Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning

情境教学概念2.⼀、问题情境的含义⼼理学研究表明〔创，学⽣最初学习时经历的认知线索直接影响着今后对相关知识经验的提取，个体具有丰富体验的形象化、条理清楚、联系⼴泛的图式化知识更有利于记忆和提取。

1.1情境教学的界定情境教学的核⼼是“情境”，从词义上说，“情景”和“情境”之间是有区别的。

“情景”的“景”是具体、直观和吸引⼈的。

“情境”的“境”是指构成和蕴涵在情景中的那些相互交织的因素及其相互之间的关系，从内涵看，情境要⽐情景丰富、复杂得多。

数学课程着眼于后者，但脱离了数学课程的背景，去区别这两个词，就没有意义了。

⽆论我们谈及“情景”还是“情境”都不是观赏性的停留在表⾯，⽽是为了深⼊进去，研究情景背后的故事，找出与数学有关的线索。

因此，在数学课程⾥(不是⽣活⾥)的“情景与情境”可以看成⼀回事，这不会引起歧义，也⽅便⼴⼤教师理解。

情境教学的概念，⾸先由Br。

wn.c。

11in.Duguid在1989年⼀篇名为《情境认知与学习⽂化》(SituatedCognitionandtheCulture。

fLearning)的论⽂中提出的。

他们认为“知识只有在它们产⽣及应⽤的情境中刁‘能产⽣意义。

知识绝不能从它本⾝所处的环境中孤⽴出来，学习知识的最好⽅法就是在情境中进⾏。

”〔1]关于情境教学有各种不同的表述。

教育⼤辞典中给出这样的定义:情境教学就是运⽤具体⽣动的场景，以激起学⽣主动的学习兴趣、提⾼学习效率的⼀种教学⽅法「2]。

钟启泉教授认为“情境教学是指创设含有真实事件或真实问题的情境，学⽣在探究事件或解决问题的过程中⾃主地理解知识、建构意义。

”〔3」李吉林⽼师认为:“情境教学就是从‘情’与‘境’‘情’与‘辞’、‘情’与‘理’、‘情’与‘全⾯发展’的辨证关系出发，创设典型的场景，激起⼉童热烈的情绪，把情感活动和认知活动结合起来所创建的⼀种教学模式。

”【4]从本质上说，教学情境就是以直观⽅式再现书本知识所表征的实际事物或者实际事物的相关背景。

一、对情境认知理论的理解及其在教育教学领域中教学改革、人才培养、网络教学、资源开发等方面的运用情境认知理论(Situated Cognition)是继行为主义“刺激—反应”学习理论与认知心理学的“信息加工”学习理论后，与建构主义大约同时出现的又一个重要的研究取向，它试图纠正刺激反应和符号学说的失误。

情境认知理论试图纠正认知的符号运算方法的失误，特别是完全依靠于规则与信息描述的认知，仅仅关注有意识的推理和思考的认知，忽视了文化和物理背景的认知。

情境认知理论强调：学习的设计要以学习者为主体，内容与活动的安排要与人类社会的具体实践相联通，最好在真实的情景中，通过类似人类真实实践的方式来组织教学，同时把知识和获得与学习者的发展、身份建构等统合在一起。

总之，情境认知理论的观点影响着教学系统设计与学习环境开发等多方面的教学理念，为信息技术与课程整合、计算机支持协作学习和虚拟学习共同体的建设等教育技术的新领域提供了理论依据。

1、情景认知理论在教学改革中的应用（1）创设情境认知教学环境将理论与实践相结合（2）在情境认知教学环境中学习激发学生的自主学习能力和学习动力（3）采用情境认知理论教学促进教师职能转变（4）情境认知教学环境有利于科研与教学互相促动互相渗透教学目标情境认知理论认为：学习的实质是个体参与实践，与他人、环境相互作用的过程学习者应主动利用经验和知识参与实践活动。

具体地说，就是要培养学生的自学能力、研究能力、思维能力、表达能力、让学生学会认知，学会做事。

教学内容不把教材作为一种目的，不把教材中的知识作为唯一的教学内容，而是一种素材教学的内容不仅包含课本知识，教师还要设计与所教课程相关的问题与环境，激发学生学习的内在动力，促进对问题进行探究，帮助学生掌握更多的知识，发展相应的能力。

教学过程情境认知理论的教学目的是通过发展学生的认知水平实现的。

在教学过程中，教师不是先引导学生复习旧知识然后才开始新内容的学习，而是把课题摆在学生面前设计有利于学生发挥潜力的情境，激发学生的认知兴趣，由学生自己去学习知识，寻求问题的答案，学生从被动的接受者和知识的灌输对象转变为知识的主动构建与学习者，教师从知识传输的执行者转向学生知识学习的帮助者、参与者、组织者和促进者。

Situational Teaching Method in Primary School English Teachingby陆雅琼A thesis presented to the School of English Education ofXi’an International Studies Universityin partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree ofBachelor of ArtsMay 15, 2013Class: 09-5Advisor: 刘全利西安外国语大学毕业论文开题报告AcknowledgementsI’d like to take this opportunity to extend my best regards to those who have helped me with my graduate thesis.In writing this paper, I have benefited from the presence of my teachers and my classmates. They generously helped me collect materials I need and made many invaluable suggestions. I hereby extend my grateful thanks to them for their kind help, without which the paper would not have been what it it. Particularly, I am deeply indebted to Ms. Liu, my supervisor, who guided me throughout my writing of this thesis. She carefully read the whole draft and offered precious criticism. Her standards of academic excellence have made my revision exciting and gratifying experience. I also wish to sincerely thank my classmates and friends, whose brilliant ideas and perceptive observations have proved immensely constructive.“情景式教学法”在小学英语教学中的应用摘要：传统小学英语教学模式就是老师在课堂上教授，学生做一些简单的听、说、读、写以及背诵。

教师在教学中如何帮学生提高记忆效率【摘要】学生们每天都在对多个科目的知识进行学习，大脑接受的信息量非常的大，如何帮助学生提高对所学知识的记忆效率就显得尤为重要，这也是教师的一大教学任务。

提高记忆效率的渠道多种多样，本文主要是介绍了记忆的方法，和如何掌握记得快、记得牢、记得准的要领。

【关键词】记忆力；记忆效率；长时间；内容；理解记忆；培养兴趣；首先我们来了解一下什么是记忆。

记忆是一个复杂的过程，识记、保持、再认或回忆是记忆的三个基本环节。

识记是识别和记住事物；保持是巩固已获得的知识经验的过程；回忆和再认就是在不同的情况下恢复过去经验的过程，经验过的事物不在面前，能把它重新回想起来称记忆，当经验过的事物再度出现时，能把它认出来称再认。

记忆过程中的三个环节是相互联系、相互支撑的。

从信息加工的观点来看，记忆就是对输入信息的编码、储存和提取的过程。

记忆把人的过去、现在和未来连接为一个整体。

没有记忆参与，知觉过程就不可能实现；没有记忆也就不可能有思维活动。

人有了记忆，才能够积累经验、扩大经验。

记忆是心理过程在时间上的持续。

有了记忆，前后的经验才能够联系起来，使心理活动成为一个发展的、统一的过程。

人们通过丰富自己的记忆内容，最终形成独具魅力的个性。

下面，我将结合实际问题具体谈谈教师在教学过程中如何通过科学的方法提高的学生记忆效率。

1.情境教学法情境教学的概念，首先是由Brown，Collin，Duguid 在1989 年的一篇名为《情境认知与学习文化》（Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning）的论文中提出的。

他们认为“知识只有在它们产生及应用的情境中才能产生一定的意义。

知识绝不能从它本身所处的环境中孤立出来，学习知识的最好方法就是在情境中进行。

”关于情境教学有各种不同的表述：“情境教学就是运用具体生动的场景，以激起学生主动的学习兴趣、提高学习效率的一种教学方法”“情境教学是从教学的需要出发，教师根据教材创设以形象为主体，富有感情色彩的具体场景或氛围，激起和吸引学生主动学习，从而达到最佳教学效果的一种教学方法”。

论文参考文献1.参考文献著录项目(1)著作：[序号] 主要责任者.著作名[M].其他责任者.版本项.出版地：出版者，出版年：引文页码.(2)连续出版物：[序号]主要责任者.题名[J].年，卷(期)-年，卷(期).出版地：出版者，出版年.(3)连续出版物中的析出文献：[序号] 析出文献主要责任者.析出文献题名[J].连续出版物题名：其他题名信息，年，卷(期)：页码.(4)专著中的析出文献：[序号] 析出文献主要责任者.析出文献题名[C].析出文献其他责任者//专著主要责任者.专著题名.版本项.出版地：出版者，出版年：析出文献的页码.(5)电子文献：[序号] 主要责任者.题名[文献类型标志/文献载体类型标志].出版地：出版者，出版年(更新或修改日期)[引用日期]获取或访问路径.2.参考文献类型及其标志(1)以单字母方式标志以下各种参考文献类型：参考文献类型普通图书会议论文报纸文章期刊文章学位论文报告标准专利汇编档案古籍参考工具文献类型标志 M C N J D R S P G B O K(2)对于其他未说明的文献类型，建议采用单字母“Z”。

(3)对于数据库(Database)、计算机程序(Computer Program)及电子公告(Electronic Bulletin Board)等电子文献类型的参考文献，建议以下列双字母作为标志：电子文献类型数据库计算机程序电子公告电子文献类型标志 DB CP EB(4)电子文献的载体类型及其标志对于非纸张型载体的电子文献，当被引用为参考文献时需在参考文献类型标志中同时标明其载体类型。

建议采用双字母表示电子文献载体类型：电子文献载体类型磁带磁盘光盘联机网络电子文献载体类型标志 MT DK CD OL载体类型标志含义 Magnetic Tape Disk CD-ROM Online并以下列格式表示包括了文献载体类型的参考文献类型标志：[文献类型标志/载体类型标志]如：[DB/OL] 联机网上数据库(Database Online);[DB/MT] 磁带数据库(Database on Magnetic Tape);[M/CD] 光盘图书(Monograph on CD-ROM);[CP/DK] 磁盘软件(Computer Program on Disk);[J/OL] 网上期刊(Serial Online);[EB/OL] 网上电子公告(Electronic Bulletin Board Online)。

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英文参考文献格式精选3篇英文参考文献格式精选1篇[1] a, b, c, d, and e. TITLE, JOURNAL, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 5–7, May 2010.在上面的格式中，作者为一个时用：a两个作者用：a and b三个作者用：a, b and c四个、五个时的情况以此类推超过五个则用：a, b, c, d, e, and et al.各个月份的简写形式为：Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.IEEETrans的写法：IEEE Trans. Electron Devices IEEE Int. Conf. Communications也有一些期刊按照以下格式要求：[1] Duan X Y, Li S, Lucy G, and Jim G. TITLE. Journal of *, 2012, 3(22): 14-26.可以看出，中国作者名称的写法是：姓氏全拼，首字母大写，名字无论是两个还是三个，都是取首字母并大写。

卷和期写在一起，省略掉了vol和no，期用小括号括起来。

当然此前所述，这儿学研端只列举常用的实例，各种期刊要求不一，按照期刊要求即可。

英文参考文献格式精选2篇英文(例子)：[01] Brown, H. D. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy[M]. Prentice Hall Regents, 1994.[02] Brown, J Set al. Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning[J].Educational Reasercher, 1, 1989.[03] Chris, Dede. The Evolution of Constructivist Learning Envi-ronments: Immersion in Distributed Virtual Worlds[J]. Ed-ucational Technology, Sept-Oct, 1995.[04] Hymes, D.On communicative competence[M]. J. B. Pride; J. Holmes (eds). Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972.[05] L. E. Sarbaugh. Intercultural communication[M]. New Brunsw-ick, N.J.U.S.A: Transaction Books, 1988.[06] Puhl, A.. Classroom A ssessment[J]. EnglishTeaching Forum, 1997.[07]#from 英文参考文献格式精选3篇来自 end# Thomas, Jenny. Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure[J]. Applied Linguistics, 1983, (4): 91-111.[08] William B Gudykunst. Intercultural communication theory[M]. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Pub, 1983.英文参考文献格式精选3篇英文文献采用 APA格式：单一作者著作的书籍：姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.两位作者以上合著的书籍：姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社. Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press. 文集中的文章：Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books. 期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.期刊中的文章(连续页码)：姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54,66–146.月刊杂志中的文章：Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.。

中国文化视野下的人类学海外民族志研究——基于法国田野经验的思考张金岭（中国社会科学院欧洲研究所，北京100732）摘要：用汉语来书写世界，特别是西方的文化与社会，是中国人类学界以新的知识生产机制参与世界互动的方式。

这不仅仅是一个对象转换的问题，更是学术主体意识的问题。

而其中最关键的是如何定位、如何田野和如何表述的问题。

应当立足于当下中国社会发展的知识需求，注重剖析西方既有的复杂的“成品知识”与“成品社会”，以人类学民族志的方式展现出其“制造”过程。

在田野调查的方法上，应当把握好“宏观的历史结构、微观的社会情境”这样一种观察与思考问题的基点，突出民族志研究的整体感。

此外，还应当突出中国视野，以期让世界了解不同的见解与声音。

关键词：海外民族志；知识生产；中国视野；法国经验中国人类学界的海外民族志研究起步并不晚，但总体来看并没有受到足够的重视，至少用汉语来书写的有关海外社会的民族志在进入21世纪之前实在是少而又少。

究其原因，高丙中教授认为多方面的历史条件制约着中国人类学家的选择，既包括中国学界获得课题资助能力的限制，又包括“中国所处的现代化发展阶段的社会心态、集体意识不便于学者到国外社会开展调查研究”的限制等[1]。

但近些年来，这一现象得到了一定的改观。

中国人类学研究把自己学术思考的视角定位于整个世界，用汉语来书写世界社会与文化，是中国人类学界以新的知识生产机制参与世界互动的方式。

为撰写博士论文，完成博士后研究成果，笔者先后在法国里昂做过两次人类学田野调查，历时近4年，所以想结合自己的田野经历，对海外民族志研究如何定位、如何“田野”、如何表述等方面，谈一些体会与想法。

一、中国人类学研究海外复杂社会与知识生产体系的转向从起源上看，人类学是一门带有鲜明的殖民主义色彩的学科，早期的研究并没有足够地重视对复杂的文明社会的研究，当然这是学科诞生时代的社会背景使然，并因此被烙上了深深的研究“原始”社会的印迹①。

但早在20世纪初，费孝通的博士论文《江村经济》（《中国农民的生活》）在西方人类学界就已经产生了不小的影响，已经向西方人类学界展现了人类学的诸多理论与民族志的研究方法同样可以用于研究①今天的人类学已经不是只研究过去，或只研究文明世界以外的原始社会了。