Language acquisition 语言获得与习得【精选】

A-Level英语-语言的习得与变化LanguageAcquisition anRevision: Language Acquisition and ChangeBefore English began - up to ca. 450 ADBritish (Celtic) tribes - language related to modern Welsh, Scots Gaelic and Irish (Erse) ·only real connection with Modern English is in lexis (mostly in place names).Origins of English - ca. 450 AD to 1066Angles, Saxons and Jutes arrive from north Germany ·Language (Old English) is at first spoken ·only writing is runes ·Written form comes from Latin-speaking monks, who use Roman alphabet, with new letters (æ, ð and þ - spoken as "ash", "eth" and "thorn") ·About half of common vocabulary of modern English comes from Old English ·Word forms vary according to syntax (inflection, case endings and declension) and grammatical gender ·Vikings establish Danelaw ·some erosion of grammar and addition of new vocabulary.Middle English Period - 1066 to 1485Lexis - terms for law and politics from Norman French ·General expansion of lexis, esp. abstract terms ·Case-endings, declension and genderdisappear ·Inflection goes except in pronouns and related forms ·Writers concerned about change ·want to stabilize language ·1458 - Gutenberg inventsprinting (1475 - Caxton introduces it to England) ·the press enables some standardizing.Tudor Period - 1485 to 1603Rise of nationalism linked to desire for more expressive language ·Flowering of literature and experiments in style ·idea of elevated diction ·Vocabulary enlarged by new learning Renaissance) ·imports from Greek and Latin ·Lexis expanded by travel to New World, and ideas in math and science ·English settlers begin to found colonies in North America. In 1582 Richard Mulcaster publishes a list of 7,000 words with spelling forms, but this does not become a universal standardThe 17th CenturyInfluences of Puritanism and Catholicism (Roundhead and Cavalier) and of science ·Puritan ideas of clarity and simplicity influence writing of prose·reasonableness and less verbose language ·English preferred to Dutch as official tongue of American colonies.The 18th CenturyAge of reason ·Ideas of order and priority ·Standardizing of spelling (Johnson' s Dictionary of the English Language in 1755) and grammar (Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar in 1762 and Lindley Murray's English Grammar in 1794)·Classical languages are seen as paradigms (idealmodels) for English ·Romantic Movement begins ·interest in regional and social class varieties of English.The 19th CenturyInterest in past ·use of archaic words ·Noan Webster publishes American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828 ·British Empire causes huge lexical growth ·English travels to other countries and imports many loanwords ·Modern language science begins with Jakob Grimm and others ·James Murray begins to compile the New English Dictionary (which later becomes the Oxford English Dictionary) in 1879。

英语教育中的语言学理论在现代社会中，英语已成为一门不可或缺的工具性语言。

为了掌握这门语言，我们不仅需要学习其语法、词汇等基本知识，更需要了解其语言学理论。

本文将介绍英语教育中的语言学理论。

一、语言习得理论语言习得理论（Language acquisition theory）是研究语言习得的心理学分支学科，最早由美国心理学家斯金纳提出。

该理论认为，语言被视为是一个纯粹的行为，是通过语言训练和反复的口头练习获得的。

这种行为型学习被称为“习得论”，强调外部的因素对语言习得过程的影响。

在英语教育中，该理论支持通过语言训练和反复回忆来获得英语能力。

二、语用学理论语用学理论（Pragmatics theory）是研究语言运用规则的一门学科，与语法学（Syntax）和词汇学（Lexicon）并列成为语言学三大分支。

它强调语言应用在日常交际中的实际意义，并分析语言在不同背景下的意义和使用上的差异。

在英语教育中，语用学理论为学生了解英语在不同场合下的使用和语气、联想等方面提供了重要的指导。

三、认知语言学理论认知语言学理论（Cognitive Linguistics）是一种新兴的语言学派别，它探讨语言与思维之间的关系，研究语言知识的认知和构建方式。

该理论认为，语言的意义是由认知语言处理机制产生的，语言的规律来自于认知建构活动。

在英语教育中，认知语言学理论强调学习者将语言的概念与自己的认知结构进行联系，从而更好地理解和掌握语言。

四、社会语言学理论社会语言学理论（Sociolinguistics）分析语言在社会上的使用和使用者的社会环境的影响。

社会语言学理论强调文化和社会因素对语言使用的影响，并研究它们如何影响书面和口头语言的发展。

在英语教育中，社会语言学理论可以帮助学生了解不同文化背景和社会环境对语言的影响，更加深入地了解和运用语言。

总之，语言学理论可以为我们更好地理解和掌握英语提供帮助。

作为英语学习者，我们应该不断更新自己对语言学理论的知识，并将其运用到实际学习当中。

自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisi tionChapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得一、本章纲要二、本章重点of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1) is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。

语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。

有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。

习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。

The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.1.First language acquisition第一语言习得Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。

现代语言学名词解释（3）现代语言学名词解释7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix词缀: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix前缀: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix后缀: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 11 derivation派生: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding组合: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence语言能力: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence句子: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules转换法则: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntacticrepresentation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а五语义学1 semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized(语境).3 reference 引用: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy同义 : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy多义 : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy反义词组 : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy一词多义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.8 hyponymy上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis成分分析 : Componential analysis isa way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning语法意义: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning语意: The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called se-le-ctional restrictions.12 predication论断 : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context上下文: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act言内行为: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act语言表达行为: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics历史语言学: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope字尾音消失: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis插入音: A change that involves the insertion ofa consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis复分解: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding词组: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation派生: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending混合: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation逆构词: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening语义化: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing词义缩小: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift语义变化: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage原始母语: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift语音演变: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics社会语言学: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community社区语言: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety语言变体: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning语言规划: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect个人习语: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language标准语言: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language方言: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca混合语: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin混杂语言: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. 10 Creole克里奥耳语: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia使用两种语言: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism双语: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect社会方言: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register语域: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang俚语: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo 禁语: A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism委婉语: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. -----九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics语言心理学: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex大脑皮层: The most important part of the brain is the outside surf-ace of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization大脑侧化: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization语言侧化: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening双听技术: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage右耳优势: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is know as theright ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis关键假期说: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism语言决定论: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism语言相对论: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech无声语言: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech” of linguistic relativism.十语言习得1 language acquisition语言习得: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech电报式语言: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence独词句: Children’s one-wordutterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition获得: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning学习：Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer语言迁移: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer正迁移: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer负迁移: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. 9 contrastive analysis对比分析: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage人工辅助语言: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction正规教学: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation工具性动机: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation综合性动机: Integrative motivationoccurs when the learner’s goal i s social.14 acculturation文化互渗: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。

acquisition-learning distinction hypothesis 题目：理解习得和获得的区别假设：探究语言习得和语言获得的差异引言：语言是社会交往的基础，人类通过其中最重要的沟通工具，即语言，实现信息交流、思维表达和文化传承。

然而，对语言的掌握与实际使用有着复杂的机制和过程。

在这个领域，习得和获得的区别假设是一项引人深思并争议不断的研究题目。

本文旨在通过对习得和获得的概念进行详细剖析，并解释两者之间的差异。

1. 习得的概念与特点：语言习得是指通过自然而有意识地接触和使用语言，逐渐掌握和内化语言系统的过程。

这种习得是基于非意识和直觉的，发生在一个没有规划和结构化教学的环境中。

以下是习得的特点：1.1 非意识性：语言习得发生在无意识和非监控状态下，幼儿从周围环境中自然吸收语言，并逐渐掌握词汇、句法和语用规则。

1.2 非结构化：习得没有固定的教学计划或课程安排，无法明确划分出学习目标和步骤。

1.3 发展性：习得是一个渐进的过程，从简单到复杂，从表层到深层的演化。

2. 获得的概念与特点：与习得不同，语言获得是指通过有意识的学习和教学活动来掌握语言。

以下是获得的特点：2.1 有意识性：获得以学习者的自我调节和有意识的学习活动为基础，需要学习者付出更多的认知努力。

2.2 结构化：获得通常以课程或教材为基础，有明确的学习目标和教学步骤。

2.3 可教授性：获得可以通过教学和指导加快学习效果，通过教师的角色引导学习者掌握知识和技能。

3. 习得与获得之间的差异：习得和获得之间的差异在于他们的过程、机制和效果等方面。

以下是习得与获得之间的主要差异：3.1 过程差异：习得是自然而无意识的，发生在日常生活中，通过口头输入和进化的反馈进行；而获得是有意识的，需要学习者付出更多的认知努力，通过书面材料、教学活动和学习策略来获取。

3.2 机制差异：习得主要依赖于社会交互和内在语言能力的发展，借助隐式的学习机制；获得则依赖于外部的教学输入、教师角色以及学习者自我调控等。

第三章 语言习得理论和第二语言习得研究从事语言教学必须遵循语言学习规律。

一、语言学习（language learning ）和语言习得（language acquisition ）：（一）语言学习与语言习得的定义：二十世纪60年代西方学者提出区分语言的学习和习得这两种不同的学习。

70年代中期美国语言教学理论家克拉申（S.Krashen ）进一步系统提出学习与习得的假说。

语言学习：在课堂环境下有专门的教师指导，严格按照教学大纲和课本，通过讲解、练习、记忆等活动，有计划、有系统、也是有意识地对语言规则进行掌握。

（成人在学校学习第二语言）语言习得：在自然的语言环境中，通过旨在沟通意义的言语交际活动，不知不觉（潜意识）地获得一种语言。

（儿童习得第一语言）在使用学习与习得这两个术语时，一般用法是：广义的学习：包括习得（获得）和上述狭义学习（学得）。

“学习”和“习得”是两种获得语言的途径，在人们获得语言的过程中相互交叉、相辅相成。

如图所示：二、习得与学习的不同（1）习得，特别是儿童第一语言的习得，是从本能的要求（生存和交际的需要）开始、与其生理和心理的自然发育、成熟同步进行的过程, 儿童是在不知不觉中习得第一语言的，成人的习得对主体来说也是一种潜意识的行为；学习则是主体为了掌握一种新的交际工具所进行的目的性非常明确的活动，除了本身的自觉要求外，还加上教师的督促、考试、竞争等外部因素的作用，是一种有意识的行为。

（2）习得一般是在使用该目的语的社会环境中进行的；学习则主要是在课堂环境下进行的，可能有使用该目的的社会环境（学习第二语言），也可能没有（学习外语）。

（3）习得时注意力主要集中在语言的功能和意义方面，集中在语言如何有效地表达思想以及语言所表达的信息上（语言的内容），而不是语言形式，语言形式的掌握、语言知识的获得往往是潜意识的；学习，特别是在传统教学法的影响下，其注意力往往集中于语言的形式方面，有意识地、系统地掌握语音、词汇、语法等，甚至在很大程度上忽视了语言的意义。