下载文档原格式
发动机开发试验中英文名词对照1 热力学开发试验 Thermodynamics Test1.1 性能试验 Performance Test1.1.1 全负荷试验 Full Load Test1.1.2 部分负荷试验 Part Load Test1.1.3 排放试验 Emission Test1.1.4 油耗开发试验 Fuel Consumption Test1.2 冷却系统性能试验 Cooling Functional Test对整个发动机冷却系统的功能及特性（如，冷却液及机油的温度、压力和流量等）进行检验，试验在不同的冷却液及机油温度下进行，发动机需装配上面向批产的散热器、加热器及机油冷却器等。
V erification of the function and characteristic of the complete engine cooling system (e.g. coolant and oil temperatures / pressure / flow). Measurement with different coolant temperatures in the complete map shall be carried out production intend radiator, heater, oil cooler shall be installed on the engine.1.2.1 关键零件温度的测量（缸盖、活塞、气门、缸孔）Measurement of critical component temperatures (Cyl. Head, Pistons, Valves, Cyl. Bore) 1.2.2 节温器功能检查（静态/动态的控制特征）Check of thermostat function (Stat.& Dym. Control characteristics)1.2.3 热平衡分析Heat Balance analysis1.2.4 水泵气穴特性的确定Determination of water pump cavitation characteristing1.2.5 冷却系统的压力建立Cooling system pressure build-up1.2.6 开锅后的影响Check of after boiling effects1.3 润滑系统性能试验 Lubrication Function System对整个发动机润滑系统的功能及特性（如冷却液及机油温度、压力和流量等）进行检验，试验在不同的冷却液及机油温度下进行。
Thesis Submitted toHebei University of TechnologyforThe Master Degree ofManagement Science and EngineeringA STUDY ON THE METHOD OF SURVEYDATA PROCESSINGbyXiu YunSupervisor：Prof. Wan JieNovember 2011OD调查数据处理方法研究摘要随着交通事业的快速发展以及出行方式的转变，交通流量和流向随之变化，进行公路交通调查对掌握不同阶段各条道路的出行量及变化规律，开展公路网规划，公路建设项目可行性研究起着重要作用。
调查后期的核心工作是对数据的分析处理，在实际操作中，由于观测方式，观测手段等原因，导致调查数据不完整，出现失真，针对以上问题，本文力图在比较国内外常用OD调查数据处理方法的基础上，通过标定新的路阻函数参数，进而确定OD量在路径上分配的比例系数，完成区域OD表拟合，以提高数据处理的精度和交通规划工作的效率。
本文首先明确了进行数据处理的目的和意义，回顾了数据处理相关技术的研究现状，在对国内外常用路阻函数进行整合研究的基础上，提出新的路阻函数模型，该模型综合考虑收费过程和路段流量对行程时间的影响，采用决策分析法对函数系数进行标定，提出分车型、分道路等级标定BPR函数参数的方法，弥补了以往研究中对该分支没有进行深入研究的缺陷；结合交通流理论，将天津市作为一个系统进行分析，分区域对路阻函数参数进行重新标定；运用区域OD合成方法，得到公路网OD流现状，结合不同路权将流量分配到路网上。
本次研究基于天津市第五次公路交通OD调查数据，对天津市新路阻函数的OD流拟合过程进行了研究，提出了相对比较准确的高速公路OD流矩阵。
研究中对调查资料进行统计分析，并在对实验数据进行反复验证的基础上建立新的路阻函数，该函数能直观反映道路阻抗情况，在计算模型中能更合理的进行路径选择与交通量分配，提高了OD流的拟合精度。
USP34 <645> 水的电导率（中英文）<645> WATER CONDUCTIVITY 水的电导率Electrical conductivity in water is a measure of the ion-facilitated electron flow through it. Water molecules dissociate into ions as a function of pH and temperature and result in a very predictable conductivity.水的电导能力是对水中离子化电子的一种测量。
离解为离子的水分子是pH值、温度的函数，它导致可预期的电导率。
Some gases, most notably carbon dioxide, readily dissolve in water and interact to form ions, which predictably affect conductivity as well as pH. For the purpose of this discussion, these ions and their resulting conductivity can be considered intrinsic to the water.一些气体，特别是二氧化碳，容易溶于水中并产生反应形成离子，对电导率产生影响。
在本讨论中，这些离子和其对电导率的影响结果可以认为是水的内在本质。
Water conductivity is also affected by the presence of extraneous ions. The extraneous ions used in modeling the conductivity specifications described below are the chloride and sodium ions. The conductivity of the ubiquitous chloride ion (at the theoretical endpoint concentration of 0.47 ppm when it was a required attribute test in USPXXII and earlier revisions) and the ammonium ion (at the limit of 0.3 ppm) represent a major portion of the allowed water impurity level. A balancing quantity of cations, suchas sodium ions, is included in this allowed impurity level to maintain electroneutrality. Extraneous ions such as these may have significant impact on the water's chemical purity and suitability for use in pharmaceutical applications. The procedure in the section Bulk Water is specified for measuring the conductivity of waters such as Purified Water, Water for Injection, Water for Hemodialysis, and the condensate of Pure Steam. The procedure in the section Sterile Water is specified for measuring the conductivity of waters such as Sterile Purified Water, Sterile Water for Injection, Sterile Water for Inhalation, and Sterile Water for Irrigation.水的电导率还受到外来离子的影响，下面所述的包括在电导率质量标准中的外来离子包括氯离子和钠离子。
“固定相分子筛载气归一化法微量进样器进样保留时间峰面积The stationary phase is the substance which is fixed in place for the chromatography procedure.A molecular sieve is a material containing tiny pores of a precise and uniform size that is used as an adsorbent for gases and liquids.When the mobile phase is gas, it is called eluant gas.The mobile phase is the phase which moves in a definite direction. In statistics, normalization refers to the division of multiple sets of data by a common variable in order to negate that variable's effect on the data, thus allowing underlying characteristics of the data sets to be compared.Microinjector is a kind of injector which can make injection in a very small volumn. An injector, ejector, steam ejector or steam injector is a pump-like device that uses the Venturi effect of a converging-diverging nozzle to convert the pressure energy of a motive fluid to velocity energy which creates a low pressure zone that draws in and entrains a suction fluid and then recompresses the mixed fluids by converting velocity energy back into pressure energy.Injection is a method of putting sample into the column with a syringe or injectorThe retention time is the characteristic time it takes for a particular analyte to pass through the system (from the column inlet to the detector) under set conditions.The area of a peak is called peak area.色谱图 chromatogram色谱峰 chromatographic peak峰底 peak base峰高 h，peak height峰宽 W，peak width半高峰宽 Wh/2，peak width at half height峰面积 A，peak area拖尾峰 tailing area前伸峰 leading area假峰 ghost peak畸峰 distorted peak反峰 negative peak拐点 inflection point原点 origin斑点 spot区带 zone复班 multiple spot区带脱尾 zone tailing基线 base line基线漂移 baseline drift基线噪声 N，baseline noise统计矩 moment一阶原点矩γ1，first origin moment二阶中心矩μ2，second central moment三阶中心矩μ3，third central moment液相色谱法 liquid chromatography，LC液液色谱法 liquid liquid chromatography，LLC液固色谱法 liquid solid chromatography，LSC正相液相色谱法 normal phase liquidchromatography反相液相色谱法 reversed phase liquidchromatography，RPLC柱液相色谱法 liquid column chromatography高效液相色谱法 high performance liquidchromatography，HPLC尺寸排除色谱法 size exclusion chromatography，SEC凝胶过滤色谱法 gel filtration chromatography凝胶渗透色谱法 gel permeation chromatography，GPC亲和色谱法 affinity chromatography离子交换色谱法 ion exchange chromatography，IEC离子色谱法 ion chromatography离子抑制色谱法 ion suppression chromatography离子对色谱法 ion pair chromatography疏水作用色谱法 hydrophobic interactionchromatography制备液相色谱法 preparative liquid chromatography平面色谱法 planar chromatography纸色谱法 paper chromatography薄层色谱法 thin layer chromatography，TLC高效薄层色谱法 high performance thin layerchromatography，HPTLC 浸渍薄层色谱法 impregnated thin layerchromatography凝胶薄层色谱法 gel thin layer chromatography离子交换薄层色谱法 ion exchange thin layerchromatography制备薄层色谱法 preparative thin layerchromatography薄层棒色谱法 thin layer rod chromatography液相色谱仪 liquid chromatograph制备液相色谱仪 preparative liquid chromatograph凝胶渗透色谱仪 gel permeation chromatograph涂布器 spreader点样器 sample applicator色谱柱 chromatographic column棒状色谱柱 monolith column monolith column微粒柱 microparticle column填充毛细管柱 packed capillary column空心柱 open tubular column微径柱 microbore column混合柱 mixed column组合柱 coupled column预柱 precolumn保护柱 guard column预饱和柱 presaturation column浓缩柱 concentrating column抑制柱 suppression column薄层板 thin layer plate浓缩区薄层板 concentrating thin layer plate荧光薄层板 fluorescence thin layer plate反相薄层板 reversed phase thin layer plate梯度薄层板 gradient thin layer plate烧结板 sintered plate展开室 development chamber往复泵 reciprocating pump注射泵 syringe pump气动泵 pneumatic pump蠕动泵 peristaltic pump检测器 detector微分检测器 differential detector积分检测器 integral detector总体性能检测器 bulk property detector溶质性能检测器 solute property detector(示差)折光率检测器 [differential] refractive indexdetector 荧光检测器 fluorescence detector紫外可见光检测器 ultraviolet visible detector电化学检测器 electrochemical detector蒸发(激光)光散射检测器 [laser] light scatteringdetector光密度计 densitometer薄层扫描仪 thin layer scanner柱后反应器 post-column reactor体积标记器 volume marker记录器 recorder积分仪 integrator馏分收集器 fraction collector工作站 work station固定相 stationary phase固定液 stationary liquid载体 support柱填充剂 column packing化学键合相填充剂 chemically bonded phasepacking薄壳型填充剂 pellicular packing多孔型填充剂 porous packing吸附剂 adsorbent离子交换剂 ion exchanger基体 matrix载板 support plate粘合剂 binder流动相 mobile phase洗脱(淋洗)剂 eluant，eluent展开剂 developer等水容剂 isohydric solvent改性剂 modifier显色剂 color [developing] agent死时间 t0，dead time保留时间 tR，retention time调整保留时间 t'R，adjusted retention time死体积 V0，dead volume保留体积 vR，retention volume调整保留体积 v'R，adjusted retention volume柱外体积 Vext，extra-column volune粒间体积 V0，interstitial volume(多孔填充剂的)孔体积 VP，pore volume of porouspacking 液相总体积 Vtol，total liquid volume洗脱体积 ve，elution volume流体力学体积 vh，hydrodynamic volume相对保留值 ri.s，relative retention value分离因子α，separation factor流动相迁移距离 dm，mobile phase migrationdistance流动相前沿 mobile phase front溶质迁移距离 ds，solute migration distance比移值 Rf，Rf value高比移值 hRf，high Rf value相对比移值 Ri.s，relative Rf value保留常数值 Rm，Rm value板效能 plate efficiency折合板高 hr，reduced plate height分离度 R，resolution液相载荷量 liquid phase loading离子交换容量 ion exchange capacity负载容量 loading capacity渗透极限 permeability limit排除极限 Vh，max，exclusion limit拖尾因子 T，tailing factor柱外效应 extra-column effect管壁效应 wall effect间隔臂效应 spacer arm effect边缘效应 edge effect斑点定位法 localization of spot放射自显影法 autoradiography原位定量 in situ quantitation生物自显影法 bioautography归一法 normalization method内标法 internal standard method外标法 external standard method叠加法 addition method普适校准(曲线、函数) calibration function or curve谱带扩展(加宽) band broadening(分离作用的)校准函数或校准曲线 universalcalibration function or curve [of separation] 加宽校正 broadening correction加宽校正因子 broadening correction factor溶剂强度参数ε0，solvent strength parameter洗脱序列 eluotropic series洗脱(淋洗) elution等度洗脱 gradient elution梯度洗脱 gradient elution(再)循环洗脱 recycling elution线性溶剂强度洗脱 linear solvent strength gradient程序溶剂 programmed solvent程序压力 programmed pressure程序流速 programmed flow展开 development上行展开 ascending development下行展开 descending development双向展开 two dimensional development环形展开 circular development离心展开 centrifugal development向心展开 centripetal development径向展开 radial development多次展开 multiple development分步展开 stepwise development连续展开 continuous development梯度展开 gradient development匀浆填充 slurry packing停流进样 stop-flow injection阀进样 valve injection柱上富集 on-column enrichment流出液 eluate柱上检测 on-column detection柱寿命 column life柱流失 column bleeding显谱 visualization活化 activation反冲 back flushing脱气 degassing 沟流 channeling 过载 overloading。
Title：CALIBRATING METHOD FOR ELECTRONIC COMPASS Electronic compass is an electronic compass by measuring the Earth's magnetic field to achieve directional navigation device, it is an important navigational tool that can provide real-time data objects heading and attitude, and has a small size, low cost, fast response , no accumulated error, etc., are widely used in mobile robots, vehicles, aircraft and other orientation subsystem; However, due to the electronic compass is based on magnetic principles calculations magnetic bearings, their work environment, in addition to other external magnetic field Earth's magnetic field will inevitably affect the output of the electronic compass, resulting in errors affect measurement accuracy. Therefore, how to reduce outside interference precision of its output is engineering applications must be addressed.Electronic compass the existing literature has proposed several possible compass error compensation method. Yuen Chee Wing paper, "three-axis magnetic heading sensors full attitude error compensation 'proposed compass error into quadrature error, zero and sensitivity errors were compensated, high compensation accuracy of the method, but in the compensation process requires non-magnetic turntable , but also the computer automatically when the measured rotation compass X and Y-axis sensor output maximum, minimum, the calibration process is complex and requires high equipment; HIGHW AY AND TRANSPORTA TION Wang Jiaxin paper "Development of high-precision electronic compass" and Shao Tingting, ROCKETS paper "electronic compass tilt and Luo slip compensation algorithm research," the least square method to compensate for the electronic compass, the method requires Compass 0 ° ~ 360 ° rotation average sampling, operation is relatively cumbersome and The amount of data samples of different sizes will have a greater impact fitting result, the amount of data is too small, the compensation effect is not good, too much data can cause performance degradation fitting; Yangxin Yong, Huang Shengguo paper "magnetic heading measurement system Error Correction Method "and Qi Zhang, Liang-shui Lei, Jiang Fan, Song Liu's paper" Autocalibration of a magnetic compasswithout heading reference "error ellipse hypothesis is proposed based on the model compensation method, because only a hypothetical model ellipse based on the experimental experience suggested that the lack of theoretical deduction, the compensation effect is not very satisfactory; Chao Min, Jiang Oriental, Wen rainbow paper, "magnetic compass error analysis and calibration" using an analytical method to establish the direction of the magnetic measurement system is more accuratemodels, and electronic compass compensation in the horizontal conditions, but the compensation process to identify more parameters (up 9), and the results show the compensation effect is similar to oval hypothetical model; Hao Zhenhai, Huang Shengguo paper, "based on a combination of differential magnetic compass heading system." proposed a "differential magnetic compass" (DMC, Differential Magnetic Compasses) design program, which uses two identical magnetic compass to determine whether the system is a combination of low-frequency interference occurs, if the system glitches did not happen, then the use of magnetic compass navigation, low-frequency interference will occur if the system switches to the gyroscope system navigation. The program does not substantially improve the magnetic compass measurement accuracy, and the navigation program consists of a plurality of magnetic compass and gyroscope structure, will lead to greatly increase the cost; Lu Wang, Zhao Zhong and other paper "Magnetic Compass Error Analysis and Compensation" using BP neural network error model, and use LM learning algorithm to train the network, the method need not 0 ° ~ 360 ° within the average sampling, with a neural network can be approximated function with arbitrary precision characteristics, with high compensation accuracy, but the BP neural network convergence is slow, the right to set initial values need to be very careful, and easy to fall into local minimum.In summary, the current electronic compass calibration methods are the main method of least squares, oval assumption France, BP neural network method, etc. These methods are more cumbersome calibration procedure or the existence of the necessary instruments for demanding calibration or calibration issues such as lack of precision.It is an electronic compass by measuring the Earth's magnetic field to achieve directional navigation device, it is an important navigational tool that can provide real-time data objects heading and attitude, and has a small size, low cost, fast response , no accumulated error, etc., are widely used in mobile robots, vehicles, aircraft and other orientation subsystem; However, due to the electronic compass is based on magnetic principles calculations magnetic bearings, their work environment, in addition to other external magnetic field Earth's magnetic field will inevitably affect the output of the electronic compass, resulting in errors affect measurement accuracy. Therefore, how to reduce outside interference precision of its output is engineering applications must be addressed.In order to simplify the calibration procedure, reducing the requirements for the necessaryequipment and to improve calibration accuracy, the present invention designed an electronic compass calibration method, the calibration method based on adaptive differential evolution method and Fourier neural network (Adaptive Differential Evolution and Fourier Neural Network, ADE-FNN), by means of Fourier neural network modeling of the electronic compass error, the neural network using orthogonal Fourier series excitation function as a network, and uses adaptive differential evolution algorithm to train the network weights, get more precise The error model to compensate for the measured values of the compass, so as to improve the precision of the compass.Differential evolution method based on adaptive neural networks and Fourier electronic compass calibration methods, including access to training samples, the use of Fourier neural network (FNN) build error compensation model and the use of adaptive differential evolution algorithm (ADE) to train the neural network weight value of three parts, to achieve the specific steps are as follows:Step one, get training samples;Step two, identified neural network structure;Step three, to create an electronic compass error model and choose the training targets;Step four: According to the training sample using an improved adaptive differential evolution algorithm for training the neural network;Step Five, will optimize the neural network weights obtained values into the neural network to obtain a more accurate compensation models;Step Six, the electronic compass output measurement values into compensate for neural network input and output compensation value.The invention took into account the impact of measurement precision electronic compass, proposes a differential evolution method based on adaptive neural networks and Fourier concentration calibration method to compensate, on the one hand to simplify the calibration process, that is just the turntable rotate (no uniform rotation) electronic compass one week for training samples and the corresponding true value; hand with better results, ie, more precisely offset outside interference, improve measurement accuracy.The compensation method with neural network structure is simple, easy to implement, and can approximate nonlinear functions with arbitrary precision, and has good generalizationcapability advantages.Orthogonal Fourier function as the excitation function neural network, the nonlinear optimization problem into a linear optimization problem, which greatly improve the convergence speed, avoid falling into local minimum.Using adaptive differential evolution algorithm to train the neural network, relying on a system to avoid the initial value problem of a priori knowledge is difficult to choose; while the improved differential evolution algorithm in the initial stages of a strong global search ability, as much as possible to find the global optimum, but at a later stage there is a strong local search ability to improve convergence rate and solution accuracy; therefore the algorithm has strong global search ability, can effectively prevent premature convergence, and algorithms good stability.How Does a Digital Compass Work?An electronic compass such as the Wayfinder uses a patented magnetic sensor technology that was first developed by PNI, Inc. for the U.S. military. This technology is called " magneto-inductive" and is the largest advancement in compass technology since the fulxgate was invented 60 years ago. The magneto-inductive technology is able to electronically sense the difference in the earth's magnetic field from a disturbance caused by external elements such as ferro-magnetic materials and the magnetic field generated by automobile electrical systems. WayFinder digital compass has an embedded micro controller that subtracts the automobile magnetic field (the distortion) from the stronger earth magnetic fields resulting in a highly accurate compass reading.Compass InstallationThe performance of a compass will greatly depend on its installation location. A compass relies on the earth’s magnetic field to provide heading. Any distortions of earth magnetic field by other sources such as a car massive iron components should be compensated for in order to determine an accurate heading. Sources of magnetic fields in any automobile include permanent magnets mostly in its audio speakers, motors, electric currents flowing in its wiring—either dc or ac, and ferro-magnetic metals such as steel or iron. The influence of these sources of interference on an electronic compass accuracy can be greatly reduced by placing the compass far away from them. Some of the field effects can be compensated by way of calibrating the compass for a definedlocation in terms of magnetic interference. However, it is not always possible to compensate for time varying magnetic fields; for example, disturbances generated by the motion of magnetic metals, or unpredictable electrical current in a nearby power lines. Magnetic shielding can be used for large field disturbances from motors or audio speakers. The best way to reduce disturbances is distance. Also, never enclose the compass in a magnetically shielded metallic housing. Compass Tilt ErrorsHeading errors due to a tilt depend somewhat on geographic location. At the equator, tilt errors are less critical since the earth's field is strictly in the horizontal plane. This provides larger X and Y readings and little of the Z component correction near the magnetic poles, tilt errors are extremely important—since there is less X,Y field and more of the Z component. Tilt errors are also dependent on the heading.Magnetic Field DistortionsNearby Ferrous materials is another consideration for heading inaccuracy. Since heading is based on the direction of the earth's horizontal field a digital compass must be able to measure this field with lesser influence from other nearby magnetic sources or disturbances.The amount of disturbance depends on the material content of the platform and connectors as well as ferrous objects moving nearby. When a ferrous object is placed in a uniform magnetic field it will exert an influence. This object could be a steel bolt or bracket near the compass or an iron door latch close to the compass. The net result is a characteristic distortion, or anomaly to the earth’s magnetic field that is unique to the shape of the object.Magnetic distortions can be categorized as two types—hard iron and soft iron effects. Hard iron distortions arise from permanent magnets and magnetized iron or steel on the compass platform. These distortions will remain constant and in a fixed location relative to the compass for all heading orientations. Hard iron effects add a constant magnitude field component along each axes of the sensor output.To compensate for hard iron distortion is usually done by rotating the compass and platform (your car) in a circle and measure enough points on the circle to determine this offset. Once found, the (X,Y) offset can be stored in memory and subtracted from every reading. The net result will be to eliminate the hard iron disturbance from the heading calculation.The soft iron distortion arises from the interaction of the earth’s magnetic field and anymagnetically soft material surrounding the compass. Like the hard iron materials, the soft metals also distort the earth’s magnetic field lines. The difference is the amount of distortion from the soft iron depends on the compass orientation.What Is True North?It is well known that the earth's magnetic poles and its axis of rotation are not at the same geographical location. They are about 11.5°rotation from each other. This creates a difference between the true north, or grid north, and the magnetic north, or direction a magnetic compass will point. Simply it is the angular difference between the magnetic and true north expressed as an Easterly or Westerly variation. This difference is defined as the variation angle and is dependent on the compass short duration, making a magnetic compass a useful navigation tool.Compass CalibrationEach calibration method is associated with a specified physical movement of the compass platform in order to sample the magnetic space surrounding the compass. The Hard and Soft iron distortions will vary from location to location within the same platform. The compass has to be mounted permanently to its platform to get a valid calibration.A particular calibration is only valid for that location of the compass. If the compass is re-oriented in the same location, then a new calibration is required. It is possible to use a compass without any calibration if the need is only for repeatability and not accuracy.题目：校准电子罗盘的方法电子罗盘是一种通过测量地球磁场来实现定向导航功能的装置，它是一种重要的导航工具，能实时提供物体的航向和姿态数据，且具有体积小、成本低、响应速度快、无累积误差等特点，被广泛应用于移动机器人、车辆、飞行器等的定向子系统中；然而，由于电子罗盘是根据地磁原理计算磁方向角，其工作环境中除地球磁场的其他外界磁场不可避免的会对电子罗盘的输出造成影响，从而产生误差影响测量精度。
Scientists studying the effects of various phenomena play a crucial role in expanding our understanding of the natural world, human behavior, and the complex interplay between different variables. This process involves systematic investigation, data collection, analysis, and interpretation to draw meaningful conclusions. Let's explore the broader concept of scientists studying the effects of different factors and delve into the methodologies, significance, and challenges associated with such studies.### **Introduction:**Scientists engaging in the study of effects often aim to uncover causal relationships, identify patterns, or understand the impact of certain factors on a given system. This exploration encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, environmental science, and social sciences. The effects being studied can be diverse, ranging from the microscopic level of particles to the macroscopic level of ecosystems or human societies.### **Methodologies in Studying Effects:**1. **Experimental Design:**- **Controlled Experiments:** Scientists often use controlled experiments to isolate specific variables and observe their effects systematically. This involves manipulating one variable while keeping others constant.2. **Observational Studies:**-**Longitudinal Studies:** Researchers track subjects over an extended period to observe changes and identify potential causative factors.- **Cross-Sectional Studies:** Examining a diverse group at a single point in time to uncover correlations and associations.3. **Field Studies:**-**Ecological Studies:** Scientists study effects within natural environments, observing interactions between organisms and their surroundings.-**Social Science Field Studies:** Researchers may conduct surveys or interviews to understand the effects of social, economic, or cultural factors on individuals or communities.4. **Computer Modeling:**- **Simulation Studies:** Scientists use computer models to simulate real-world scenarios, allowing them to predict and analyze potential effects without real-world experimentation.### **Significance of Studying Effects:**1. **Scientific Advancement:**- **New Discoveries:** Research on the effects of various factors often leads to the discovery of new phenomena, principles, or relationships.-**Advancement of Knowledge:** Building on existing knowledge, scientists contribute to the continuous advancement of their respective fields.2. **Problem Solving:**- **Environmental Solutions:** Studying the effects of human activities on the environment aids in developing strategies for sustainable resource use and conservation.- **Medical Breakthroughs:** Understanding the effects of drugs, diseases, and lifestyle on health contributes to medical advancements and improved healthcare.3. **Policy Formulation:**-**Informed Decision-Making:** Governments and organizations use scientific studies to formulate policies addressing societal issues, such as public health, education, and environmental protection.-**Risk Assessment:** Studying the effects of potential hazards helps in assessing and mitigating risks to human health and safety.4. **Technological Innovation:**- **Materials Science:** Studying the effects of different materials on each other contributes to the development of new materials with enhanced properties.-**Engineering Advancements:** Understanding the effects of forces, temperature, and other factors on structures and systems informs engineering practices and innovations.### **Challenges in Studying Effects:**1. **Complexity of Systems:**-**Interconnected Variables:** Natural systems are often complex, with numerous interconnected variables. Isolating the effect of one variable while keeping others constant can be challenging.2. **Ethical Considerations:**- **Human Subjects:** In social and medical studies, ethical considerations, such as informed consent and the potential for harm, must be carefully addressed.-**Environmental Impact:** Researchers studying ecological effects must consider the potential impact of their studies on the environment.3. **Resource Limitations:**-**Financial Constraints:** Conducting comprehensive studies requires financial resources for equipment, personnel, and data analysis.- **Time Constraints:** Longitudinal studies, in particular, can be time-consuming, requiring sustained funding and commitment.4. **Data Interpretation:**-**Statistical Challenges:** Interpreting data and drawing meaningful conclusions require statistical expertise to avoid misinterpretation or bias.- **Correlation vs. Causation:** Distinguishing between correlation and causation is critical to avoid drawing incorrect causal relationships.### **Case Study: Studying the Effects of Climate Change:**Consider a case study where scientists are studying the effects of climate change:1. **Methodology:**- **Observational Studies:** Scientists analyze long-term climate data, including temperature records, sea-level measurements, and ice core samples.-**Computer Modeling:** Climate scientists use sophisticated models to simulate future climate scenarios based on different emission scenarios.2. **Significance:**- **Policy Impact:** Findings contribute to global efforts to mitigate climate change, shaping international agreements and policy decisions.-**Environmental Awareness:** Studying the effects raises public awareness of climate change impacts, fostering environmentally conscious behaviors.3. **Challenges:**- **Data Uncertainty:** Climate systems are intricate, and uncertainties in data interpretation can pose challenges in predicting future scenarios.- **Global Collaboration:** Studying a phenomenon as pervasive as climate change requires international collaboration and coordination.### **Conclusion:**In conclusion, scientists studying the effects of various factors contribute significantly to human knowledge, technological innovation, and policy formulation across diverse disciplines. The methodologies employed, the significance of their findings, and the challenges they face vary depending on the field of study. Despite challenges, the pursuit of understanding the effects of different variables remains integral to scientific progress and addressing global challenges.。
Cold Start CalibrationDiscussionCold starting refers to the act of starting any vehicle once it has remained in an“un-started” state long enough to have its coolant temperature reach that of itsambient surroundings. It is a very intricate and interactive process of combiningthe proper amounts of Fuel, Air, and Spark to create quick stable combustion and transition the vehicle into its “run” state. There really is no “cut and dry”procedure to follow when doing cold start calibration. It is far more of a test,study the data, make changes / re-test, re-study, make new changes type ofprocess. Due to the close interaction of the fuel, air, and spark, it is quite common to end up re-adjusting one portion of the calibration based on changes you madeto one of the other sections. The key is to have good documentation and areasonable idea of what to expect … both of which I hope to provide you with inthis Cal Guide.I will be breaking the procedure up into the three obvious sections of open loopcrank fuel, startup airflow, and crank/crank-to-run spark. The order in which wecover these is not all that important (although I will cover them in the order thatthe initial calibration should be conducted). What is important is that a workingknowledge of how each section functions with respect to cold starts is acquired(and to some extent, retained). Detailed charts of how each area operates duringthe crank, crank-to-run, and initial run engine states will be thoroughly discussed and they will become your most useful cold start calibration tools. You will alsobe expected to already have a good working knowledge of the MDS vehicleinstrumentation and it’s associated datalogging capability.ContentsI will begin with open loop fueling, since it is the most complicated and NEEDSto be done first in order to get the vehicle to start. We will cover all aspects ofcold start calibration as follows:I.Cold Start Fueling Calibration-Discussion-Calibration Parameters-Datalogger Parameters-General Calibration Guidelines-Helpful HintsII.Startup Airflow Calibration-Discussion-Calibration Parameters (and Values)-Recommended Datalogger Parameters-General Calibration GuidelinesIII.Crank / Crank-to-run Spark Calibration -Discussion-Calibration Parameters (and Values)-Recommended Datalogger Parameters-General Calibration GuidelinesCold Start Fueling CalibrationDiscussionPrime, crank, crank-to-run transition, and initial run fueling based on calibratable lookup tables (not an O2 sensors feedback) all make up what is known as “Open Loop Fueling”, or in our case, “Cold Start Fueling”. Although it would be nice to say that there is some sort of formula for calibrating the open loop portion of the fueling algorithm, it is safe to say that it is far more of an art than a science. What I will attempt to do in the following calibration guideline is give the calibrator an overview of the available calibration parameters (see figure 1), and some general rules of thumb on how to go about calibrating them appropriately. Note: Recommended initial calibration values will not be given due to the variation in fueling requirements between applications. Calibration starting points will be discussed in the Calibration Guidelines section.Prime Pulse Width Calibration ParametersKtFUEL_t_PrimePulseWidthThis is the actual amount of prime fuel delivered to the engine once the criteria to begin prime has been met. It is a coolant-based table in milliseconds.KeFUEL_PumpPrimeOptThis option bit determines whether the prime pulse is enabled at key-on (set to 0), or first valid tooth (set to 1).KtFUEL_t_PrimePulseDelayFirstThis is the delay time (in seconds) that the prime pulse waits to enable following the first valid crank tooth (if KeFUEL_PumpPrimeOpt is set to 1). This is also a coolant-based table.KtFUEL_t_PrimePulseRunThrshThis run threshold determines the amount of run-time necessary in order to re-prime the engine in the event of a stall or a normal power-down condition. If this time threshold has not been exceeded, and the engine has stopped running, the prime pulse will not be allowed to re-inject. This table, like the others in this section, is coolant-based.Air/Fuel Calibration ParametersKtFUEL_AFR_CrankThis is the base crank air fuel ratio and is a function of coolant.KfFUEL_AFR_CrankInitDeltaThis is the offset that determines the actual commanded air fuel ratio during crank. It is subtracted from KtFUEL_AFR_Crank to allow the crank fuel to start at a richer point and decay out to a leaner condition over time. This is a table based on coolant.KcFUEL_CrankAF_DecayInitThis is the number of cylinder events that needs to occur before the initial crank air/fuel decay can begin. Crank air/fuel will equal the initial starting ratio of (KtFUEL_AFR_Crank) – (KfFUEL_AFR_CrankInitDelta) for this many refs. This is a single cal value.KfFUEL_CrankAF_DecayMultThis multiplier actually determines the “step size” of each decay interval. KfFUEL_AFR_CrankInitDelta is multiplied by this value, and the resulting value is the NEW KfFUEL_AFR_CrankInitDelta. In other words, the larger KfFUEL_CrankAF_DecayMult is, the smaller the actual step size is … the smaller KfFUEL_CrankAF_DecayMult, the larger the step. This is a single cal value.KtFUEL_CrankAF_DecayRefThis is actually the “step duration” of each decay interval. Between execution updates of(KfFUEL_AFR_CrankInitDelta)*(KfFUEL_CrankAF_DecayMult), the software waitsKtFUEL_CrankAF_DecayRef cylinder events. This is a very coarse table based on coolant temperature.KtFUEL_t_RunAF_DecayDelayThis is a coolant-based table (in seconds) that determines the delay between Crank Air Fuel and Run Air Fuel.KtFUEL_AFR_RunTimeoutInitDeltaKfFUEL_CrankRunAF_BlendMultThis multiplier actually determines the “step size” of each blend interval between the last crank value and the desired run value. The difference between the desired run air/fuel and the last crank air/fuel (desired run air/fuel - KtFUEL_AFR_RunTimeoutInitDelta ?) is calculated and then multiplied by (1-KfFUEL_CrankRunAF_BlendMult). The result is then added to the current air/fuel ratio to create the new blend value (this process continues until KtFUEL_t_RunAF_DecayDelay has been met). In other words, the larger this value is, the slower the blend … the smaller the value, the faster the blend. This is a single calibration value.KtFUEL_t_CrankRunAF_BlendIntrvlThis is actually the “step duration” of each step taken during the blending of the air/fuel ratio between the last crank value and the desired Run value. This is a table (in seconds) based on coolant.KtFUEL_AFR_RunTimeoutInitDeltaThis is the initial desired run air/fuel offset to the base open loop air/fuel. This value is subtracted from the base open loop air/fuel in order to determine the run air/fuel point to begin open loop fueling following crank (it is the “target” for the crank-to-run transition). This calibration is a table based on coolant.KtFUEL_t_RunAF_DecayIntrvlThis is actually the “step duration” of each step taken during the blending of the air/fuel ratio between the initial open loop value and the desired base open loop value. This is a table (in seconds) based on coolant.KfFUEL_RunAF_DecayMultThis multiplier actually determines the “step size” of each blend interval between the initial open loopair/fuel value and the desired base open loop air/fuel value. The difference between the current open loop value and the desired base open loop value is calculated and then multiplied by (1- KfFUEL_RunAF_DecayMult). The result is then added to the current air/fuel ratio to create the new blend value (this process continues until the closed loop criteria have been met, or the desired open loop air/fuel ratio has been reached). In other words, the larger this value is, the slower the blend … the smaller the value, the faster the blend. This is a single calibration value.Recommended Datalogger Parameters (shown in Green on Figure 1) CAFTI - Current Crank Air Fuel RatioCRAFTI - Current Crank-to-Run Air Fuel RatioAFTI - Current Run Air Fuel RatioVRPM – Actual engine RPMIRPMDES – Desired target RPMVCOOLTMP – Actual Coolant temperatureALTMAP – Altitude compensated Manifold PressureENGSTATE – 1 = Ignition On2 = Crank (shown in Brown on Figure 1)3 = Crank-to-Run / Run (shown in Brown on Figure 1)4 = Stall5 = Key-off6 = Power-downAIRFUEL – Overall commanded air/fuel ratioNGKPLENU – Actual measured air/fuel ratioAFCRANK – Commanded crank air/fuel ratioPRIMEBPW – Commanded prime pulse width (in msec)General Calibration GuidelinesBefore You Start:-You will absolutely need some sort of fast response Air/Fuel sensor (such as an NGK A/F sensor) placed in the exhaust manifold where all cylinders meet.-You will need to datalog the sensors output as fast as possible (7.81 ms most cases) and base your cal changes on what you learn from the data.-If possible, find a similar application and place those values in your calibration.-If that is not possible, find a “not as similar as you would like” application and use those values.-Study Figure 1 and the cal descriptions. You will need to thoroughly understand how the open loop fueling parameters interact before you begin calibrating.You Are Now Ready To Calibrate:-Since you now have something other than zeros in your cal (which, by the way, is NOT an option for a starting point), and your knowledge of the cal functionality is above average, you can begin coarse cal-refinement at the 20C ambient break point. You will need to soak the car to room temperature (20C) ina garage and use Figure 1, the cal parameter descriptions, and your datalogger data, in order to achievedesired start times and flares.-Once that point is starting reasonably (nothing fancy at this point), warm the engine up to operating temperature (80 – 92 C breakpoints) and calibrate fueling for desired start times and flares during warm re-starts at these temperatures. Once again, use Figure 1, the cal parameter descriptions, and your datalogger data for reference.-For the cold end of the table, use a cold cell of some sort to keep the temperature constant and set it to –16C (this is a good starting cold temp … -28 is VERY cold and you will be much better off if you have some idea of your fueling needs at –16 before attempting the –28 breakpoint). As before, use Figure 1, the cal parameter descriptions, and your datalogger data, in order to achieve desired start times and flares.-Graph all your open loop air/fuel tables at –16, 20, 80 and/or 92C and interpolate the points between them. Once you have the general shape of the curves, extend the graphs to get some idea of where to set the –28C and –40C points.-Now that you have a cal baseline, you can begin refining the cals (this process will continue until start-of-production … believe me).-Utilize the Environmental Vehicle Lab (EVL) to soak the vehicle to cal table break points ranging from –28 C to 32 C. Refine cals at each break point to achieve desired start times and flares.-Use the ambient temperatures outside to test starts between break points. You will also be able to achieve starts at table (and non-table) break points from 32 to 92 degrees Celsius by letting the vehicle get up to operating temperature (80C – 92C) and then letting it soak at different intervals.-Now use the EVL again to achieve start temperatures above 92C by following your customers hot re-start requirements. Usually a max oil temperature will be specified, and once reaching that, you will be required to soak at different intervals to achieve different start temperatures (the two most important of which are max coolant and max injector tip). You will most likely need to define these two points by thermocoupling coolant, oil, and all injector tips, driving the vehicle till the specified max oiltemperature is reached, and then datalogging the thermocouples during the soak period (an hour should be long enough). You can then graph your injector tip temperatures and coolant temperature as afunction of soak time, which will in turn allow you to determine the soak time necessary to achieve max injector and coolant points during your testing.General Calibration Rules of Thumb (aka helpful bits of magic)If The Vehicle Does NOT Start:-The air/fuel sensor does you no good at crank since the air/fuel mixture has not reached it (i.e. … it will always be pegged lean during crank).-Make sure you have a brand new battery in the vehicle … this will greatly affect your crank speed. I recommend putting a charger on the battery when doing initial cold start work just to eliminate the possibility of a weak battery causing any problems (you can do starts with just the new battery once you feel comfortable with your calibration).-Assume you have the proper crank spark and crank air calibrations. If you think these are incorrect, use the recommended initial values discussed in sections II and III of this cal guide. This will be enough air and spark to get you started at just about any temperature (however, start quality could be “less than desirable”).-Try to start the vehicle again and see if it starts … If not, continue with this section.-If the vehicle doesn’t seem to be firing (or partials … i.e. fires then cranks then fires then cranks etc.), increase the prime pulse till it fires and runs (if only for a split second).-If it fires and stalls immediately, increase your initial open loop a/f offset in order to richen up the run fuel and keep it running.Once The Vehicle Starts (and runs for at least a few seconds):-If the air/fuel sensor goes very lean immediately following the start, you will need more prime fuel.-If the air/fuel sensor goes very rich immediately following the start, you will need less prime fuel.-If the air/fuel sensor “quickly ramps lean” following the start, and the vehicle idles poorly and possibly even stalls, increase your Open Loop A/F offset (to richen up the initial run fuel), or slow down the leaning out of the crank fuel (which approach to take will be based on what your datalogger data looks like).-If the air/fuel sensor “stays rich” following the start and the vehicle coughs, spits, sags well below desired, or even stalls, reduce your Open Loop A/F offset (to lean out the initial run fuel), or speed up the leaning out of the crank fuel (which approach to take will be based on what your datalogger data looks like).Startup Airflow CalibrationDiscussionThe startup airflow is the sum total of ALL the engine airflow components (temporary and learned) that help create a fast strong start/flare condition. The following equation best describes the definition of startup airflow:Startup Airflow = KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst + KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN + IDLINTGLAll of these parameters will be discussed in detail in the sections that follow, so keep this relationship in mind as the calibration parameters are presented.Calibration Parameters and Initial Values:KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRVThis value is the % airflow offset that is added to the current integral base value to allow for stable cold run conditions (AT in drive or MT). It is a table based on coolant temperature.Recommended Initial Values:KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstPNThis value is the % airflow offset that is added to the current integral base value to allow for stable cold run conditions (AT in Park/Neutral). It is a table based on coolant temperature.Recommended Initial Values:KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfstThis is the % airflow offset that is added in at crank in addition to the KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN and base integral values. It is used to help overcome initial engine friction and produce a fast strong start. It is quickly decayed out following the start and consists of a table based on coolant temperature.Recommended Initial Values:KtIDLE_t_StartUpInitDecayDlyThis is the initial delay to the decaying out of KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst once Engine State 3 (Run) is reached. The value is in seconds and is looked up in a coolant-based table.Recommended Initial Values:KtIDLE_t_StartUpFlowDecayDlyThis “delay” is actually the duration of each decay step taken during the process of decaying out KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst. The value is in seconds and is looked up in a coolant based table Recommended Initial Values:KfIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowDecayThis “decay” is actually the amount of each decay step taken during the process of decaying outKtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst. It is an actual percentage of airflow subtracted from the current value every KtIDLE_t_StartUpFlowDecayDly seconds. Simply put, the smaller the value the slower the decay, the larger the value the faster the decay. It is a single calibration value with units of % airflow.Recommended Initial Value: 1.25KtIDLE_t_ColdFlowDecayIntervalThis “interval” is actually the duration of each decay step taken during the process of decaying out KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN. The value is in seconds and is looked up in a coolant based table Recommended Initial Values:KtIDLE_ColdAirflowDecayMultThis calibration actually determines the amount of each decay step taken during the process of decaying out KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN. The current value of KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN is multiplied by KtIdle_ColdAIrflowDecayMult and the result is the new KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN. In other words, the smaller the value, the faster the decay (and of course the larger the value, the slower the decay). This is a lookup table based on coolant.Recommended Initial Values:Recommended Datalogger Parameters (shown in Green on Figure 2) VRPM – Actual engine RPMIRPMDES – Desired target RPMVCOOLTMP – Actual Coolant temperatureALTMAP – Altitude compensated Manifold PressureENGSTATE – 1 = Ignition On2 = Crank (shown in Brown on Figure 2)3 = Crank-to-Run / Run (shown in Brown on Figure 2)4 = Stall5 = Key-off6 = Power-downVIACPMP – Actual motor position of the Idle Air Control Valve (in counts)ISTUPFLW – Startup airflow offset (from table KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst)ICLDDR/PN – Temporary cold airflow offset while transmission is in Drive/Park-Neutral (from table KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN)ICLDFLW – Value currently being used by the vehicle as it’s cold offset (either ICLDDR orICLDPN)IFNACDR/PN – Idle base integral value with no AC, transmission in Drive/Park-Neutral (FastLearning)IFWACDR/PN – Idle base integral value with AC, transmission in Drive/Park-Neutral (FastLearning)ISNACDR/PN – Idle base integral value with no AC, transmission in Drive/Park-Neutral (SlowLearning)ISWACDR/PN – Idle base integral value with no AC, transmission in Drive/Park-Neutral (Slow Learning)IDLINTGL – Value currently being used by the vehicle as the base idle integral (eitherISNACDR/PN or ISWACDR/PN)IDLEFLOW – Total Airflow at any given time (ISTUPFLW + ICLDFLW + IDLINTGL)General Calibration Guidelines:1)Make sure you have a reasonable calibration for crank fueling (if you don’t, go back and calibrate thatfirst).2)Make sure you have a reasonable calibration for crank spark (if not, put 10 degrees at all points in theKtSPRK_phi_CrankCltRPM crank spark table for now).3)Now put the recommended initial values into the calibration. These values (since most are based onengine % airflow) should get you to start and flare reasonably on any application (unlike calibrating crank air/fuel, which needs initial values from a similar engine).4)As with the fuel calibrations earlier, you should use the ambient temperature outside and some sort ofEnvironmental Vehicle Lab (for extreme hot and cold temps) to “fine tune” the coolant basedcalibration tables. Be sure you first warm the vehicle up to operating temperature to allow all of the integral slow cells to learn their warm idle values (ISNACDR/PN, ISWACDR/PN). You can then soak the vehicle down to different start temperatures and increase/decrease the amount of Startup Airflow (KtIDLE_Pct_StartUpAirflowOfst) in order to achieve the desired rpm flare characteristics.Note: You should ALWAYS warm the vehicle all the way to it’s warm operating temperature between starts to make sure the idle integral values are properly learned. It is possible tocorrupt the integrals during cold start development and they will remain that way for thenext start if this is not done.5)To calibrate the KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN tables, soak the vehicle to each break point onthe table, start the vehicle, and note the value of ICLDDR/PN on your datalogger (it should equal the value in your KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN table at startup). Following the initial start and flare, ICLDDR/PN should learn down quickly to the value it wishes to run at in order to maintain the desired idle (IRPMDES) at that particular start temperature. That value of ICLDDR/PN should then be placed in the calibration table KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN as your new value.Note: This value is only capable of learning down. If the value of IDLINTGL on yourdatalogger immediately begins learning up following the initial start (and ICLDDR/PNremains unchanged), you will need to raise the value of KtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PNat that point in the table. After re-learning your idle integral warm, increaseKtIDLE_Pct_ColdAirflowOfstDRV/PN considerably to be sure that the next test willlearn down.Crank / Crank-to-Run Spark Transition CalibrationDiscussionCrank spark is the least critical and most “forgiving “ of the startup calibration sections. It has less of an effect on the actual speed of the start and more of an effect on the start “quality” (making it the “fine tuning” portion of the calibration). I will discuss how to use the spark calibrations to improve start flares and overall “appearance” to the driver.Calibration Parameters and Initial ValuesKtSPRK_phi_CrankCltRPMThis 2-D calibration table (based on coolant and RPM) is the actual spark commanded (and delivered) during the crank state of the starting process.Recommended Initial Value: 10 degrees at all table pointsKtSPRK_t_CrankToRunRampDelayThis calibration is simply a timer used to delay the ramping of the spark from crank to the determined run spark (be it normal or converter light-off mode). It is useful when controlling rpm flares in that you can hold the spark value long enough to help eliminate any “hitches” or droops in the flare which can cause accidental triggering of the high DI detection logic. If the “ramp up” rate of the flare is inconsistent, the high DI detection logic considers it to be a “poor quality” start and richens up the air/fuel ratio accordingly. This is undesirable if caused by a sudden change in delivered spark.Recommended Initial Value: 0.5 secondsKtSPRK_phi_CrankToRunDownStepThis calibration is used to smoothly transition between crank spark and the determined run spark (be it normal or converter light-off mode) when crank spark is greater than the desired run value. It was decided to make it a “degrees per 15.6 ms loop” decay in order to keep the software simple. It also helps to control rpm flares by eliminating any sudden changes in delivered spark.Recommended Initial Value: 0.1 at all table pointsKtSPRK_phi_CrankToRunUpStepThis calibration is used to smoothly transition between crank spark and the determined run spark (be it normal or converter light-off mode) when crank spark is less than the desired run value. It was decided to make it a “degrees per 15.6 ms loop” decay in order to keep the software simple. It also helps to control rpm flares by eliminating any sudden changes in delivered spark.Recommended Initial Value: 0.1 at all table pointsKfSPRK_n_CL_CrankToRunRPM_DeltaThis calibration is the positive rpm offset value at which closed loop spark is enabled. Once DESIRED RPM + KfSPRK_n_CL_CrankToRunRPM_Delta has been crossed for the first time (during the increasing portion or the rpm flare), the closed loop spark logic is then enabled when that threshold is crossed again (during the decreasing portion of the rpm flare). This was added to insure that closed loop spark is enabled as quickly as possible, given a proper start/flare/idle transition. Going closed loop too early can cause flare inconsistencies due to rapidly changing spark values, while too late can cause idle instability.Recommended Initial Value: 10 rpmKtSPRK_t_IdleCL_SparkDelayTimeIf, for any reason, the desired rpm delta criteria (desired rpm + KfSPRK_n_CL_CrankToRunRPM_Delta) has not been met (in either the increasing or decreasing direction), this calibration timer will force closed loop spark once it has expired. It is a carry-over from the old crank to run spark transition and was kept in as a fail-safe system for going into closed loop spark mode regardless of start quality. It should be calibrated to be considerably longer than the typical flare time of any given cold start.Recommended Initial Value: 4 seconds at all table pointsRecommended Datalogger Parameters (shown in Green on Figure 3) VRPM – Actual engine RPMIRPMDES – Desired target RPMVCOOLTMP – Actual Coolant temperatureALTMAP – Altitude compensated Manifold PressureENGSTATE – 1 = Ignition On2 = Crank (shown in Brown on Figure 3)3 = Crank-to-Run / Run (shown in Brown on Figure 3)4 = Stall5 = Key-off6 = Power-downSPARK – Overall commanded sparkIDLSPARK – Current desired Idle sparkCRSPRKDN – Spark ramping done flagGeneral Calibration Guidelines1)Assume that you have a reasonable calibration for startup IACV and Crank fuel.2)Set calibration parameters to the recommended initial values.If reasonable values are already in your crank spark table (KtSPRK_phi_CrankCltRPM), you may wish to leave them assuming someone has already done that calibration (this table is commonly“carried over” from an earlier application). If you are starting from scratch, the recommended initial values will get you started.3)Use the following parameters to improve flare characteristics:-KtSPRK_t_CrankToRunRampDelay can be used to increase/decrease the time at the flare peak and “smooth” the positive going slope of the flare.-KtSPRK_phi_CrankToRunUp/DownStep can be used to smooth, increase, or decrease the negative going slope of the flare.4)Set KfSPRK_n_CL_CrankToRunRPM_Delta to allow the vehicle to go into closed loop sparkmode as soon as possible without interfering with the final portion of the flare.5)Set KtSPRK_t_IdleCL_SparkDelayTime to some value beyond the typical flare duration in order toforce closed loop spark if for some reason KfSPRK_n_CL_CrankToRunRPM_Delta criteria isn’t met following the start.Appendix AAppendix AFigures 1, 2 and 3 (Full Size)。
Conductivity test for Purified Water and Water for Injections according to USP-NFAn application for M eterLab ®SummaryThe conductivity of a water is aMeter calibration: It is accomplished by replacing the conductivity cell with precision The cell constant can be verified directly by using this conductivitystandard. measure of the ion mobilityresistors traceable to primary through this water. The conductivi-ty partly depends on the pH, thetemperature and the amount ofatmospheric carbon dioxide, which has been dissolved in the water toform ions (intrinsic conductivity).The conductivity also depends onthe chloride, sodium and ammoni-um ions initially present in the water (extraneous conductivity). The conductivity (intrinsic andextraneous) of the water is meas- ured and compared to values list- ed in a table to evaluate if the studied water is suitable or not for use in pharmaceutical applica- tions. If the sample fails Stage 1, additional tests have to be per- formed (Stages 2 and 3) in order to determine if the excessive con- ductivity value is due to intrinsic factors or extraneous ions. USP Requirements Automatic temperature correction by this meter must not be used. Instrument specifications: Minimum resolution of 0.1 µS/cm on the lowest range. Excluding the cell accuracy, the instrument ac-curacy must be ±0.1 µS/cm.standards (accurate to ±0.1% of the stated value) or an equivalent-ly accurate adjustable resistancedevice.Cell calibration:Water conductivity must be meas-ured accurately using calibratedinstrumentation. The conductivitycell constant must be known with-in ±2%.Comments Radiometer Analytical produces a KCl 0.01D conductivity standard which has a certified conductivity value of 1408 µS/cm ±0.5% at 25°C, traceable to internationally recognised Standard Reference Material (SRM) from the National Institute of Standards and Technol- ogy (NIST) and accredited by COFRAC, the official French ac- creditation authority. This means that there is a 95% confidence level that the true val- ue of the conductivity standard is 1408 µS/cm ±7 µS/cm at 25°C. For such a low uncertainty contri- bution, the uncertainty associated to the cell constant determination can be reduced to less than 1%. Apparatus For Stages 1 & 2: CDM230 Conductivity Meter withcalibration certificate. For Stage 3: Stages 1 & 2 equipment, plus: PHM210 Standard pH Meter withverification certificate.Electrodes For Stage 1:CDC511T Conductivity Cell, Circu-lation/Pipette, 4-pole with tempera- ture sensor, with calibration certifi- cates for flow type cell and tem- perature sensor. For Stage 2: Stage 1 equipment, plus: Epoxy tube for CDC511T, Part No. X31M013 with calibration certifi- cate. For Stage 3: Stage 1 & 2 equipment, plus: pHC2085-8 Combined pH Elec- trode, Red Rod with temperaturesensor.ReagentsFor Stages 1 & 2:Certified Conductivity Standard: Part No. S51M003, KCl 0.01 D. For Stage 3:Stage 1 & 2 solutions, plus: Certified pH Standards, IUPAC Series, pH4.005, Part No.S11M002 and pH7.000, Part No. S11M004Saturated KCl Solution, 100 ml, Part No. S21M002Other apparatusE190 Electrode Stand, Part No. 809-206Thermostatic bathSAM7 Sample Stand with the standard bayonet electrode head, Part No. X31T022X31T031 Adapter (2 pcs)X51T015 Thermostated Vessel for SAM7X31T052 Tubing kit for thermostat- ed vesselSTAGE 1Determine the temperature and conductivity of the water.CDM230 programming:Press the “Cal” key for approx. 3 seconds.If you use a certified CDC511T, no cell calibration is performed, enter the following parameters directly as follows:Cell 1 Constant <enter below> Cell 1 Constant <1.100*> cm-1 Cable resistance <0.000> Ω Cab. C apacitance <500> pF (*) Enter the value written on the calibration certificate delivered with the CDC511T Circulation/ Pipette version.Note: If you want to determine t he value of the cell constant, enter: Calibrate using <0.01 KCl> Stability crit. <1.0>%/minAccept time <60> sCalibrate every <7> D ays Cable resistance <0.000> ΩCab. Capacitance <500> pFPress the “Method” key for ap-prox. 3 seconds:Method <Conductivity>Conductivity <Autorange>Reset reading <no>Unit selection <S/cm>Print format <all>Warning beep <yes>Result beep <yes>Reset method <no>Press the “Tref” key for approx. 3seconds, select:Temp correction <none>Press the “Sample” key for ap-prox. 3 seconds:Sample result <Autoread>Stability crit. <1.0>%/minAccept time <60> sProcedure1) Use the CDC511T ConductivityCell, Circulation/ Pipette in thepipette version, and place it on theE190 Electrode Stand.Note: If you want to determine thecell constant, the calibration canbe performed either in pipette orcirculation mode.Rinse the cell carefully with deion-ised water. Perform a measure-ment with a sample from the con-tainer using the CDC511T. Checkthat the 4 rings and the tempera-ture sensor are immersed in thesample and that no air bubbles aretrapped. Fit the stoppers on theLuer adapters. Connect theCDC511T to the meter, press the“Sample” key and perform a tem-perature and conductivity meas-urement (using a non-temperaturecorrected conductivity reading).2) Using the Stage 1 temperatureand conductivity requirementstable, find the temperature valuethat is no greater than the meas-ured temperature. The correspond-ing conductivity is the limit at thattemperature.3) If the measured conductivity isno greater than the table value, thewater meets the requirements ofthe test for conductivity. If theconductivity is higher than thetable value, proceed with Stage 2.Stage 1Temperature and conductivityrequirements(for non-temperature-compensatedconductivity measurements only)(1) Values from USP – NF Fifth Sup-plementPhysical Tests / Water Conductivity(645) 3465-3467STAGE 2Determine the influence of CO2CDM230 programming:Press the “Cal” key for approx. 3seconds.If you use a certified CDC511T, no cell calibration is performed, enter the following parameters directly as follows:Cell 1 Constant <enter below> Cell 1 Constant <1.100*> cm-1 Cable resistance <0.000> Ω Cab. C apacitance <500> pF (*) Enter the value written on the calibration certificate delivered with the CDC511T epoxy tube version.Note: If you want to determine the value of the cell constant, enter: Calibrate using <0.01 KCl> Stability crit. <1.0>%/min Accept time <60> s Calibrate every <7> Days Cable resistance <0.000> Ω Cab. C apacitance <500> pF Press the “Sample” key for ap- prox. 3 seconds:Sample result <At intervals> Stability crit. <0.5>%/min Print Interval <30> s Note: Stability criteria < 0.5%/min corresponds in fact to a change in conductivity < 0.02 µS/cm per minute (equivalent to 0.1 µS/cm per 5 minutes), as required in the Stage 2 USP d ocument.Procedure4) Transfer a sufficient amount of water (100 ml or more) to a ther- mostated vessel, and stir the test specimen. Adjust the t emperature and maintain it at 25 ±1°C. We recommend using a thermostatic bath.On the CDC511T, replace the Cir- culation/Pipette piece with the epoxy tube (Part No.X31M013). Rinse the cell carefully with deion- ised water. Place the conductivity cell on the SAM7 Sample Stand and dip it in the thermostated ves- sel containing the sample. Check that the 4 rings and temperature sensor are immersed in the solution.Start the measurements by press-ing the “Sample” key.When the conductivity value isstable, ‘STAB’ on the display, notethe conductivity.5) If the conductivity is not greaterthan 2.1 µS/cm, the water meetsthe requirements of the test forconductivity. If the conductivity isgreater than 2.1 µS/cm, proceedwith Stage 3.STAGE 3Determine the combined effectof CO2and pHPHM210 programming:Select the type of buffer to beused for the calibration. W e recom-mend you to use the IUPAC SeriespH4.005 and pH7.000. Adjust andmaintain the temperature a t25 ±1°C for the calibration.Select the AUTOREAD function forpH measurements.Connect the pHC2085-8 CombinedpH Electrode to the meter. Rinse itcarefully. Place it on the SAM7Sample Stand.Press the “Cal” key to perform acalibration.When the calibration has beenperformed, rinse the electrode,immerse it in the sample and stir.Procedure6) Perform the following test withinapproximately 5 minutes of theconductivity determination whilemaintaining the sample tempera-ture at 25 ±1°C.Add the Saturated KCl Solution tothe same water (0.3 ml per 100 mlof the test specimen), and deter-mine the pH to the nearest 0.1 pHunit.7) Referring to the Stage 3 pH andconductivity requirement tabledetermine the conductivity limit atthe measured pH value. If themeasured conductivity in step 4 isnot greater than the conductivityrequirements for the pH deter-mined in step 6, the water meetsthe requirements of the test forconductivity. If the measured con-ductivity is greater than this valueor the pH is outside of the range of5.0 to 7.0, the water does notmeet the requirements of the testfor conductivity.Stage 3pH and conductivityrequirements(For atmosphere and temperatureequilibrated samples only)LiteratureUSP – NF Fifth SupplementPhysical Tests / Water Conductivi-ty (645) 3465-3467。
