Cognitive Maps in Virtual Environments Facilitation of Learning Through the Use of Innate S

对未来教育全球化的看法英语作文The Future of Education is GlobalHi there! My name is Jamie and I'm 10 years old. Today I want to share my thoughts on how education is becoming more global and what that might mean for the future.I've learned that the world is getting more connected through technology, travel, trade, and communication across different countries and cultures. Things that used to seem far away now feel much closer. My parents say that when they were kids, it was really hard to learn about faraway places or communicate internationally. But today, I can instantly see pictures and videos from anywhere in the world on my tablet. I can even video chat with my cousins who live across the ocean!This increasing global connection is impacting education in some really interesting ways. At my school, we don't just learn about our own town or country anymore. We get to explore different societies, traditions, histories, languages, and perspectives from all over the globe. It's so cool to see how kids in other parts of the world live and what they are learning.For example, in my English class we did a penpal unit where we exchanged letters and videos with students from a school inJapan. We learned some basic Japanese phrases and taught them English slang. We compared our daily routines, favorite foods, hobbies, holidays and more. It was awesome making new friends on the other side of the world! In social studies, we did a unit on global citizenship where we discussed how we are all part of the human family despite our differences.My math and science classes also have a very global view now. We learn about great thinkers, inventors and discoveries from many different ancient civilizations like Egypt, China, Greece, India and more. Our math concepts are taught using examples of architecture, art and patterns from cultures all around the world. In coding class, we use an app that lets us collaborate on programs with students internationally inreal-time video Share playrooms. It's crazy that I can be building a website or app with kids from Brazil, Nigeria and Australia all at once!Technologies like videoconferencing, language translation tools, virtual reality and online learning platforms are allowing teachers to bring a whole wide world of perspectives into the classroom. We can take virtual field trips to the Egyptian pyramids, African savannas or European castles without ever leaving our desks. Last year, we even had a live video chat withan astronaut on the International Space Station to learn what it's like in space! That was one of the coolest days ever.Of course, being globally connected also means being exposed to different challenges facing the world. We discuss major issues like climate change, poverty, clean water access, democracy, war and human rights. These are such huge, heavy topics but it's important to start learning about them and how they impact kids in other countries. Our school does a lot of fundraising for global causes too which teaches us philanthropy.I think the biggest benefit of this globalized education approach is that it is preparing me to be a true citizen of the world. I'm developing cross-cultural communication skills, open-mindedness and empathy for different ways of life. Understanding diverse societies is key since the world is becoming an even smaller place due to globalization. When I grow up, I will likely have career opportunities and interact with people from all over, so building this global mindset early is crucial.That said, having such an international focus in school can also create some challenges. Every country has its own curriculum standards, so it's hard to have total consistency in what global education looks like. There are also languagebarriers and potential for cultural misunderstandings. Access to technology is still an issue for schools in poorer regions too. And some people argue that we should prioritize teaching local history, values and skills before broadening too much to the whole world.Despite those hurdles, I tend to think the benefits of global education outweigh the downsides. The world's biggest problems like climate change require international cooperation to solve. Cultivating mutual understanding between cultures is the key to achieving peace and progress for humanity. Plus, learning about the richness and diversity of global societies is just super fascinating to me!I'm really excited to see how education keeps evolving with technology and increased connectivity. Who knows, maybe by the time I go to university, I'll be able to take classes via hologram or in virtual reality environments! I could have classmates from every continent contributing their perspectives. The possibilities seem endless as education becomes more and more globalized.In the future world I'll grown up in, borders are just lines on maps and cultural identities are appreciated but secondary to our common human identity. I hope the generation after metakes this principle of global citizenship even further. Imagine if every kid across the globe had access to the same caliber of education about our shared planet? How amazing would it be if we could solve problems like hunger and conflict through the power of education that unites us rather than divides? An interconnected world of mutual understanding, perspective sharing and collaborative problem solving feels attainable when I think about how rapidly education is globalizing.Those are just some of my thoughts as a 10-year-old on the globalization of education looking ahead. Maybe I'll be a teacher someday and get to help shape this exciting future of learning without limits! For now, I'm just grateful to have teachers opening my eyes to the whole wide world. The future is so bright when we expand our minds beyond borders.。

论虚拟地理环境*林珲龚建华(香港中文大学地理系, 地球信息科学联合实验室)On Virtual Geographic EnvironmentsHui Lin and Jianhua GongDepartment of Geography &Joint Laboratory for Geoinformation ScienceThe Chinese University of Hong KongTel: (852)-2609-6528 Fax: (852)-2603-5006Email: { huilin, jhgong, } @ .hkHomepage: .hkAbstract:Virtual geographic environments (VGE) are environments pertaining to the relationship between avatar-based humans and 3-D virtual worlds. Avatar-based humans are defined as a combination of humans in the real world with 3-D avatars in 3-D virtual worlds. Five types of space, namely Internet space, data space, 3-D graphical space, personal perceptual and cognitive space, and social space are used to explore the characteristics of VGE. The evolution of VGE is illuminated via three stages: virtual crowds, virtual villages, and virtual cities. The paper finally discuss the relationships between VGE and geo-referenced virtual environments and the physical (real) geographic environments.Keywords:Cyberspace, virtual reality, geo-referenced virtual environments, virtual geographic environments, the digital earth, avatar-based humans摘要本文提出虚拟地理环境概念，并讨论其特征。

虚拟现实对教育和学习的影响英语作文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Impact of Virtual Reality on Education and LearningVirtual reality (VR) technology has grabbed headlines in recent years for its potential to revolutionize various industries. One area that has shown significant promise is education. VR has the power to enhance learning experiences, engage students in immersive environments, and enable them to learn in ways that were previously impossible.One of the key benefits of VR in education is its ability to provide students with handson learning experiences. For example, students can use VR to explore historical events, dissect a virtual frog, or build a virtual house. This kind of immersive experience engages students in a way that traditional textbooks and lectures cannot, making learning more enjoyable and memorable.Another advantage of VR is that it can help students overcome anxiety and fear. For example, students can use VR to practice medical procedures or learn how to deal with naturaldisasters without putting themselves in harm's way. This can be especially beneficial for students who have a fear of heights, public speaking, or other situations where traditional exposure therapy may not be feasible.VR can also be used to personalize learning. Teachers can create custom VR lessons that cater to the individual needs of their students. For example, a teacher may create a VR lesson for a student who struggles with math by having them visualize equations in a 3D environment. This kind of personalized learning can help struggling students catch up and engage with the material in a way that works for them.Finally, VR can be used to teach students skills that require practice. For example, pilots can use VR to practice instrument landings, surgeons can practice procedures in a virtual operating room, and musicians can practice scales in a virtual music studio. This kind of practice can help students become more confident and proficient in their chosen field.In conclusion, virtual reality has the potential to revolutionize education and learning. Its ability to provide handson, immersive, and personalized learning experiences makes it a powerful tool for educators. As VR technologycontinues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative uses of the technology in the classroom.篇2In conclusion, VR has the potential to revolutionize education and learning by providing immersive, interactive experiences that can enhance engagement, motivation, and retention. However, there are also challenges and limitations that need to be addressed, such as technical limitations, cost, and the need for specialized training and support. As VR technology continues to evolve and become more widespread, it will be interesting to see how it is used in education and how it impacts on teaching and learning practices.篇3Virtual reality has emerged as a powerful tool in the realm of education and learning. By immersing students in interactive and engaging virtual environments, educators can enhance knowledge retention, critical thinking skills, and creativity. This technology offers a unique opportunity to simulate reallife scenarios that may be difficult or dangerous to experience in the classroom. Additionally, virtual reality can be used to bridgegeographical barriers and provide access to educational resources for students in remote areas.However, like any educational tool, virtual reality has its limitations. It requires a significant investment in hardware and software, and may not be accessible to all students. Additionally, the effectiveness of virtual reality in the learning process has not been extensively studied, and further research is needed to determine its longterm impact on student achievement.In conclusion, while virtual reality has the potential to revolutionize education and learning, it is not a panacea. Educators should carefully consider the benefits and limitations of this technology and integrate it into their teaching strategies as appropriate.篇4Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a revolutionary technology with the potential to transform education and enhance the learning experience. By immersing students in interactive and engaging virtual environments, VR has the power to revolutionize the way students learn and understand complex concepts. Here are some of the significant impact of VR on education and learning:1. Enhanced Immersion and EngagementOne of the most compelling benefits of VR in education is its ability to provide students with highly immersive learning experiences. By transporting students into virtual environments, educators can make abstract concepts come to life and engage students in a way that traditional textbooks and lectures cannot. This heightened level of engagement can lead to increased motivation and a deeper understanding of the material.2. Improved Skills and Knowledge AcquisitionVR can also be used to train students in a variety of skills, such as medical procedures, engineering design, and language learning. By providing students with handson practice in a safe and controlled environment, VR can help them develop the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in their chosen fields.3. Access to Remote and HardtoReach LocationsVR has the potential to bridge the gap between students and educational resources located in remote or hardtoreach locations. By creating virtual field trips to museums, historical sites, and other educational destinations, VR can provide students with access to educational experiences that might otherwise be unavailable to them.4. Personalized LearningVR can also be used to personalize the learning experience for each student. By tailoring the virtual environment to the student's individual needs and abilities, educators can help each student reach their full potential.5. Increased Retention and Transfer of KnowledgeFinally, VR has been shown to increase the retention and transfer of knowledge. By engaging students on a deeper level, VR can help students better understand and remember the material they are learning. This can lead to improved academic performance and a more wellrounded education.While VR holds tremendous potential for education, it also presents some challenges that need to be addressed. One of the main challenges is the cost of implementing VR technology in the classroom. VR headsets and other equipment can be expensive, and schools and educators may need to invest in new technology and infrastructure to support VR learning.Another challenge is the need for specialized training and support for educators. Implementing VR effectively requires educators to have a deep understanding of the technology and how to integrate it into the curriculum. This may requireadditional training and support for educators, which can be a significant investment of time and resources.Finally, there are also concerns about the impact of VR on students' mental health and wellbeing. Prolonged exposure to VR technology has been linked to symptoms of anxiety and depression in some individuals. Educators and policymakers will need to carefully consider these concerns and ensure that VR is implemented in a way that is safe and beneficial for students.In conclusion, VR has the potential to revolutionize education and enhance the learning experience. However, to fully realize this potential, educators and policymakers will need to address the challenges associated with implementing VR technology in the classroom. By investing in the necessary infrastructure, training, and support, and by carefully considering the impact of VR on students' mental health and wellbeing, we can ensure that VR is used to its fullest potential to improve education and learning.篇5Virtual reality (VR) has gained significant attention in recent years across various industries, and education is no exception. The integration of VR technology in education has the potentialto revolutionize traditional learning methods by providing immersive and interactive experiences. This paper explores the impact of VR on education and learning, highlighting its advantages, challenges, and future prospects.Advantages of VR in Educationa. Immersive Learning EnvironmentOne of the key advantages of VR in education is its ability to create immersive learning environments. By transporting students into virtual worlds, they can engage with educational content in a more handson and dynamic way. This heightened level of immersion enhances students’ attention and retention, as they become fully immersed in the learning experience.b. Enhancing Skills and KnowledgeVR enables students to practice and develop skills in a safe and controlled environment. Whether it’s in fields such as healthcare, engineering, or the arts, VR provides opportunities to simulate reallife scenarios that would otherwise be too dangerous or expensive to replicate in the physical world. This handson experience helps students gain practical knowledge and confidence, preparing them for future careers.c. Personalized LearningVR has the potential to personalize learning experiences based on individual student needs. Through the use of sensors and tracking technologies, VR can adapt to each student’s abilities and pace, providing them with an optimal learning journey. This flexibility allows educators to cater to a diverse range of learning styles and abilities, ensuring that all students can benefit from VRenhanced instruction.d. Reducing Cognitive LoadTraditional teaching methods often rely heavily on verbal and visual instructions, which can place a significant cognitive load on students. VR, on the other hand, offers multisensory experiences that can reduce cognitive load by engaging students through different senses simultaneously. This multimodal approach enhances understanding and retention of information, as students can process and retain educational content more effectively.Challenges of VR in Educationa. High Cost of ImplementationOne of the significant challenges of implementing VR in education is the high cost associated with the necessary hardware and software. VR systems require expensiveequipment such as headsets, sensors, and computers, which can be a barrier for schools and educational institutions with limited budgets. Additionally, maintaining and upgrading this equipment can also add to the overall cost.b. Technical ComplexityVR technology is complex and requires specialized technical knowledge to implement and maintain effectively. Educators need to have a certain level of technical proficiency to set up and troubleshoot VR systems, as well as understand how to create and develop VR content. This technical expertise can be a limitation, especially in regions with limited access to technology resources and training.c. Limited Connectivity and Internet InfrastructureFor effective VR implementation, a stable and highspeed internet connection is crucial. However, many educational institutions may face challenges in terms of connectivity and infrastructure, particularly in rural or developing areas. Slow internet speeds or connectivity issues can result in lagging, distortion, or dropout of the VR experience, negatively impacting student engagement and learning outcome.d. Limited Availability of VR ContentDeveloping highquality VR content specifically for educational purposes can be timeconsuming and resourceintensive. Currently, there is a limited availability of offtheshelf VR content in educ ation, limiting educators’ options and requiring them to invest significant effort in creating their own content. This lack of standardized and readily available content can pose a challenge in terms of scalability and integration into the curriculum.Future Prospects of VR in EducationDespite the challenges, the future of VR in education holds tremendous potential. As technology continues to advance and costs come down, more and more educational institutions are likely to adopt VR as a mainstream teaching tool. The immersive and interactive nature of VR has the power to transform the way students learn and engage with educational content, making it an exciting area of exploration for educators and researchers alike.篇6Vr EducationThe use of virtual reality in education has revolutionized the way students learn by offering immersive, interactive learning experiences. So, how does VR education work? Simply put, VR is the use of computer technology to generate a simulated threedimensional environment that can be interacted with.How does it impact education? In education VR allows students to learn in a more engaging way. For example students can explore historical sites, conduct science experiments, or learn a foreign language without ever leaving the classroom. VR can also help students with learning difficulties by providing individualized learning experiences.With VR teachers can create immersive lessons that make learning more fun and engaging. Additionally, VR can help students learn critical thinking and problemsolving skills by simulating realworld scenarios.Now there are several challenges to implementing VR in education as well. Firstly, VR technology is still relatively expensive, which can limit its widespread adoption. Additionally, creating highquality VR content can be timeconsuming and expensive. However, as technology continues to advance and more affordable VR headsets become available, the cost of implementing VR in education is likely to decrease.In conclusion, virtual reality has great potential to transform education and learning. As technology continues to evolve, we can expect to see more and more innovative uses of VR in the classroom.。

概要写作1．Directions: Read the following passage. Summarize the main idea and the main point(s) of the passage in no more than 60 words. Use your own words as far as possible.Parents, teachers, and anyone who regularly deals with teenagers know how difficult the adolescent years can be. Adolescents have always been known to do wild — even dangerous — thing. Now, brain-imaging technology allows scientists to study the physical development of the brain in more detail than ever before. Their discoveries have led to a new theory of why teens act the way they do.Recently, scientists discovered that though our brains are almost at their full size by the age of six, they are far from fully developed. Only during adolescence do our brains truly “grow up”. During this time, they go through great changes, like a computer system being upgraded. This “upgrade” was once thought to be finished by about age 12. Now, scientists have concluded that our brains continue to change until age 25. Such changes make us better at balancing our impulses (冲动)with the need to follow rules. However, a brain that is still developing does this awkwardly. The result, scientists claim, is the unpredictable behavior seen in teenagers.The studies confirm that teens are more likely to take risks and behave in extreme ways. Fortunately, the news isn’t all negative. As brain scientist B．J. Casey points out, the teen brain inspires such behavior in order to help teenagers prepare for adult life.One way the brain does this is by changing the way teens view risks and rewards. Researchers found that when teens think about rewards, their brains release more of the chemicals that create pleasure than an adult brain would. Researchers believe this makes the rewards seem more important than the risks and makes teens feel the excitement of new experiences more keenly than adults do.Research into the structure of the teen brain also found that it makes social connections seem especially rewarding. As such, teens have an intense need to meet new people. It, therefore, connects social rewards with even more pleasure. In this way, the brain encourages teens to have a wide circle of friends, which is believed to make them more successful in life._______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ ____2．Directions: Read the following three passages. Summarize the main idea and the main point(s) of the passage in no more than 60 words. Use your own words as far as possible.Your child’s brain on math: Don’t bother?Parents whose children are struggling with math often view intense tutoring as the best way to help them master crucial skills, but a new study released on Monday suggests that for some kids even that is a lost cause.According to the research, the size of one key brain structure and the connections between it and other regions can help identify the 8- and 9-year olds who will hardly benefit from one-on-one math instruction.“We could predict how much a child learned from the tutoring based on measures of brain structure and connectivity,” said Vinod Menon, a professor at Stanford University School of Medicine, who led the research.The study, published in the online edition of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, is the first to use brain imaging to look for a connection between brain attributes and the ability to learn arithmetic. But despite its publication in a well-respected journal, the research immediately drew criticism.Jonathan Moreno, professor of medical ethics at the University of Pennsylvania, fears that some parents and teachers might “give up now” on a math-challenged child. “If it gets into the popular consciousness that it’s wise to have your kid’s brain checked out.” before making decisions about academic options, he said, “that raises huge issues.”Menon and his fellow scientists agree that their research shouldn’t lead to conclusions immediately. They are exploring whether any interventions might change the brain in such a way that children who struggle with math can benefit more from tutoring.Just as learning to juggle increases the amount of gray matter in the area of adult brains that is responsible for spatial attention, said Menon, maybe something could pump up regions relevantto learning arithmetic before a child begins math tutoring.Until then, he said “it’s possible” that parents will interpret the new study as saying some kids cannot benefit from math tutoring, “and give up before even trying. How this plays out is far from clear.”_______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 3．Directions: Read the following passage. Summarize the main idea and the main point(s) of the passage in no more than 60 words. Use your own words as much as possible.Until 1964 most forms of gambling were illegal in the United States. Since then, however, more and more states have legalized gambling in order to raise income. Most states in the United States now depend on incomes from state lotteries(博彩)and use them for good causes, such as improving public education, maintaining state parks, and developing environmental programs.Although there are many advantages to legalized gambling, there has also been a good deal of criticism of state-supported gambling. As states increase their support of state lotteries, they seem to encourage commercial gambling in all its forms. More than 5 million Americans suffer from gambling addiction. Those most at risk of becoming addicted include the poor, young people between twelve and eighteen years old, and women over the age of fifty, who are looking for some entertainment. As a result, many of them will end up in prison or even homeless. The promise of winning big fortune has created big problems.Perhaps the most important concern is the moral issue of legalized gambling. The lottery is the only form of gambling that is essentially a government control. Critics ask whether gambling is a proper function of government. Should the government be the spokesman for the expansion of gambling? Critics say state advertising of lotto emphasizes luck over hard work, instant happiness over careful planning, and entertainment over savings.In 1996, Congress created a commission to conduct a legal study of the social and economic impacts of gambling in the United States. After two years of study, the Commission recommended an end to the expansion of legalized gambling. Some feel this will severely hurt the gamblingindustry. Others fear that it is not enough and are asking the government to take a tough stand against gambling._______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ 4．Directions: Read the following passage. Summarize in no more than 60 words the main idea of the passage and how it is illustrated. Use your own words as far as possible.How We Find Our DirectionPsychologists have found that there are two main ways that successful travelers use to navigate (确定位置) their environment.The first is to follow a fixed route from here to there. Cognitive (认知的) psychologist Barbara Tver sky describes route navigation as a series of paths and choice points that is basically selfcentered: it is constructed for the purpose of reaching one particular goal from a fixed starting point, and the entire journey is explained from the point of view of the traveler.The second navigational strategy involves a bird’s-eye view — a map of the general area. Maps are overviews, “surveys of a space of possibilities,”that lay out a variety of possible paths. Maps almost always rely on cardinal directions (基本方位), usually east-west and north-south, that anchor them to a larger space. When we use a map to get somewhere, it is up to us to figure out the most proper route, or the alternatives, for ourselves.So how does this work out in the real world? In her 2019 book, Mind in Motion, Tversky acknowledges that most of us do not carry a file drawer of maps in our heads. Instead, we use a combination of methods to get where we are going: part tum-by-tum directions, part bird’s-eye view, and part general map-like information(it’s somewhere near the center of town; we’ll be traveling toward Omaha; the mid-day sun is on our left, so we are still heading west) and helpful landmarks. For this reason, Tversky refers to our way finding plans not as “cognitive maps” but as “cognitive collages (拼贴画)”.But it is important to note that most navigational directions of moderate complexity dependin part on the ability to understand a map perspective. Sometimes maps just make for better directions, but they are essential if we make a mistake and have to figure out how to correct our course._______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________5．阅读下面短文，根据其内容写一篇60词左右的内容概要。

我的小鸡英语演讲.初一作文英文回答：Introduction:Ladies and gentlemen, esteemed judges, fellow students,。

I stand before you today to shed light on thecaptivating creature known as the chicken. This remarkable animal has played an integral role in human society for centuries, serving as a source of sustenance, companionship, and scientific inquiry. In this presentation, we will delve into the fascinating world of chickens, exploring their unique characteristics, captivating history, and profound impact on our lives.Biological Characteristics:Chickens belong to the avian class of animals and possess distinctive physical and behavioral traits. Theyhave lightweight bodies, covered in feathers that provide insulation and enable flight. Their beaks are short and curved, adapted for pecking and preening. Chickens have large eyes with keen vision, allowing them to navigate their surroundings efficiently. They possess strong legs with sharp claws, enabling them to scratch and forage for food.Cognitive Abilities:Beyond their physical attributes, chickens exhibit surprising cognitive abilities. Studies have shown that they can recognize and differentiate between individuals, demonstrating social learning and memory skills. Chickens have a well-developed sense of spatial awareness and can navigate complex environments using cognitive maps. Moreover, they exhibit problem-solving capabilities, such as using tools to access food and removing obstacles from their path.Historical Significance:The domestication of chickens dates back to prehistoric times, with evidence of their presence in human settlements over 10,000 years ago. Throughout history, chickens have played a vital role in various cultures. In ancient Egypt, chickens were considered sacred animals, often associated with deities. In many Asian countries, chickens are revered as symbols of prosperity and good fortune. Today, chickens continue to hold significant cultural and economic importance worldwide.Economic Impact:The poultry industry is one of the largest agricultural sectors globally. Chickens provide a significant source of income and employment in many countries. They are raisedfor their meat, eggs, and feathers, contributing to global food security and economic prosperity. Advanced farming techniques have led to increased productivity andefficiency in chicken production, meeting the growing demand for poultry products.Scientific Research:Chickens have been instrumental in scientific research, serving as valuable models for studying genetics, development, and behavior. Their short generation time and ease of genetic manipulation have made them ideal subjects for studying the effects of environmental factors on gene expression. Chickens have also contributed to the understanding of embryonic development and immune system function.Conclusion:In conclusion, chickens are extraordinary creaturesthat have captivated us for millennia. Their unique biological characteristics, cognitive abilities, historical significance, economic impact, and contributions to scientific research make them a testament to the wonders of the natural world. Whether we encounter them in our backyard coops or marvel at their scientific contributions, chickens continue to enrich our lives in countless ways. Let us celebrate and appreciate the remarkable journey of these feathered companions.中文回答：引言：各位女士们、先生们、尊敬的评委、同学们，。

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空间组构与空间认知韩默;庄惟敏【摘要】本文梳理了空间组构从心理学源起到城市设计中的尝试,最终在空间句法中得到发展的演进过程.试图从空间组构对空间认知的影响以及两者之间的相互依存关系的角度来剖析空间组构自身的存在意义——沟通具体的客观环境和抽象的空间认知过程以及社会关系,并探索空间组构与空间认知在实际中的应用潜力.【期刊名称】《世界建筑》【年(卷),期】2018(000)003【总页数】4页(P104-107)【关键词】空间组构;空间认知;空间句法;具象与抽象【作者】韩默;庄惟敏【作者单位】清华大学建筑学院;清华大学建筑学院【正文语种】中文空间组构这一概念逐渐被人们所关注，是由于比尔·希利尔（Bill Hillier）所开创的空间句法的一系列理论。

希利尔在1996年出版的《空间是机器——建筑组构理论》[1] 一书中阐明了空间句法不仅仅是一种测量空间的工具，更是研究人与空间之间相互关系的一个理论框架，这个理论的基础便是空间组构。

希利尔认为，无论是在城市空间还是建筑空间中，都存在一个潜在的空间组织系统，这个系统从空间的产生之初便存在，并伴随着人们的社会活动而发生潜移默化的演变。

它具有3个特性：整体性、层级性和有机性。

（1）整体性表现为宏观视角下空间网络的发展趋势；（2）层级性表现为空间关系中的主与次分级；（3）有机性的含义在于，有人们活动发生的地方所产生的空间异动会产生潜移默化的多米诺效应，最终导致更大范围的空间异动。

这个潜在的空间组织系统是驱动城市与建筑运行和发展的主要动因[1] 。

空间组构是一种可以将这种抽象的空间组织系统特性传递出来的媒介，空间句法以空间组构作为研究对象，目的是分析人们的行为活动与客观环境之间相互影响的根本原因。

希利尔对空间组构的定义是：一系列的空间关系，它们之间相互影响。

更改其中任何一组空间关系，整个空间组构将会相应的发生变化[1] 。

这个定义隐含的3个值得思考的地方是：（1）空间组构描述的不是传统意义上的空间本体，而是抽象的空间关系；（2）空间组构是一个动态、有机的空间现象，而不是用来复制完美空间的定律；（3）空间组构是连接人与客观环境的纽带，大部分的空间变化都是由人们的社会活动造成的。

GuideTable of ContentsArcGIS Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3ArcGIS Enterprise 10.9 quick start guideGetting startedArcGIS Enterprise is a full-featured mapping, analytics and data management platform that runs in the cloud, in virtual environments or on-premises. With ArcGIS Enterprise, you can visualize, interpret, and act upon your location-based data. ArcGIS Enterprise works alongside ArcGIS Online and ArcGIS Pro, and provides the foundation for applications like ArcGIS Survey123, ArcGIS Collector, ArcGIS Insights, and many more. ArcGIS Desktop 10.8.1 must be on a separate machine if connecting to ArcGIS Enterprise 10.9, as the two can not reside on the same machine.An ArcGIS Enterprise base deployment is a foundational setup of ArcGIS Enterprise. It consists of four software components you will need to license, install and configure. See the What's included section for a list of components. You can build off of the ArcGIS Enterprise base deployment by adding capability-based server roles like ArcGIS GeoEvent Server.Prerequisites:•Ensure your infrastructure meets the system requirements for each component. Review the ArcGIS Enterprise system requirements.•Administrative privileges are required for installation.•On Windows, Microsoft .NET Framework 4.5.2 is required for installing the ArcGIS Server .NET Extension Support feature. ArcGIS Web Adaptor for IIS also requires Microsoft .NET Framework 4.5.2 or higher. The Microsoft .NET Framework can be downloaded from Microsoft. It is recommended to use the latest version of .NET Framework 4.x that is available for your operating system. At the time of release of ArcGIS Enterprise 10.9, this Framework 4.8.To get started:•Visit My Esri with privileges to 'take licensing action'. Under My Organizations >Licensing >License Esri Products, select Start to begin the process of obtaining your licenses. Select ArcGIS Enterprise and the version of the software you wish to license and proceed through the steps to generate license files for ArcGIS Server and Portal for ArcGIS, including your server roles, user types and applications, as applicable. If you are licensing a GIS Professional user type, ArcGIS Pro, ArcGIS Drone2Map, or other application that requires License Manager, you will also need ArcGIS License Manager 2021.0 to specify which members can use these applications. See the Portal for ArcGIS Administrator Guide and the License Manager Guide for more information.•Download your license and the ArcGIS Enterprise software components: Portal for ArcGIS, ArcGIS Data Store, ArcGIS Web Adaptor and ArcGIS Server. You can download the components from My Esri. You can also use ArcGIS Enterprise Builder, to make installation easier. For more information on automation tools, visit the ArcGIS Enterprise Functionality Matrix.•ArcGIS Enterprise license files prior to 10.9 will not work with ArcGIS Enterprise 10.9. You must obtain 10.9 license files for ArcGIS Enterprise. If needed, your account's primary maintenance contact can obtain authorization numbers from .Visit the ArcGIS Enterprise page for access to additional resources such as documentation and support.What's includedArcGIS Enterprise10.9 includes the components described below.•ArcGIS Server—The core web services component for making maps and performing analysis. ArcGIS Server can be licensed in a variety of capability-based roles, depending on functionality you want to enable for your deployment, like real-time and big data. ArcGIS Server also has several extensions available for purchase.•Portal for ArcGIS—Allows you to share maps, applications, and other geographic information with other people in your organization.•Portal for ArcGIS Web Styles—Provides the complete set of 3D symbology for use in ArcGIS Enterprise portal’s Scene Viewer. It is to be applied on top of the Portal for ArcGIS setup.•ArcGIS Data Store—Provides data storage for hosted data in your deployment.•ArcGIS Web Adaptor—Allows you to integrate your ArcGIS Server and Portal for ArcGIS with your existing web server and your organization's security mechanisms.•ArcGIS License Manager2021.0(Windows and Linux)—The version required to run ArcGIS 10.9 with ArcGIS Pro or ArcGIS Drone2Map licenses. It also supports all other ArcGIS 10.x concurrent use releases.•Database Server (Workgroup)—Installation for SQL Server Express instance to store geodatabases. This component is only available with ArcGIS Enterprise Workgroup.ArcGIS Server functionality is provided through server licensing roles. These server licensing roles provide the following capabilities to an ArcGIS Enterprise deployment:•ArcGIS GIS Server—Provides fundamental mapping, analytics, and data management capabilities to your ArcGIS Enterprise deployment. You use ArcGIS GIS Server to publish services, to host layers, and to provide Living Atlas of the World content to either connected or disconnected deployments. ArcGIS GIS Server supports OGC web services and custom geoprocessing models. It's also the licensing role needed to deploy a hosting server in your base ArcGIS Enterprise deployment. (included as part of ArcGIS Enterprise).•ArcGIS Notebook Server—Hosts Python notebooks which provide a versatile web-based interface for powerful geospatial data analysis integrated with ArcGIS Enterprise. Notebooks can perform analysis, automate workflows, and immediately visualize results in a geographic context. (optional, licensed separately).•ArcGIS GeoEvent Server—Powers real-time, event-based data streams that you can use in your ArcGIS Enterprise deployment. (optional, licensed separately).•ArcGIS GeoAnalytics Server—Is for big data processing and analysis capability of ArcGIS Enterprise. It provides a distributed computing framework that powers a collection of analysis tools for analyzing large volumes of data. Through aggregation, regression, detection, clustering, and more, you can visualize, understand, and act upon your big data. GeoAnalytics Server allows you to gain insights that may otherwise be hidden in your data, such as patterns, trends, and anomalies. (optional, licensed separately).•ArcGIS Image Server—Provides tools and resources to host, process, analyze, and explore massive collections of imagery, rasters, and remotely sensed data. (optional, licensed separately).•ArcGIS Mission Server—Facilitates communication between ArcGIS Mission Manager and ArcGIS Mission Responder, providing the processing and machine-language translation necessary for the components of ArcGIS Mission. (optional, licensed separately)•ArcGIS Workflow Manager Server—A scalable workflow management system that automates and simplifies many aspects of performing and managing GIS and non-GIS work in your organization. (optional, licensed separately)•ArcGIS Workflow Manager Web App—An application for creating and executing web-based workflows. This extension requires a user type extension license and the ArcGIS Workflow Manager Server capability. Deployment tools:•ArcGIS Enterprise Builder—Provides a simple installation and configuration experience for a base ArcGIS Enterprise deployment on a single machine.•ArcGIS Enterprise Cloud Builder for Amazon Web Services—Helps deploy ArcGIS Enterprise and all its capabilities on Amazon Web Services. It provides both a graphical wizard-driven user interface, as well as a command-line user interface for scripting. Options include the base ArcGIS Enterprise deployment, as well as working with the GIS Server, Image Server, GeoEvent Server, GeoAnalytics Server, Notebook Server (Ubuntu only), and Mission Server features.•ArcGIS Enterprise Cloud Builder for Microsoft Azure—Helps deploy ArcGIS Enterprise and all its capabilities on Microsoft Azure. Options include the base ArcGIS Enterprise deployment, as well as working with the GIS Server, Image Server, GeoEvent Server, GeoAnalytics Server, and Notebook Server features.•Chef—software framework to automation installation and configuration of ArcGIS Enterprise. For more information, visit the Chef landing page•PowerShell—Esri offers tools to automate your ArcGIS Enterprise deployment using PowerShell Desired State Configuration (DSC). You can use the PowerShell DSC for ArcGIS module to automate the installation, uninstallation, and upgrade of an ArcGIS Enterprise deployment, as well as incremental software additions to a deployment already installed using the module. PowerShell DSC for ArcGIS contains sample JSON files, to which you add your specific information and parameters before running in the PowerShell console. Learn more and get started at the PowerShell DSC for ArcGIS repository on GitHub.Monitoring tools:ArcGIS Monitor—Provides actionable insights into system usage, performance, and overall health of your ArcGIS implementation. ArcGIS Monitor is compatible with the same release version of ArcGIS, as well as earlier versions that are still supported (optional, licensed separately).Additional licensed extensions for ArcGIS GIS Server are available as separate downloads:•ArcGIS Data Interoperability—Enables ArcGIS to read and process over 115 GIS and CAD formats supported by Safe Software's FME.•ArcGIS Data Reviewer—Provides tools to manage quality control and makes data quality a component of your overall data management strategy.•ArcGIS Workflow Manager (Classic) Server—Provides a framework to organize and publish web services of project workflows configured using ArcGIS Workflow Manager (Classic) DesktopFor more information on extensions, visit ArcGIS GIS Server capabilities and extensions.Developer tools:•ArcGIS Enterprise SDK—Libraries and documentation are available for Java and .NET developers to extend ArcGIS Server map services implementing Server Object Extensions (SOEs) and Server Object Interceptors (SOI) published from ArcGIS Pro.•ArcObjects SDK for the Microsoft .NET Framework—Documentation and sample code are provided for Microsoft .NET Framework developers to customize and extend ArcGIS Server.•ArcObjects SDK for Java—Documentation, tools, and sample code are provided for Java Platform developers to customize and extend ArcGIS Server.Data and DBMS connectivity:•DBMS Support Files—Client libraries and databases to directly connect to geodatabases.•ArcGIS Coordinate Systems Data—Contains the data files required for the GEOCON transformation method and vertical transformation files for the United States (VERTCON and GEOID12B) and the world (EGM2008).•ArcGIS Raster Data—Contains a compressed global elevation model primarily required by users of Ortho Mapping workflows who work offline and don't have access to better elevation data required for orthorectification of satellite imagery or to initiate some photogrammetric workflows.•ArcGIS Notebook Server samples data—Sample data used by Esri sample notebooks on ArcGIS Notebook Server.The following are also available with ArcGIS Enterprise and can be found under the Downloads>Products page:•ArcGIS Location Referencing Event Editor Web App—Event Editor is a map-centric web app that supports linear referenced event data editing.•ArcGIS Insights—Access this app through ArcGIS Enterprise to perform iterative and exploratory data analysis on ArcGIS web services, Excel spreadsheets, and data stored in databases. ArcGIS Insights requires additional licensing.•Esri Boundary Layers—Esri provides layers containing boundary and demographic information for different parts of the world. These layers—such as state, province, census area, and ZIP Code boundaries—contain related, local information that portal members can use in their maps, scenes, apps, feature analysis tools, and ArcGIS Insights. Consider publishing these layers in ArcGIS Enterprise if you have ArcGIS Insights installed or if your ArcGIS Enterprise deployment does not have access to ArcGIS Living Atlas of the World content from ArcGIS Online.Language packs (coming soon)The following ArcGIS components have localized setups. Language packs are not available separately.•ArcGIS Server•Portal for ArcGIS•ArcGIS Web Adaptor (IIS)•ArcGIS Web Adaptor (Java Platform)•ArcGIS Data Store•ArcGIS GeoEvent Server•ArcGIS Notebook Server•ArcGIS Mission Server•ArcGIS Data Reviewer•ArcGIS Workflow Manager (Classic) Server extensionLanguage packs for the Portal for ArcGIS help,Data Store help, Mission Server help, and Notebook Server help can be used to view documentation in additional languages.。

高三英语心理学常识单选题40题1.Which of the following is an example of cognitive psychology?A.Studying emotionsB.Studying memoryC.Studying behaviorsD.Studying hormones答案：B。

本题考查心理学概念。

认知心理学主要研究记忆、思维、语言等认知过程。

选项A 研究情绪属于情绪心理学；选项C 研究行为属于行为心理学；选项D 研究激素属于生理心理学。

2.What is the main focus of developmental psychology?A.Changes in behavior over timeB.Thought processesC.Emotional responsesD.Social interactions答案：A。

发展心理学主要关注个体在不同年龄阶段的行为变化。

选项 B 思维过程是认知心理学的研究内容；选项 C 情绪反应不是发展心理学的主要焦点；选项D 社会互动虽然在发展心理学中有涉及，但不是主要焦点。

3.Which psychological approach emphasizes the role of unconscious processes?A.BehaviorismB.Cognitive psychologyC.PsychoanalysisD.Humanistic psychology答案：C。

精神分析强调无意识过程的作用。

行为主义强调环境对行为的影响；认知心理学关注认知过程；人本主义心理学强调人的自我实现和积极品质。

4.What is the term for the process by which we organize and interpret sensory information?A.PerceptionB.MemoryC.ThinkingD.Learning答案：A。

Scientific BackgroundThe B rain’s Navigational Place and Grid Cell SystemThe 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to Dr. John M. O’Keefe, Dr. May-Britt Moser and Dr. Edvard I. Moser for their discoveries of nerve cells in the brain that enable a sense of place and navigation. These discoveries are ground breaking and provide insights into how mental functions are represented in the brain and how the brain can compute complex cognitive functions and behaviour. An internal map of the environment and a sense of place are needed for recognizing and remembering our environment and for navigation. This navigational ability, which requires integration of multi-modal sensory information, movement execution and memory capacities, is one of the most complex of brain functions. The work of the 2014 Laureates has radically altered our understanding of these functions.John O’Keefe discovered place cells in the hippocampus that signal position and provide the brain with spatial memory capacity. May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser discovered in the medial entorhinal cortex, a region of the brain next to hippocampus, grid cells that provide the brain with an internal coordinate system essential for navigation. Together, the hippocampal place cells and the entorhinal grid cells form interconnected nerve cell networks that are critical for the computation of spatial maps and navigational tasks. The work by John O’Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser has dramatically changed our understanding of how fundamental cognitive functions are performed by neural circuits in the brain and shed new light onto how spatial memory might be created. IntroductionThe sense of place and the ability to navigate are some of the most fundamental brain functions. The sense of place gives a perception of the position of the body in the environment and in relation to surrounding objects. During navigation, it is interlinked with a sense of distance and direction that is based on the integration of motion and knowledge of previous positions. We depend on these spatial functions for recognizing and remembering the environment to find our way.Questions about these fundamental brain functions have engaged philosophers and scientists for a long time.During the 18th century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argued that some mental abilities exist independent of experience. He considered perception of place as one of these innate abilities through which the external world had to be organized and perceived.A concept of a map-like representation of place in the brain was advocated for by the American experimental psychologist Edward Tolman, who studied how animals learn to navigate (Tolman, 1948). He proposed that animals could experience relationships between places and events and that the exploration of the environment gradually resulted in the formation of a cognitive map that enabled animals to navigate and find the optimal path through the environment. In this view, cognitive maps represent the environment as a gestalt that allows the subject to experience the room and navigate.Tolman’s theory opposed the prevailing view among behaviourists that complex behaviours are achieved by chains of sensory-motor response relationships. But it did not address where in the brain these functions may be localized and how the brain computes such complex behaviours. The advent of techniques to record from cells in the brain of animals that were freely moving in the environment, using chronically implanted micro wires (Sturmwasser, 1958), made it possible to approach these questions.Finding the place cellsJohn O’Keefe had a background in physiological psychology, working with Ronald Melzack at McGill University before he moved to the laboratory of the pain researcher Patrick Wall at University College in London, where he started his work on behaving animals in the late 1960s. There he discovered the place cells, when recording from neurons in the dorsal partition of hippocampus, called CA1, together with Dostrovsky, in rats moving freely in a bounded area (O'Keefe and Dostrovsky, 1971) (Figure 1).Figure 1. Place cells. To the right is a schematic of the rat. The hippocampus, where the place cells are located is highlighted. The grey square depicts the open field the rat is moving over. Place cells fire when the animal reaches a particular location in the en vironment. The dots indicate the rat’s location in the arena when the place cell is active. Different place cells in the hippocampus fire at different places in the arena. The firing pattern of these cells was completely unexpected. Place cells were active in a way that had not been seen for any cells in the brain before. Individual place cells were only active when the animal was in a particular place in the environment, namely their place field. By systematically changing the environment and testing different theoretical possibilities for the creation of the place fields O’Keefe showed that place cell firing did not merely reflect activity in sensory neurons, but that it represented a complex gestalt of the environment.Different place cells could be active in different places and the combination of activity in many place cells created an internal neural map representing a particular environment (O'Keefe, 1976; O'Keefe and Conway, 1978). O’Keefe concluded together with Nadel that place cells provide the brain with a spatial reference map system, or a sense of place (O'Keefe and Nadel, 1978). He showed that the hippocampus can contain multiple maps represented by combinations of activity in different place cells that were active at different times in different environments. A specific serial combination of active place cells may therefore represent a unique environment, while other combinations represent other environments. T hrough O’Keefe’s discoveries, the cognitive map theory had found its representation in the brain.A prerequisite for O’Keefe’s experiments was the development of appropriate recording techniques to be used in freely moving animals. Although O’Keefe was an early user of these techniques, he was not the first to record from hippocampal or other nerve cells in intact animals (see O’Keefe and Nadel 1978). However, researchers mostly used restricted behavioural task or strict stimulus-response protocols. In contrast, O’Keefe recorded thecellular activity during natural behaviour, which allowed him to observe the unique place fields and relate the neural activity in the place cells to represent the sense of place.In subsequent experiments, O’Keefe showed that the place cells might have memory functions (O'Keefe and Conway, 1978; O'Keefe and Speakman, 1987). The simultaneous rearrangement in many place cells in different environments was called remapping and O’Keefe showed that remapping is learned, and once it is established, it can be stable over time (Lever et al., 2002). The place cells may therefore provide a cellular substrate for memory processes, where a memory of an environment can be stored as specific combinations of place cells.At first, the proposition that the hippocampus was involved in spatial navigation was met with some scepticism. However, it was later appreciated that the discovery of place cells, the meticulous demonstration that these cells represent a mental map far from primary sensory input, and the proposal that hippocampus contains an inner map that can store information about the environment, were seminal. O’Keefe’s discovery sparked a large number of experimental and theoretical studies on how place cells are engaged in generating spatial information and in spatial memory processes. The general notion from these studies is that the key function of the place cells are to create a map of the environment, although they may also be involved in measuring distance under some circumstances (Ravassard et al., 2013). From hippocampus to grid cells in the entorhinal cortexThrough the 1980s and 1990s the prevailing theory was that the formation of place fields originated within the hippocampus itself. May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser, who were studying the hippocampus, both during their PhD work in Per Andersen’s laboratory in Oslo and afterwards both as visiting scientists in Richard Morris’ laboratory in Edinburgh and John O’Keefe’s laboratory in London, asked whether the place cell firing can be generated from activity outside hippocampus. The major input to the hippocampus comes from a structure on the dorsal edge of the rat’s brain, the entorhinal cortex. A large part of the output from the entorhinal cortex projects to the dentate gurus in hippocampus, which in turn connect to the region in the hippocampus called CA3, and further to CA1 in the dorsal hippocampus. Interestingly, this is the same the part of the brain in which John O’Keefe first found the place cells. In 2002, the Mosers found that disconnecting projections from the entorhinal cortex through CA3 did not abolish the CA1 place fields (Brun et al., 2002). These findings, and the knowledge that medial entorhinal cortex is also directly and reciprocally connected to the CA1 region, prompted May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser to look in the medial entorhinal cortex for place coding cells. In a first study they established, similar to what others had shown, that the medial entorhinal cortex contained cells that shared characteristics with the place cells in hippocampus (Fyhn et al., 2004). However, in a later study using larger encounters for the animals to move in, they discovered a novel cell type, the grid cells, that had unusual properties, (Hafting et al., 2005). The grid cells showed an astonishing firing pattern. They were active in multiple places in the open box that together formed nodes of an extended hexagonal grid (Figure 2), similar to the hexagonal arrangements of holes in a beehive.Grid cells in the same area of the medial enthorinal cortex fire with the same spacingand orientation of the grid, but different phasing, so that together they cover every point in the environment.Figure 2. Grid cells.The grid cells are located in the entorhinal cortex depicted in blue. A single grid cell fires when the animal reaches particular locations in the arena. These locations are arranged in a hexagonal pattern.The Mosers found that the distance of the grid fields varies in the medial entorhinal cortex with the largest fields in the ventral part of the cortex. They also showed that the grid formation did not arise out of a simple transformation of sensory or motor signals, but out of complex network activity.The grid pattern had not been seen in any brain cells before! The Mosers concluded that the grid cells were part of a navigation or path integration system. The grid system provided a solution to measuring movement distances and added a metric to the spatial maps in hippocampus.The Mosers further showed that grid cells were embedded in a network in the medial entorhinal cortex of head direction cells and border cells, and in many cases, cells with a combined function (Solstad et al., 2008). Head-direction cells were first described by James Ranck (1985) in another part of the brain, the subiculum. They act like a compass and are active when the head of an animal points in a certain direction. Border cells are active in reference to walls that the animal encounters when moving in a closed environment (Solstad et al., 2008; Savelli, et al. 2008). The existence of border cells was predicted by theoretical modelling by O’Keefe and colleagues (Hartley, et al. 2000). The Mosers showed that the grid cells, the head direction cells, and the border cells, projected to hippocampal place cells (Zhang et al. 2013). Using recordings from multiple grid cells in different parts of the entorhinal cortex, the Mosers also showed that the grid cells are organized in functional modules with different grid spacing ranging in distance from a few centimetres to meters, thereby covering small to large environments.The Mosers further explored the relationship between grid cells and place cells in theoretical models (Solstad et al., 2006), lesion experiments (Bonnevie et al., 2013; Hafting et al., 2008), and in remapping experiments (Fyhn et al. 2007). These and other studies by Mosers and O’Keefe, as well as by others, have shown that there is a reciprocal influence between grid cells in the medial entorhinal cortex and place cells in the hippocampus and that other spatially-tuned cells in the entorhinal cortex, in particular the border cells (Figure 3), may contribute in the generation of the firing pattern of the place cells (Brandon et al., 2011; Koenig et al., 2011; Bush, Berry and Burgess, 2014, Bjerkness et al. 2014).Figure 3. A schematic showing grid cells (blue) and place cells (yellow) in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus, respectively.The Mosers’ discovery of the grid cells, a spatial metric coordination system, and their identification of the medial entorhinal cortex as a computational centre for spatial representation, is a break-through that opens up new avenues to advance the understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying spatial cognitive functions.The grid and place cell systems are found in many mammalian species including humansSince the initial description of place and grid cells in rat and mice, these cell types have also been found in other mammals (Killian et al., 2012; Ulanovsky et al., 2007; Yartsev et al., 2011, 2013;).Humans have large hippocampal-entorhinal brain structures and these structures have long been implicated in spatial learning and episodic memory (Squire, 2004). A number of studies support the idea that the human brain has a spatial-coding system that is similar to that found in non-human mammals. Thus, researchers have found place-like cells in the hippocampus (Ekstrom et al., 2003; Jacobs et al., 2010) and grid-like cells in the entorhinal cortex (Jacobs et al., 2013) when directly recording from nerve cells in the human brain of patients with epilepsy undergoing pre-surgical investigation. Using functional imaging (fMRI). Doeller et al. (2010) have also provided support for the existence of grid cells in the human entorhinal cortex.The similarity of the hippocampal-entorhinal structure in all mammals and the presence of hippocampal-like structures in non-mammalian vertebrates with navigational capacity suggest that the grid-place cells system is a functional and robust system that may be conserved in vertebrate evolution. The importance of the discovery of place cells and grid cells for research in cognitive neuroscienceIt is an emergent theme that place-coding cells in the hippocampal structures are involved in storing and/or retrieving spatial memories. In the 1950s Scoville and Milner (1957) published their report on the patient Henry Molaison (HM), who had his two hippocampi surgically removed for treatment of epilepsy. The loss of hippocampi caused severe memory deficits, as evident by the clinical observation that HM was unable to encode new memories, while he could still retrieve old memories. HM had lost what has later been named episodic memory (Tulving and Markowitch 1998), referring to our ability to remember self-experienced events. There is no direct evidence that place cells are coding episodic memory. However, place cells can encode not only for the current spatial location, but also where the animal has just been and where it is going next (Ferbinteanu and Shapiro, 2003). The past and present may also be overlapping in time in place cells when animals are rapidly tele-transported between two physical different environments (Jezek et al., 2011). An encoding of places in the past and present might allow the brain to remember temporally ordered representations of events, like in the episodic memory.After a memory has been encoded, the memory undergoes further consolidation, e.g. during sleep. Ensemble recording with multi-electrodes in sleeping animals has made possible the study of how memories of spatial routes achieved during active navigation are consolidated. Groups of place cells that are activated in a particular sequence during the behaviour display the same sequence of activation in episodes during the subsequent sleep (Wilson and McNaughton, 1994). This replay of place cell activity during sleep may be a memoryconsolidation mechanism, where the memory is eventually stored in cortical structures.Together the activity of place cells may be used both to define the position in the environment at any given time, and also to remember past experiences of the environment. Maybe related to this notion is the findings that the hippocampus of London taxi drivers, which undergoes extensive training to learn how to navigate between thousands of places in the city without a map, grew during the year long training period and that the taxi drivers after this training had significantly larger hippocampal volume than control subjects (Magurie et al. 2000, Woollett and Maguire, 2011). Relevance for humans and medicine Brain disorders are the most common cause of disability and despite the major impact on people’s life and on the society, there is no effective way to prevent or cure most of these disorders. The episodic memory is affected in several brain disorders, including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. A better understanding of neural mechanisms underlying spatial memory is therefore important, and the discoveries of place and grid cells have been a major leap forward to advance this endeavour. O’Keefe and co-workers have showed in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease that the degradation of place fields correlated with the deterioration of the animals’ spatial memory (Cacucci et al., 2008). There is no immediate translation of such results to clinical research or practice. However, the hippocampal formation is one of the first structures to be affected in Alzheimer’s disease and knowledge about the brain’s navigational system might help understand the cognitive decline seen in patients with this diseases. ConclusionsThe discoveries of place and grid cells by John O’Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser present a paradigm shift in our understanding of how ensembles of specialized cells work together to execute higher cognitive functions. The discoveries have profoundly promoted new research with grid and place cell systems now found in many mammals, including humans. Studies of the navigation system have opened new avenues for studying how cognitive processes are computed in the brain.Ole Kiehn and Hans ForssbergKarolinska InstitutetOle Kiehn, MD, PhDProfessor of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet Member of the Nobel CommitteeMember of the Nobel AssemblyHans Forssberg, MD, PhDProfessor of Neuroscience , Karolinska Institutet Adjunct Member of the Nobel Committee Member of the Nobel Assembly Illustrations: Mattias KarlenCited literatureBjerknes, T.L., Moser, E.I. and Moser, M.B. (2014). Representation of geometric borders in the developing rat. Neuron, 82(1), 71-78.Bonnevie, T., Dunn, B., Fyhn, M., Hafting, T., Derdikman, D., Kubie, J.L., Roudi, Y., Moser, E.I., and Moser, M.B. 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