空间曲线的曲率计算方法

空间曲线曲率公式
空间曲线的曲率公式可以表示为：k = |dT/ds| 其中，T是切向量，s是曲线长度。

空间曲线的曲率是衡量曲线弯曲程度的量度。

在三维空间中，曲率的计算需要考虑曲线上的每一点的方向，即每一点的切线方向。

而曲线的切向量可以通过对参数方程求导得到，即T(t) = (x'(t), y'(t), z'(t))。

其中，x'(t)、y'(t)、z'(t)分别是x、y、z对t 的导数，表示曲线在t时刻的切向量。

在三维空间中，曲线的曲率可以通过以下公式计算：k(t) = |T'(t)| / |r'(t)| 其中，k(t)是曲线在t时刻的曲率，T'(t)是切向量对t的导数，即二阶导数。

r'(t) = (x''(t), y''(t), z''(t))是曲线的曲率向量。

空间曲线和曲面的方程和性质空间曲线和曲面是我们学习高等数学时接触到的一个重要概念。

在三维空间中，任何一条曲线都可以用一条参数方程来表示，而曲面则可以用一个或者多个方程来表示。

在本文中，我们将会探讨空间曲线和曲面的方程及其性质，为我们更好地理解和应用它们打下基础。

一、空间曲线的方程和性质1. 参数方程一条曲线可以用一个或多个函数的参数形式来表示，这种表示方式叫做曲线的参数方程。

以抛物线为例，其参数方程可以表示为：x = ty = t²z = 0其中t就是参数。

2. 长度公式曲线的长度公式是通过对曲线上的每一段微小线段求长然后求和得到的。

对于弧长可微的平面曲线，其长度公式可以表示为：L = ∫ab sqrt(1 + [f'(x)]²) dx对于空间曲线，则是对其弧长进行积分：L = ∫ab sqrt([dx/dt]² + [dy/dt]² + [dz/dt]²) dt3. 曲率公式曲线的曲率代表了曲线扭曲的程度。

对于空间曲线，其曲率公式可以表示为：k = |dT/ds|其中，T是切向量，s是曲线长度。

二、空间曲面的方程和性质1. 方程的类型空间曲面可以分为三类：点，直线和曲线。

具体来说，一般来说，地球的表面就是一个曲面，可以用数学公式表示。

在三维空间中，曲面的方程可以表示为一个或多个方程的形式。

例如，球面可以用方程x² + y² + z² = r²来表示。

2. 面积公式对于曲面而言，其面积公式是通过对曲面微元面积求和得到，可表示为：A = ∫∫D |N| dS其中D是曲面的投影区域，N是微元面积的法向量，dS是微元面积。

3. 曲率公式曲面的曲率代表了曲面弯曲的程度。

在数学上，曲面的曲率函数是由曲面上每一点的两个主曲率（即最大和最小曲率）所定义的。

曲面的平均曲率可以表示为这两个主曲率之和的一半。

总之，空间曲线和曲面的方程和性质在不同的数学领域中都有广泛应用。

空间曲线的曲率、挠率和Frenet 公式前言空间曲线的曲率、挠率和Frenet 公式是空间曲线基本理论的一部分,它是以空间曲线的密切平面和基本三棱形的知识作为基础的.空间曲线的曲率、挠率和Frenet 公式在空间曲线的基本理论中占有重要位置,是空间曲线的一些基本性质和基本公式.曲线的曲率和挠率完全决定了曲线的形状.当曲线的曲率和挠率之间满足多种不同的关系时,就会得到不同类型的曲线.例如:0k >时为直线,0τ=时为平面曲线.本文将从定义、公式推导和具体举例三方面逐步解析空间曲线的曲率、挠率和Frenet 公式.本文第一部分讲述曲率和挠率的定义,第二部分讲述Frenet 公式和曲率、挠率的一般参数表示的推导,第三部分具体举例有关曲率、挠率的计算和证明.1. 空间曲线的曲率和挠率的定义1.1准备知识—空间曲线的伏雷内标架给出2c 类空间曲线()c 和()c 上一点p .设曲线()c 的自然参数表示是(),r r s =其中s 是自然参数，得drdsr ==α是一单位向量.α 称为曲线()c 上p 点的单位切向量.由于1=α，则⊥αα，即r r ⊥.在α上取单位向量==αrβαr， (1) β称为曲线()c 上p 点的主法向量.再作单位向量=⨯γαβ，γ称为曲线()c 上p 点的副法向量.我们把两两正交的单位向量,,αβγ称为曲线上p 点的伏雷内(Frenet)标架. 1.2 空间曲线的曲率我们首先研究空间曲线的曲率的概念.在不同的曲线或者同一条曲线的不同 点处，曲线弯曲的程度可能不同.例如半径较大的圆弯曲程度较小，而半径较小的圆弯曲程度较大.为了准确的刻画曲线的弯曲程度，我们引进曲率的概念.要从直观的基础上引出曲率的确切定义，我们首先注意到，曲线弯曲的程度越大，则从点到点变动时，其切向量的方向改变的越快.所以作为曲线在已知一曲线段PQ 的平均弯曲程度可取为曲线在P 、Q 间切向量关于弧长的平均旋转角.设空间中3c 类曲线()c 的方程为().r r s =曲线()c 上一点p ，其自然参数为s ，另一邻近点1p ，其自然参数为s s +∆.在p 、1p 两点各作曲线()c 的单位切向量()s α和()s s +∆α.两个切向量的夹角是ϕ∆，也就是把点1p 的切向量()s s +∆α平移到点p后，两个向量()s α和()s s +∆α的夹角为ϕ∆.我们把空间曲线在p处的切向量对弧长的旋转速度来定义曲线在点p的曲率.定义[]1 空间曲线()c 在p 点的曲率为()lims k s sϕ∆→∆=∆， 其中s ∆为p点及其邻近点1p 间的弧长，ϕ∆为曲线在点p 和1p 的切向量的夹角. 再利用命题“一个单位变向量()t r （即()1t =r ）的微商的模,()r t 的几何意义是()t r 对于t 的旋转速度”.把这个结果应用到曲线()c 的切向量α上去，则有()k s =α.由于r =α，所以曲率也可表示为()k s r =.由上述空间曲线的曲率的定义可以看出，它的几何意义是曲线的切向量对于弧长的旋转速度.当曲线在一点的弯曲程度越大，切向量对于弧长的旋转速度就越大，因此曲率刻画了曲线的弯曲程度.对于空间曲线，曲线不仅弯曲而且还要扭转（离开密切平面），所以研究空间曲线只有曲率的概念是不够的，还要有刻画曲线扭转的程度的量—挠率. 1.3 空间曲线的挠率当曲线扭转时，副法向量（或密切平面）位置随着改变（如图一），所以我 们用副法向量（或密切平面）的转动速度来刻画曲线的扭转程度（在一点离开密切平面的程度）.现在设曲线()c 上一点p的自然参数为s ，另一邻近点1p 的参数为s s +∆，在p 、1p 两点各作曲线()c 的副法向量()s γ和()s s +∆γ.此两个副法向量的夹角是ϕ∆(如图一).（图一）再利用命题“一个单位变向量()t r （即()1t =r ）的微商的模,()r t 的几何意义是()t r 对于t 的旋转速度” .把这个结果应用到曲线()c 的副法向量向量γ上去， 得到lims sϕ∆→∆=∆γ， 此式的几何意义是它的数值为曲线的副法向量（或密切平面）对于弧长的旋转速度.当曲线在一点的扭曲程度越大（离开所讨论点的密切平面的程度越大），副法向量（或密切平面）对于弧长的旋转速度就越大.因此，我们可以用它来刻画曲线的扭转程度.根据（1）和曲率的定义，我们有()k s ===r ααβrα， 即()k s =αβ. (2) 对=⨯γαβ求微商，有()()k s =⨯=⨯+⨯=⨯+⨯=⨯αβαβαβββαβαβγ，因而⊥αγ.又因为γ是单位向量，所以⊥γγ.由以上两个关系可以推出//γβ. (3) 现在我们给出挠率的定义如下： 定义[]1 曲线()c 在p 点的挠率为：().s τ⎧+⎪⎪=⎨⎪-⎪⎩γγβγγβ，当和异向，，当和同向 挠率的绝对值是曲线的副法向量（或密切平面）对于弧长的旋转速度. 介绍了曲率、挠率的定义之后，为了更好的应用曲率和挠率,下面我们来看Frenet 公式和曲率、挠率的一般参数表示式的推导过程.2. Frenet 公式和曲率、挠率的一般参数表示式的推导2.1 Frenet 公式的推导 根据（3）及挠率的定义有τ=-γβ（s) （4） 另外，对=⨯βγα求微商，并利用（4）和（2），可以推导出()()()()()s k s k s s ττ=⨯=⨯+⨯=-⨯+⨯=-+βγαγαγαβαγβαγ（5）公式（2），（5），（4）称为空间曲线的伏雷内（Frenet ）公式，即()()()()k s k s s s ττ⎧=⎪⎪=-+⎨⎪=-⎪⎩αββαγγβ， 这组公式是空间曲线的基本公式.它的特点是基本向量α、β、γ关于弧长s 的微商可以用α、β、γ的线性组合来表示.它的系数组成反称的方阵()0()0()0()0k s k s s s ττ⎛⎫ ⎪- ⎪ ⎪-⎝⎭2.2 曲率的一般参数表示式的推导 若给出3c 类的空间曲线()c().r r s =，则有,dr ds ds r r ds dt dt== ，22,222,,222dsd s d r ds d s ds d s r r r r r r dt dt ds dt dt dt dt ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫=+=+=+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭，所以232,,,2ds ds d s ds r r r r r r r dt dt dt dt ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫⨯=⨯+=⨯⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥⎣⎦，由上式得3,,,sin ds r r r r dt θ⎛⎫⨯= ⎪⎝⎭.注意上式中,1,,dsr r r r dt=⊥=， 因而有3,,,,r r k r ⨯=.由此得到曲率的一般参数表示式,,,3,r r k r⨯=.2.3挠率的一般参数表示式的推导 再由伏雷内公式的（4）式τ=-γβ（s)，两边点乘β得r τ=-βββ，因而()()26,2,,,1111111,,,,k k k k k k k k r r r τ⎛⎫=-==⨯ ⎪⎝⎭⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫=⨯+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫=⨯+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎛⎫ ⎪⎝⎭=⎛⎫ ⎪⎝⎭=⨯γβγβαβαααααγγγγγγγγγγ再把,dsr rdt=22,,2ds d s r r r dt dt ⎛⎫=+ ⎪⎝⎭323,,,233ds ds d s d s r dt dt dt dt ⎛⎫=++ ⎪⎝⎭γγγ代入(),,,,,,r r r ⨯⨯中得()66,,,,,,,,,,,ds r r r r dt ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫⨯⨯== ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭γγγγγγ，所以得到()(),,,,,,2,,,r r r r r τ⨯⨯=⨯. 这是一般参数表示的挠率计算公式.另外说一下密切圆，曲率中心，曲率半径的定义.空间曲线()c 在一点的密切圆（曲率圆）是过曲线()c 上一点()P s 的主法线的正侧取线段PC ，使PC 的长为1k ，以C 为圆心，以1k为半径在密切平面上确定一个圆，这个圆称为曲线()c 在()P s 点的密切圆（曲率圆），曲率圆的中心称为曲率中心，曲率圆的半径称为曲率半径（如图二）.（图二）3. 有关曲率、挠率的计算和证明例 1[]1 求圆柱螺线{}cos ,sin ,a a b θθθ=r ()θ-∞<<+∞的曲率和挠率. 解 由圆柱螺线方程{}cos ,sin ,a a b θθθ=r ，先计算{},sin ,cos ,a a b θθ=-r ,{},,cos ,sin ,0a a θθ=--r ,{},,,sin ,cos ,0a a θθ=-r ,于是有,=r{},,,2sin cos sin ,cos ,,cos sin 0a ab ab ab a a a θθθθθθ⨯=-=---123e e e r r,,,⨯=r r代入曲率和挠率的公式得,,,322,,ak a b ⨯===+r r r()(),,,,,,2222422,,,,,.,ba ba b aa bτ===++r r r r r 由以上可以看出，圆柱螺线的曲率和挠率都是常数.例 2[]1 证明曲率恒等于零的曲线是直线. 证明 已知0,k =≡r因而,=r 0由此得到 =r a（常向量）. 再积分即得 ,s =+r a b 其中b 也是常向量.这是一条直线的参数方程.例 3[]1 证明挠率恒等于零的曲线是平面曲线. 证明 若0,τ≡则γ是固定向量，但是我们已知0,=αγ因而有0,=r γ积分后得a =r γ （常数），所以曲线在一个平面上，即曲线是平面曲线.以上即为有关曲率、挠率的计算和证明，充分说明了研究空间曲线的曲率、挠率对空间曲线的研究有重要意义.结语:空间曲线的曲率、挠率和Frenet公式是空间曲线基本理论的重要部分.其中Frenet公式是微分几何空间曲线论的基本公式，是研究空间曲线论的基础，在经典微分几何中占有重要地位，可以由它导出曲线的诸多重要性质和定理.参考文献：[1] 梅向明，黄敬之.微分几何（第四版）[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社，2008.（英文版）Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". 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One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the FifthPlenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs DepartmentThe first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee PoliticalBureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revisionof the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Y an to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline andto implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists ona positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," atotal of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule >real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen yearsimplement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses.Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Y an Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline,exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility shouldbe depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effectiveconvergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts。

空间曲线及其性质空间曲线是三维空间中的一条曲线，常常被用来描述物体的轨迹和运动路径。

在数学中，我们可以通过数学模型来描述它们的性质和行为。

空间曲线的性质包括它们的长度、弯曲度、曲率等等。

本文将主要探讨空间曲线的性质和其在几何学中的应用。

一、曲线长度空间曲线的长度是指其从起点到终点的距离。

在三维空间中，曲线的长度可以用以下公式来计算：L = ∫a^b √[dx/dt]^2 + [dy/dt]^2 + [dz/dt]^2 dt其中，dx/dt、dy/dt、dz/dt分别表示曲线在x、y、z轴的速度。

这个公式看起来有些抽象，但实际上它可以通过一些更简单的方法来计算具体曲线的长度。

比如，对于一个圆柱曲线，它的长度可以通过下述公式来计算：L = 2πr + h其中，r是圆柱体的底圆的半径，h是圆柱体沿着管道方向的高度。

二、曲线的弯曲度曲线的弯曲度是指曲线在某点处的弯曲程度。

它通常用k来表示，可以通过下式计算：k = |T′(t)|/|r′(t)|其中r(t)是曲线的参数化表示，而T(t)是曲线在t处的切向量。

切向量和法向量是两个非常重要的概念，因为它们可以帮助我们更好地理解曲线的性质和行为。

三、曲率曲率是指曲线在某点处的弯曲程度。

它通常用κ表示，可以通过以下公式计算：κ = |T×T′| / |T′|^2其中，T表示切向量，T′表示T关于曲线参数t的导数，即切线加速度。

曲率的定义很多时候与曲线的弯曲度有一定的关系。

当曲线的弯曲度较小时，曲率也较小；而当曲线的弯曲度较大时，曲率也较大。

四、曲线的应用空间曲线在几何学中有很多应用。

比如，在工程中，我们可以用曲线来描述形体的轮廓和运动路径；在计算机图形学中，我们可以通过曲线来生成三维图形；在飞行器轨迹规划中，我们可以利用曲线来描述航线和飞行路径。

在数学领域中，曲线也被广泛应用于代数几何和微积分学中。

比如，我们可以通过曲线来求解方程式、刻画图像、以及研究微积分中的极值问题。

空间曲面的曲率与法线认识空间曲面的曲率与法线的计算方法空间曲面是指三维空间中的曲面，它在我们日常生活和科学研究中都有着重要的应用。

在研究空间曲面时，了解曲率与法线是必不可少的。

曲率描述了曲面的弯曲程度，而法线则是曲面上某一点的垂直方向。

本文将介绍空间曲面的曲率与法线的基本概念，并探讨了曲率与法线的计算方法。

一、曲率的概念曲率是描述曲面弯曲程度的一个重要量值。

通常情况下，曲率有两个主要的方向，分别是主曲率方向和平均曲率方向。

主曲率方向在曲面上的某一点上表征了曲面在该点上弯曲最大和最小的方向，主曲率分别是这两个方向上的曲率值。

平均曲率方向在曲面上的某一点上表征了曲率的平均变化率。

二、法线的概念曲面上的法线是垂直于曲面某一点切平面的向量。

当我们观察曲面的时候，曲面上的每一点都有唯一对应的法线。

法线的方向垂直于曲面，因此法线是曲面上点的切平面的垂直方向。

三、曲率的计算方法计算曲面的曲率可以使用多种方法，这里我们介绍两种常用的方法：通过法线曲率半径和高斯曲率。

1. 法线曲率半径：法线曲率半径描述了曲面在某一点上的弯曲程度，其定义为曲率圆上某一点到曲面上对应点的法线的长度。

法线曲率半径的倒数称为法线曲率。

假设我们要计算曲面上的某一点P的法线曲率半径，可以先计算曲率圆的曲率半径R。

计算方法是选择曲面上的两条曲线，分别通过点P，并且曲线的切线方向与曲面的主曲率方向平行。

然后，计算这两条曲线上点P到曲面的垂直距离d，法线曲率半径R就等于d的倒数。

2. 高斯曲率：高斯曲率是描述曲面在某一点上弯曲性质的一个重要指标。

高斯曲率是曲面的两个主曲率的乘积。

如果高斯曲率为正，则曲面局部呈凸曲面，如果高斯曲率为负，则曲面局部呈凹曲面。

高斯曲率的计算可以通过计算曲面的一阶偏导数和二阶偏导数得到。

选择曲面上的一对正交曲线，分别在某一点P处通过曲面的主曲率方向，并将其表示为u和v两个参数。

然后计算这两个参数对应的一阶偏导数和二阶偏导数，最后通过一个公式计算得到高斯曲率。