eat peas eat peas ?!↓↗￣↘／￣↘↗A simple statement, a question, a strong assertion, a matter of fact assertion, disbeliefEXERCISES(Exercise I, II, III are adapted from the exercises 299-310 in Fromkin,et al.(2007), Exercises IV, V are revised according to those provided in Radford (2000): 101-102. )Exercises IMinimal pairs can be used to find the phonemes of the particular language; find the sets of minimal pairs for each pair of English consonants given below:/k/ ---/g/, /b/---/m/, /l/---/r/, /p/---/f/, /s/---/ʃ/,/tʃ/--- /dз/, /e/---/æ/, /n/---/ŋ/, /θ/--- /ð/, /i/---/i:/,Exercises IIIn some dialects of English, the following words have different vowels, as is shown by the phonetic transcriptions (in American transcription [ai] is transcribed as [aj]):A. B. C.bite [bʌjt] bide [ bajd] die [daj]rice [rʌjs] rise [rajz] by [baj]ripe [rʌjp] bribe [brajb] sigh [saj]wife [wʌjf] wives [wajvz] rye [raj]dike [dʌjk] dime [dajm] guy [gaj]a.How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B becharacterized? that is, what feature specifies all the final segments in Aand all the final segments in B ?b.How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B ?c.Are [ʌj] and [aj] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.d.Give the phonetic representations of the following words as they would bespoken in the dialect described here:Life [ ], lives [ ], lie [ ], file [ ], bike [ ], lice [ ]e.Formulate a rule that will relate the phonemic representations to thephonetic representations of the words given above.Exercises IIIConsider the following English verbs. Those in column A have stress on next-to-last syllable, whereas the verbs in column B and C have their last syllable stressed.A. B. C.astonish collapse amazeexit exist improveimagine resent surprisecancel revolt combineelicit adopt believepractice insist atonea.Transcribe the words under columns A, B, and C phonemically.( Use aschwa for the unstressed vowels.)b.Consider the phonemic structure of the stressed syllables in these verbs.What is the difference between the final syllables of the verbs in columns Aand B? Formulate a rule that predicts where stress occurs in the verbs incolumns A and B.c.In the verbs in column C, stress also occurs on the final syllable. Whatmust you add to the rule to account for this fact ? ( Hint: for the forms incolumns A and B, the final consonants had to be considered; for the formsin column C, consider the vowels.)Exercises IVRecall that the symbol = means an unaspirated consonant and the symbol h means aspiration. Show how the pattern of data below can be explained by the Maximal Onset Principle. Assume that separate words are syllablified separately.1a. stub [st =ʌb] 2a. spare [sp= eə] 3a. scar [sk=ɑ: ]b. this tub [ðis t hʌb] b. this pear [ðis p h ea] b. this car [ðis k h ɑ:]c. disturb [dist=ə:b] c. despair [disp= eə] c. discard [disk=ɑ:d]Exercises VBreak the following words into syllables, and applying the Maximal Onset Principle, identify the onsets, nuclei and codas by providing a diagram such as that in (10).a, comfortable, b, secretary, c, cooperation, d, confessional.Exercises VIIn the discussion of the phonological rules, we have a deletion rule stated as Delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Thus, in the pairs like sign / signature, design / designation, paradigm / paradigmatic,there is not a phonetic [g] in the first word; but in the pairs like gnosis / agnostic, the pronunciation of the first word is also lack a phonetic [g]. Can you give a more general rule describing these data ?Exercises VIISuppose / d / is the basic form of the pronunciation of the past-tense morpheme–ed; given the following data, please form some rules to explain the past-tense formation of regular verbs as those in section 3.Set A: grab [græb], grabbed [græbd], hug [hʌg], hugged [hʌgd]; faze[ feiz], fazed [feizd]; roam [rəum], roamed [rəumd].Set B: reap[ri:p], reaped [ri:pt]; poke [pəuk], poked [pəukt]; kiss [kis], kissed [kist]; patch [pætʃ], patched [pætʃt]Set C. fight [fait], fighted [faitəd], load [ləud], loaded [ləudəd]Exercises VIIIIn the pronunciation of the word speak [sp=i:k], bean [bi:n], the phonemes /p/, /i:/ may be described according to its phonetic features as the following:/p/: [voiceless, labial, stop, unaspirated], /i:/: [voiced, high, front, spread, nasalized]. Among these features, which features may be distinctive, which are nondistinctive features? Give the reasons to support your argument.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。

Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。

Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:T1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.F2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.T3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.T4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.T5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.T6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.T7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.F8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.F9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.T10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.T11. The word “if” is a closed class word.12. A morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sounds but a meaning and a sequence of sounds joined together.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.14. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a grammatical meaning.15. Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.16. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and derivative affixes.17. Derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create words.18. A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.19. Compounding is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.20. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called morphological rules.21. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.22. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to whicha derivational affix can be added.23. The indefinite articles “a” and “an” form a pair of allomorph that are characterized by c__________________ distribution.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:D24. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme D25. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.B26. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements B27. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words C28. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. MorphemeC29. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticD30. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes A31. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. AffixesB32. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. SentencesC33. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root B34. The underlined elements in “He enjoys reading books” share a(n) ______. A. allomorph B. morph C. morpheme D. affixIV. Define the following terms:35. morphology ：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.36. inflectional morphology ：The inflectional morphology studies the inflections.37.derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study ofword-formation.38. morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.39. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.40. bound morpheme:Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to forma word.41. root:A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.42. affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.43. prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.44. suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.45. derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.46. compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.47．morph: A morph is a term that refers to two morphemes that are identical in form but different in meaning.48. allomorph: Allomorphs are variations of the same morpheme. Allomorphs are identical in meaning but different in form.V. Answer the following questions:49. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the firstelement.50. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”. Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morpheme s, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis-” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.51. Find cases where a morpheme is not assigned a lexical meaning.。

Chapter 3 MorphologyMain points:•What is word•Classification of words•Morphology and the types of word formation•Lexical change3. 1 Concept of wordWord, word-form, lexemeνWhat is a word?ν A cat eats rats.νIn visual term s: a word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper.1) --- A physical definable unit2) Phonologically, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are madevoluntarily with human vocal equipment to convey meaning and its boundaries are indicated by pauses.ν[Əkæt i:ts ræts]3) From an orthographical point of view, each of the forms eat, eats, ate, eaten, eating is a“word” in the sense of word-form.Semantically, however, the five forms share the same basic meaning.Grammatically the five forms are the inflectional variants in the paradigm (范例) of the verb EAT.“Word” used in this sense is known in linguistics as lexeme, i.e. “a minimal free form” in Bloomfield’s terminology. --- the common factor underlying set of formsνSo, Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.To sum up, A word is [a minimum free form of a language]. which has [a given sound] and [meaning] and [syntactic function].νThere are three factor to identify words1) stability2) a minimum free form3) relative un-interruptiblityν A lexeme (词位) is a word in an abstract sense. When it “occurs” (in a metaphorical sense of “occur”) in a certain context, it is a word-form, which has a particular phonological ororthographical shape.νThe actual occurrence of a lexeme in speech or writing always has phonological or orthographical form.νThe phonological or orthographical form is the realization of the lexeme.νLexeme is the standard form that enters the dictionary.νSentences Language is not only a linearityν-- clauses structure but also a hierarchyν-- word group structure.ν-- wordsν-- morphemes According to Bloomfield’s theoryν-- syllables Sentence is the maximum free formν-- phonemes Word is the minimum free form.ν-- distinctive featuresν-- super-segmental features3.2 Classification of wordsWords can be classified by different criteria into different types:1) variable and invariable words2) grammatical and lexical words3) close-class and open-class word4) part of speech1) variable and invariable wordsνWords cab be classified according to their variability.variable words:e.g. follow, following, follows, followedInvariable words: The words which do not have inflective endings.e.g. when, Hi, seldom, through etc.2) grammatical words and lexical words --- in terms of words’ meaningνBy notion, words can be divided into content words and function words3) Close-class and open-class wordsνClose-word is one whose membership is fixed or limited.νOpen-word is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the mergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.4) Word class and part of speechνAccording to traditional grammar – Latin grammar, there are 8 kinds of word class:νToady, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories: (1) particles; (2) pro-form (3) determiners; (4) auxiliariesFurthermore, there are other standards to classify words.νBy frequency ,words fall into the Basic word stock and Non-basic vocabulary.νBy notion, words can be divided into content words and functional words.νBy origin, words can be grouped into native words and foreign words.νBy Morphology, words can be divided into simple words and compoundsνBy cognition, The vocabulary can be divided into Active Vocabulary and Passive Vocabulary.3.3 Introduction to morphologyMorphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms andclasses of words.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Word-building or word-formation is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationship.•Introduction to morphemeA morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.• Two types of morphemes free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: dog, nation and close.--- All mono-morphemic words.Bound morpheme: “-s”, “dis-” and “-al” they must appear with at least another morpheme. Introduction to free morphemeSome morphemes can stand alone as words, which are called free morphemes.A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is ,a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root .Introduction to root, stem and basePoly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes. ( prefix, suffix, and infix)A root is the base form of word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A base is an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of the kind can be added. Introduction to rootA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Root may be further divided into free roots and bound roots.A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound , but an affix is naturally bound. Introduction to stemA stem of a word may be(i) a simple stem consisting of only 1 morpheme, in which case the root and the stem are the same, eg. In works, work is both the stem and the root;(ii) a root plus a derivational affix, eg. in workers, work is the root, worker is the stem;(iii) Two or more roots, e.g. in workshops, both work and shop are roots ,workshop is the stem. Lexical and functional morphemeFree morphemes can be divided into 2 categories.lexical morphemes and functional morphemeslexical morpheme : the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morpheme, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words. Functional morphemesfunctional morphemes: consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.Introduction to bound morphemesBound morphemes: Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s,-er,-ed and –ing. Bound morphemes are actually affixes.All affixes in English are bound.Bound morphemes also can be divided into derivational and inflectional morphemes according to the their grammatical functionPrefixes, suffixes, and infixesPrefixes: affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.Suffixes: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.Infixes: morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational and inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. English has only 8 inflectional morphemesThe eight inflectional morphemes• noun+ -’s (possessive), -s (plural)• verb+ -s(3rd person present singular),•-ing (present participle),•-ed (past tense and past participle),•-en (past participle)• adj.+ -est(superlative),-er(comparative)The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemesInflectional• (1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem••(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.•• (3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.•• (4) Occurs at margins of wordsDerivational(1)Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem(2)Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.Inflection & Word formationMorphology concerns two fields : Inflections and word-formation.(1)Inflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.Such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.(2)Word-formation: It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further sub-classified into Compound and Derivation.Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.Compounding shows the relation between lexical words.Endocentric and Exocentric compoundCompound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.(1) Endocentric compound (向心复合词).Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(2) Exocentric compound (离心复合词).Such as: sit-down, playboy, take-home, runawayThe Features of compoundsDespite the various formations, all compounds share the following features.1. Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.e.g. armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.How a compound is written is simply a matter of convention, and convention should be respected in this case as it always is.2. Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element,e. g. icy-cold (adj). green-house. (n).But there are many exceptions, especially with those compounds ending with a verb or an adverb or a preposition..For example, follow-up, crackdown, kick-off are all nouns instead of adverbs, and toothpick, snowfall are nouns instead of verbs3 Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components..For example, a blackleg is not a leg that is black, a greenhouse is not a house that is green, a Red coat is not a coat at all, and neither is a hotdog a dog ..To find out the meaning of a compound, one sometimes has to consult thedictionary instead of doing some guess work.4 Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress..This is important because it helps us to distinguish –ing forms that are used as a pre-modifier of a noun and those that are used as the first part of a compound word.So the same form "running dog" can possibly be pronounced in two differently ways.Usually the right-hand member nor only determines the category of the whole compound, but it also determines the major part of the sense of the compound. SO the right member serves as the head.4.4 Lexical development1) The disappearance of some old words2) The occurrence of some new words3) The lexical change in words’ form and meaningSuch as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washableThere are five aspects about the lexical change.The types of lexical change(1) Lexical change proper --- minor means of word- formationIncluding：Invention，Blending, clipping, acronym (首字母拼音法), & Initialism（首字母缩略法）; back-formation; analogical creation(类比构词)，etc.Loanwords: Group1 Loanword (借词) ※Loanblend （混合借词）＝＝Denizen （同化词）& Alien (非同化词)Group 2 Loanshift （转移借词）※Loan－translation（翻译借词）Semantic－loan（借义词）& Translation loan ( 译借词)(2) Phonological change (音位变化) ---Such as, loss of sound; Sound addition; Metathesis; assimilation(3) Morpho-syntactical change (形态-句法变化)Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(4) Semantic change 语义变化)(5) Orthographic change （拼写的变化)Old English is an Synthetic language , which full of inflectional changes.Modern English is an analytic language.4) Types of word meaning changesνNarrowing (缩小)A process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense.νExtension /broadening (扩大)It is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.νTransference / Meaning shift (转移)Refer to some word which were used to designate one thing but later changed to meansomething else which experienced the process of semantic transfer.(1) . Associated TransferThis is what is commonly known as figurative extension of word meaning.(2) Transfer between Abstract and Concrete meaning(3) Transfer between Subjective and Objective meaningνDegradation (降格)It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affectivewords come to be used in derogatory sense.νElevation (升华)It refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions ofimportance.Cause of word-meaning change1.Extra-linguistic factorsHistorical reasons; Class reasons; Psychological reasons.2. Linguistic factorsLanguage system; The influence of borrowings; Analogy。

语⾔学chapter3课后答案Chapter 3Revision exercises reference1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. micro + film e. tele + com + muni + cat + ionb. be + draggle + d f. fore + fatherc. announce + ment g. psycho + physicsd. pre + digest + ion h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.suffix: -mentmeaning: added to some verbs to form nouns that refer to actions, processes, or statesstem type: added to verbsexample: statement, “something you say or write, especially publicly or officially, to let people know your intentions or opinions, or to record facts” enjoyment, “the feeling of pleasure you get from having or doing something, or something you enjoy doing”suffix: -nessmeaning: added to adjectives to form nouns which often refer to a state or quality stem type: added to adjective example: happiness, “the state of being happy”Kindness, “kind behavior towards someone”suffix: -shipmeaning: added to some nouns to form nouns which often denote a state, status, or skillsstem type: added to nounsexample: friendship, “a relationship between friends”readership, “all the people who read a particular newspaper ormagazine regularly”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.in-: when added to adjectives, it means not; when added to nouns, it means without, lack of; it can also be spelt as il- before l, im- before b, m, p, and ir- before r. e.g.inability inaccuracy inaction inconsistencyinconvenience indeterminacy indiscretion inequityinhuman inapt infrequent infiniteingenuous infiltrate inhospitable immuneimmortal imperceptible imperfectde-: This prefix can form verbs and their derivatives meaning down, away; when added to the verb and their derivatives, it denotes removal or reversal. e.g.decaf decipher decolour descenddebase deform defrost defocusdegrade debrief debug deactivatedehydrate defoliate delimit dematerialize re-: This prefix means 1) once more, afresh, anew as in the world reaccustom; 2) returning to a previous state as in restore; or 3) in return, mutually as in react etc.E.g.recap reanimate rearm reassemblereassessing reattach reapply reappear Note: There is an exception to the rule when the word to which re- attaches begins with e. In this case a hyphen is often inserted for clarity, e.g. re-examine, re-enter, re-enact. A hyphen is sometimes also used where the world formed with the prefix would be identical to an already existing words, e.g. re-cover (meaning cover again), nor recover (meaning getting better in health).4.The Italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectionalmorpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.●Sue moves in high-society circles in London.-s, third person singular, present simple tense● A traffic warden asked John to move his car.-ed, past tense●The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.has -ed, present perfect●The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.are + v-ing, present continuous (plural).5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, gone (inflection)●go, the root form●go + -es, present participle●go + -ing, present participle●gone, past participleb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)●dis-, prefix ( added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal●-y, suffix (added after the verbs form nouns) denoting a state or an actionor its result●-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing thatperforms a specified action or activity●-able, an adjective suffix added to the verbs meaning able to be●-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of -able. It can also spell as-ibility, meaning having the quality as in manageability (可处理性) and suitability (适合性).c)inventor, inventor`s, inventors, inventors` (a mixture of inflection or derivation)●derivation: invent + -or●inflection: inventor`s, inventors`, `s indicating possessive cased)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)●-cy, added to the nouns ending with t to form another noun denoting astate governed in such a way●-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaningrelated to or in resemblance with...●-ize, a suffix added to the nouns to form verbs denoting the conversion,or transforming.6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)b)c)d)e)The strongest rower continued.f)g)h)Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.2.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.4.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.5.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.6.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:7.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8.The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.9.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.10.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words tocreate new words.11.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form anew word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:12.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme13.The compound word “bookstore” is the place wh ere books are sold. Thisindicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.14.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part ofspeech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.15._______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words16.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticIV. Answer the following question(s):17.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。

Chapter 3 MorphologyPart1 the OverviewPart2 Linguistician——Leonard BloomfieldLeonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) was the most influential American linguist between William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) and Noam Chomsky (1928- ). Leonard Bloomfield led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s. His influential textbook Language, published in 1933, presented a comprehensive description of American structural linguistics.[1] He madesignificant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, the description of Austronesian languages, and description of languages of the Algonquian family.Bloomfield's approach to linguistics was characterized by its emphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics, adherenceto behaviorism especially in his later work, and emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data. The influence of Bloomfieldian structural linguistics declined in the late 1950s and 1960s as the theory of Generative Grammar developed by Noam Chomsky came to predominate.Part Four Exercise(chosen in P40)1. a. micro+filmb. bed+raggle+dc. announce+mentd. pre+digest+tione. tele+communicate+tionf. fore+fatherg. psycho+physicsh. machine+ist2.(1)suffix : -botMeaning : robotStem type :added to verbsExample: knowbot, ”intelligent robot”3(2)prefix : of-Meaning : officeStem type: added to blending part of a wordExample: oftel, “official telephone”Conclusion:Prefixation: adding a prefix to the base, with or without a change of word-class(e.g.: normal---abnormal)(modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation: adding a suffix to the base, with or without a change of word-class (e.g.: act---actor)(not modify the lexical meaning of the base)Part TwoConcepts:Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Words can be divided into two classes: open class and close class.Open class words can be also called lexical or content words and include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They are called so because new words can be added to these classes regularly. Closed class words can be also called grammatical or functional words and include conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns, determiners, model verbs and auxiliary verbs. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme, whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.Derivational morphemes are called so because when they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, new words are derived, or formed. They not only have independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning. Derivational morphemes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments. It is a morpheme that is realized by more than one morphs. Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word. Therefore, roots are the cores of English words.Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes.Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base.That is derivation may be defined as a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. It is a main way of word formation. Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. Back-formation is also known as a reverse derivation because a derived form has preceded the word from which it is derived.Abbreviation is a minor process of word formation. It includes clipping, initialism and blending.The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form. Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; initialism is pronounced letter by letter.Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two or more words or a word plus a part of another word.Neologism is the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek (as in telephone). The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.Borrowing is the process of taking over a word from another language and modify the word in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigms or meaning according to the standard of the English language.Part ThreeOn Stress of CompoundsIn chapter three, we learned a way of forming new words that is compounding, which is commonly used in present English. Statistics show that there is about 27% compound words in English vocabulary and the number is still increasing. Nevertheless,how can we pronounce them correctly? We all know that error stress pronunciation in compound words will influence the initial meaning. Thus, we refer to some articles to explain this phenomenon in detail.As is mentioned above, compounding is the most productive way of word formation since World War Two. A compound is a unit consisting of two or more bases, such as bookstore,working class,warm-hearted,etc. So, which base should we put stress on? Here comes the problem, because different pronunciation carries different meanings. Taking running shoes as an example, if both of the two bases are stressed, then it means that shoes are running ,but if the stress is put on the first base, the meaning would be shoes for running.Obviously, the former pronunciation of running shoes is not meaningful. However, there are some compound words that make sense even if pronounced in two ways. For instance, smoking room, if we read ‘smoking room,it means where people can smoke,if ‘smoking ‘room,it means a room which is on fire. Therefore, it is rather complex. And this kind of situation mostly happen to words like sleeping-car, reading-room which have the structure of “-ing+n”. Besides,when we come across compound words which have the structure of “n+n”,usually we put stress on the first base,that is, ‘football, ‘birth place, ‘trade school, ‘table cloth, etc.We believe that having a good command of how to pronounce compound words correctly can help us communicate effectively with native speakers.。

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology▪boys = boy + -schecking = check + -ingdisappointment =dis- + appoint + -ment▪Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units withoutdestroying or drastically altering the meaning, whetherit is lexical or grammatical.▪ a minimal unit of lexical or grammatical meaning▪Morphology (形态学): The study of internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. e.g.adj.+ ify → verb: purify, amplify, electrify, falsify▪It is a systematic study of morpheme.3.1.2 Types of Morphemes▪Free morpheme and bound morpheme▪Root, affix and stem▪Inflectional affix and derivational affixFree Morpheme & bound Morpheme 自由语素和黏着语素▪In terms of their capacity of occurring alone▪Free morphemes: those which may occur alone, i.e.those which may constitute words by themselves, e.g.dog, nation, close▪All mono-morphemic words are free morphemes.▪Compounds: poly-morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds, e.g.paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower ▪Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur alone, distempered: dis-, temper, -edRoot, affix & stem 词根，词缀，词干▪Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.▪ A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying its meaning.Inter-nation-al-ism▪All words contain a root morpheme.▪An affix is the collective term for the type ofmorpheme that can be used only when addedtoanother morpheme (the root or stem). Affix isnaturally bound.▪Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, prefix (前缀), suffix (后缀), and infix (中缀).▪Prefix: paragraph, miniskirt, undo▪Infix: feet abso-bloomingly-lutely▪Suffix: colonize, revolution (an affix inserted within a stem)▪ A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound.▪First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, e.g.black (black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith).▪Free root morphemes are potentially unlimited in number in a language. ▪Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, e.g. -ceive (receive, perceive, conceive); -mit (remit, permit, commit, submit); -tain (retain, contain, maintain); -cur (incur, recur, occur) ▪Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants, e.g. sleep and child slep -t and child-ren (第三版) ▪A stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix (屈折词缀) can be added, e.g. friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships.▪ The relationship among the root, affix and stem may be portrayed as follows.Inflectional affix(IA)& derivational affix(DA)屈折词缀和派生词缀▪ Inflectional affixA morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as such as number, tense,+ AffixRoot Affi + Stem Affix +Stem Stemdegree and case, e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John‟s.▪Derivational affixA morpheme that serves to derive a word of one classor meaning from a word of another class or meaning,e.g. establishment.▪First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: they very often only add aminute or delicate grammatical function to the stem,e.g. toys, walks, John‟s.▪They serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme.▪In contrast derivational affixes are very productive in making new words, e.g. cite, citation; generate,generation.▪Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. ▪Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower,flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as small-smallness, brother-brotherhood. ▪Third, whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors withinthephrase or sentence, e.g. The boy likes to navigateon the internet.▪Derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions, e.g. clever (property of clever),cleverness (the state of being clever).▪In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, e.g. drums, walks,Mary‟s.▪Derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both, e.g. suburban, depart, online, slaver, teacher,workable, international, supernational.▪Similarityboth regarding affixes▪Differences ：Productivity, Meaning change,Condition, PositionSememe, phoneme&morpheme义素，音素与语素▪Sememe: the smallest component of meaning. e.g.The morpheme -s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one.▪Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound▪Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar；the smallest unit of language in regard to therelationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units withoutdestroying or drastically altering the meaning3.1.3 Morphological change and Allomorph语素变体▪Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes, e.g. when the subject is thirdperson singular, the archaic form of the present tenseis -eth, such as goeth.▪The plural forms of seed and way are seeds and ways rather than *seedes and *wayes. The old forms of thesecond person thou, ye and yee are now replaced byyou, and thy by your. The …s-form existed in OldEnglish, but changed into “of-phrase” if the nouns inquestion were inhuman in Middle English, but there isa tendency to reuse the old forms such as theuniversity‟s campus. Expressions such as the Queenof England‟s crown is no longer regarded asungrammatical. However, they should be in the formof the Queen‟s crown of England at Chaucer‟s time.Changes can be seen in:Split infinitive (分裂不定式): I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it.▪Postponed prepositions (介词延后): That person is impossible to work with.▪Objective case of relative pronoun (关系代词的宾格): The girl who(m) he talk about is a violinist.▪Fusion / blending (融合法或混成法):equally good + just as good → equally as good It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use ingetting there before nine → There‟s no use gettingthere before nine.▪Broadening (词义扩大): A process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific senseto a relatively general one, e.g.holiday: holy day (religion) → day for rest▪Narrowing (缩小): The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense, e.g.hound: dog → a special kind of dog▪Meaning shift (词义转移): Its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage,e.g. bead: prayer → the prayer bead→ small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood ▪Class shift (词性变化): shift the word class (详见后) ▪Folk etymology (俗词源): A change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notionof the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken tobe analogous, e.g. wizard (神汉) → wiz (能手) → whiz (奇才)▪Loss (脱落): the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system; It may alsooccur in utterances at the expense of someunstressed vowels.▪Addition (添加): Sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.▪Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had beenoriginally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.▪Assimilation(同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.▪It could be explained by the “theory of least effort” (省力理论)▪Iesus → Jesus sate → sat Sunne → sun3.2 What is word?3.2.1 Word and Lexical Items▪Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken orwritten (第三版) a typical grammatical unit betweenMorpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check,write and fat. (第四版)▪①a physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or writing letters betweentwo pauses or blanks. [Phonological (音系上) andorthographic (拼写上)]▪Problem: When liaison and contracted forms occur It is wonderful. /ɪtɪs 'wʌndəful/It‟s wonderful. /ɪts 'wʌndəful/Identification of Words词的识别▪②both as a general term and as a specific term: (第三版); word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and lexical item a specific item (boy and boys are two lexical items) (第四版)▪③a grammatical unit▪Problem: free morphemes or words: black, bird, air, craft, town, hall▪①Stabilitythe constituent parts of a complex word cannot berearranged, e.g. chairman, *manchairWhile, to rearrange the parts or constituents in asentence is all right, e.g. John is a clever boy. A clever boy John is.▪②Relative uninterruptibilityNew elements cannot be inserted into a word evenwhen there are several parts in a word. Nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the worddisappointment:*dis(#)appoint(#)ment. Nor is one allowed to usepauses: *dis appoint ment.While, in a sentence, we can do that: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.▪③A minimum free formthe smallest unit that can constitute a completeutterance by itself, e.g.——Is Jane coming tonight?——Possibly.Articles a and the in English cannot stand bythemselves. However, advocators cite the followinginstance.——What is missing in a sen tence such as …Dog isbarking‟?——A.3.2.2 Classification of Words▪Variable vs. invariable words可变化词和非变化词Variable words: words have inflectional changes. That is, the same words may have different grammatical forms, but part of the word remains constant, e.g.follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats.Invariable words: those words such as since,when,seldom, through, hello. They do not haveinflective endings.▪②Grammatical words vs. lexical words语法词和词汇词Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings,such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns (Function words)Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (Content words)The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together. (functionwords).▪③Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed orlimited New members are not regularly added, e.g.pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: a word whose membership is in principleinfinite or unlimited, e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives,adverbs, etc.The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems, e.g.prepositions or complex preposition: regarding,throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means ofAuxililary verbs (used to be open-class word, closed in number)▪④Word class词类It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech (词类) intraditional grammar.Nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun,adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction,interjection, article.Some new categories▪Particles (助词): the infinitive marker to, the negative marker not and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs (get by过活, do up捆好, look back回忆)▪②Auxiliaries (助动词): used to be regarded as verbs.Linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs. Examples can be found when used in negation, inversion, code and emphasis.▪③Pro-form (代词形式): traditionally, it refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute fora nominal group (名词词组) or a single noun.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he‟ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative (代处所词): Jame‟s hiding there, behind the door.Pro-form: refers to the items in a sentence whichsubstitute for other items or constructions.▪④Determiners (限定词): words used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine thekind of reference the noun phrase has Quirk, et al.(1985: 253): three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, threetimes, one-third, one-fifthCentral determiners: definite and indefinite articles, e.g.a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, etc.Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals (基数词), ordinalnumerals (序数词), general ordinals (一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers (其它量词) : many, a few, several, much, little, a lot of, etc.When different sub-classes of determiners occurtogether, they follow the order of predeterminers +central determiners + postdeterminers.3.3 Word Formation(1) From Morpheme to Word▪Two fields morphology (形态学) concerns:▪The study of inflections: INFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGY 屈折形态学(bike + -s)▪The study of word formation: LEXICAL orDERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY 词汇形态学或派生形态学(view + -er)3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation▪INFLECTION: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness (有定性), aspect (体) and case (格), which do not change the grammaticalclass of the stems to which they are attached▪Number: table / tablesPerson, finiteness, aspect: talk / talks / talking / talked Case: boy / boy‟s3.3.2 The Derivational Way of Formation▪Two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound)Derivation& Class-changing▪Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. ▪un + conscious → unconscious nation + al → national national + ize → nationalize nationalize + ation →nationalization▪Derivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged.▪n. → v.: length + en, hospital + ize, dis + card▪n. → a.: friend + ly, delight + ful, speech + less Class-preserving▪v. → n.: work + er, employ + ee, inhabit + ant▪v. → a.: accept + able, ador(e) + able▪ a. → n.: rapid + ness, rapid + ity▪ a. → v.: deaf + en, sweet + en▪ a. → adv.: exact + ly, quick + ly▪n. → n.:non + smoker, book + let▪v. → v.:dis + obey, un + fasten▪ a. → a.:gray + ish, ir + relevantDerivation▪Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open, e.g. pre- , -able▪In English there is usually one inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixes are allowed, e.g.monumental, transcendental, capability, musicality,accountancy, dependency, characterization, joyfulness, silliness, effectively, beautifully, delightfully,Americanism.bipartisan, abbreviation, bigamist, continuously,contradiction.Compound▪Compound: those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separatewords to produce a single form, e.g. icecream, sunrise,paperbag, cloakroom, cupboard, drugstore, railway▪Two or more free roots combine to make a new word. ▪In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.▪Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating,dutyfree.Preposition compounds: into, throughout▪Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound (向心复合词) and the exocentriccompound (离心复合词)▪Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckrelationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind ofcontrol armchair: a kind of chair▪Solid: Compounds can be written as a single word, e.g.wardrobe, bodyguard, seashore.▪Hyphenated: They can also be joined with a hyphen,e.g. wedding-ring, traffic-light, simple-minded.▪Open: Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts, e.g. washing machine, trafficisland (安全岛), counter revolutionary.▪Free variation, e.g. businessman, business-man, business man; winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle▪Usually, the right-hand member not only determines the category of the whole compound, but also decides themajor part of the sense of the compound. (“Head”)3.4 Word Formation(2) Lexical change▪Invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym,backformation, analogical creation, class shift,borrowingInvent& Blending▪Invention (新创词语): Kodak, Coke, nylon / naɪlɔn/, granola (麦片)▪Blending (混成法): a complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part ofthe first word and the final part of the second word, or byjoining the initial parts of the two words▪transfer + resister → transistor smoke + fog → smog breakfast + lunch → brunch▪teleprinter + exchange → telex modula tor +demodulator → modem situation + comedy → sitcom ▪Fusion (熔合法): crackup + breakdown → crackdown Abbreviationq& Clipping▪Abbreviation (缩写词) & Clipping (截断法): A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part,and cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly ▪Back-clippings: advertisement → ad, chimpanzee → chimp, exam → examination, television → telly▪Fore-clippings: hamburger → burger, telephone → phone, helicopter → copter▪Fore-and-aft clippings: influenza → flu, refrigerator → fridge, detective → tecLiz—Elizabeth▪Also popular in education: chem—chemistry, exam—examination, gym—gymnasium, lab—laboratory,math— mathematicsAcronym▪Acronym (缩略词): made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword, e.g. CIA for Central Intelligence Agency▪This process is widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology andother special fields, e.g. AIDS foracquired immunedeficiency syndrome and Radar for radio detecting andranging.Back-formation▪Back-formation (逆构词法): an abnormal type of word formation by which a shorter word is derived by deletingan imagined affix from a longer form already in thelanguagehawker → hawk enthusiasm→ enthuse laser → lasecalmative → calm free association → free-associate Analogical creation▪Analogical creation (类推构词): It can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.▪From irregular to regular: work: wrought → worked beseech: besought → beseeched slay: slew → slayed▪By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to aprocess orattribution. It is also called zeroderivation or conversion. ▪The word engineer as a noun refers to “a person trained in a branch of engineering”, but it means “to act as an engineer” or “to plan; to maneuver” when used as averb.▪Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages, e.g.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic, etc.▪French: fashion, bargain, customer, costume, etc.BorrowingLatin: prosecute, library, simile, testimony, etc.Greek: catastrophe, criterion, etc.Spanish and Portuguese: vanilla, barbecue, etc.Italian: artichoke, macaroni, spaghetti, graffiti, etc. Dutch: boss, dollar, slim, cruise, etc.Hebrew: camel, amen, etc.Arabic: alchemy, algebra, magazine, lemon, etc.Indian: ginger, jungle, yoga, etc.Chinese: kung fu, litchi3.5 Word Group and Phrase▪Nominal Groupfew, little, several, definite:pre-modifier characteristic:head relative clause or post-modifier one, two,three, …new galloping, … prepositional phrases much, preceding, … those two splendid old electric trains with pantographs functioning as material, scale and scope, appraisal items or assessment:deinterrogaindefinite:purpose or function, status andrank,(1)ative: personal attitude: hopeful, sad, safe,fearful, …ive:each, every, a, an, one, that, these, the, my, which, whichever,(2)origin, mode of operation: judgment: abnormal,extraordinary, …either, neither, both, …what,whatever, …your, our, …(3) appreciation: fascinating, logical, … …▪Other Groups▪Prepositional PhraseOn the burning deck is a prepositional phrase, in which on as a semi-verb functions as the Predicator and the object the burning deck is the Complement of thepreposition.Any expression with a preposition followed with an item is aprepositional phrase. The object may be either (i) nominal group, as in under the tree; or (ii) adjectivegroup, such as for the poor.。