大学英语词汇学Chapter 1 English Lexicology--Introduction

Lectures on English LexicologyMain Sections for the Lectures:Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1What Is a Word?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and MeaningA word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to a certain thing with a cluster of sounds.In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.1.3 Sound and FormIt is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form.The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans.In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns.1.4 VocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary.The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.1.5 Classification of Words1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Non-basic V ocabularyBasic words have the following characteristics:1.All national character: they denote the most common things and phenomena ofthe world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language.2.Stability: as these words denote the commonest things necessary to life, they arelikely to remain unchanged.3.Productivity:as they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, they caneach be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes4.Polysemy:words of this kind often possess more than one meaning becausemost of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.5.Collocability: most of these words enter quite a number of set expressions,idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings.“All national character” is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.Non-basic words include the following:1.Terminology（术语）: technical terms used in particular disciplines andacademic areas.2.Jargon（行话）: the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.3.Slang（俚语）4.Argot（黑话）5.Dialectal words（方言词语）6.Archaisms（古语）7.Neologisms（新词）1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsContent words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words（实义词）.They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denoteobjects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.Functional words do not have notions of their own.They are also called empty words.The chief function of these words is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences.They are known as form words.Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.Content words are numerous and the number is ever growing whereas the functional words which make up a small number of vocabulary, remain stable.However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words: words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language.Native words have two other features:1.Neutral in style: since native words denote the commonest things in humansociety, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at alltimes.Stylistically, native words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.Frequent in use: Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing.The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent.Borrowed word: words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.The loan words can be classified into four classes:1.Denizens（同化词）are words borrowed early in the past and now are wellassimilated into the English language. eg: pork----porc(F) cup---cuppa(L)2.Aliens（非同化词）are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling. eg: bazzar (per) intermesso( IT)3.Translation loans（译借词）4.Semantic loans（语义借词）Questions and Tasks on P20: 1—6Chapter 2: The Development of the English VocabularyThe English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles.A Historical Overview of the English vocabularyThe first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts.Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family—Celtic（克尔特语）.The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles and were to occupy the land until about 410.When the Roman empire began to crumble, the Germanic tribes came in.they are Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.2.2.1 Old English (450—1150)The Germanic tribes took permanent control of the land, which was to be called England (the land of Angles).Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.People generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English.Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words.It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.2.2.2 Middle English (1150--1500)Old English began to undergo a great change when the Normans invaded Englandfrom France in 1066.the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.Between 1250 and 1500 about 9,000 words of French origin poured into English.75 percent of them are still in use today.2.2.3 Modern English (1500—up to now)Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England.In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics.This is known in history as the Renaissance.In the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.Although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion, yet more words are created by means of word-formation.Growth of Present-day English VocabularyGenerally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages.Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentModern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semanticchange, borrowing.1.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots, affixes and other elements.In modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet thenew need.3.Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularlyin earlier times.Questions and Tasks on P33: 3, 4, 10Chapter 3: Word Formation IThough borrowing has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary, vocabulary is largely enriched on an internal basis.boys boy+schecking check+ingchairman chair+manMorphemes（词素）the smallest meaningful unit of language Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller unitswithout destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g. boys---boy+-s indicates pluralitychecking---check+-ingdisappointment词是由一个或一个以上的词素构成的。

Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,/doc/214202390.html,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic field Polysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following: Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languagesare known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- -NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,th e morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据Morphological motivation 形态的理据Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy , antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation HomonymyBased on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound butdifferent in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄> On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similaror nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter 华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk ofwood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④S ynonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible andthought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come home Keep in mind take offto no avail like a breeze2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only="" in="" words="" ,not="" fact="" bdsfid="283"> is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket bury the hatchet。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。

Introduction 绪论0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。

English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。

English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。

It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。

However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words、The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages、The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论) and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English、A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power、The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively、The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately、A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study、Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义): A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function、(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音与形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years(3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes(4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language、Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary、The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character(全民通用性most important) 2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性) 4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability(可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话) (3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语) (5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语) (7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings、(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes、(mainstream of the basic word-stocks)、Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages、(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(非同化词/外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其她语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans(借义词):they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc、(2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc、(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian、(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian、The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek、(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc、(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc、(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc、The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language、2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages、In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections、English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language、Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词:the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements、(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words、3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant、Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme,differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)(1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself、(independent)、(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself、Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes、2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words、B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective、Free Morpheme =free root(自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem(词根与词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity、A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root、Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1、Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem、(1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems、1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc、disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc、unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc、misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect、overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc、anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc、extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间与顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc、monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc、bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-、vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems、1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2、Compounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e、g、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot(2)adjective compounds : e、g、acid + head = acid-head(3)verb compounds : e、g、house + keep = housekeep3、Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、(功能转换,又叫零派生、functional shift/zero-derivation)4、Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、e、g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5、Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead、e、g、plane from airplane, phone from telephone、四种形式:1)、Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2)、Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3)、Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4)、Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6、Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms、(1)Initialism(首字母缩写词法): initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter、e、g、: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)(2)Acronym(首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word、E、g、:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7、Back-formation(逆生法,逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation、It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes、(greed from greedy)8、Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e、g、: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word、It is the arbitrary and conventional、It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific、Concept(概念):which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind、Sense(意义):It denotes the relationship inside the language、‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language、’Motivation(理据):It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning、1) Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据):words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises、Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning、E、g、: bang, ping-pong, ha ha、2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines、E、g、: airmail, miniskirt 、例外:black market, ect、3)Semantic motivation(词义理据):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、E、g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word、E、g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1、Grammatical Meaning(语法意义):indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2、Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning、2)Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、[4types:（1）Connotative(内涵意义):the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations、(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic(文体意义):many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、（3）Affective(感情意义) :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question、这种情感价值观分两类:褒义与贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative(搭配意义):is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion、]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系与语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1、diachronic approach(历时方法) :from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word、First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings、2、synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time、基本意义就是central meaning , 次要意义就是derived meaning、Two processes of development(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes、(e、g: face, neck)2.concatenation(连锁型):is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning、(e、g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning、In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains、Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between、4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy、Generally, radiation precedes concatenation、In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other、Homonymy(同形同音异义关系):words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1)Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词):words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning、2)Homographs(同形异义词):words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、(最多最常见)3)Homophones(同音异义词):words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning、Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词与多义词的区别):1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings、2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources、Polysemant is from the same source、3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning、Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule、Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning 、Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms(完全同义词):also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i、e、both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings、[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology、](2)relative synonyms(相对同义词):also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality、(e、g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言与地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰与委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact、4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand、Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同、Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning、(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同、By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words、Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness、(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal、中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request、古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application、Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms、They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns、(allow sb、to do sth、- let sb、do sth、/ answer the letter-replyto the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、特点:①The assertion of one is the denial of the other、②Such antonyms are non-gradable、They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them 、(e、g: single/married)2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、(e、g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other、3)relative terms(关系反义词): this type consists of relational opposites、(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite、(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words、2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast、(e、g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐)3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together、(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go、/ more haste, less speed、)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion、The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word、For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词与下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader、Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea、Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory、e、g、(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc、make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language、e、g、(aunt in English, ma y means “父亲的姐姐, 妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese、(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content、Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form、Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1、Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo、It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized、(e、g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2、Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning、It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense、In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English、(e、g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl)、[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly、]3、Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance、[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4、Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense、[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5、Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer、Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1、Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time、E、g: pen, car, computer、2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation、3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors、Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons、2、Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system、1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义与语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word、Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts、Two types of context(语境的种类)1、Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background、(look out, weekend, landlord )2、Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears、It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book、分为两类:1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question、(e、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、(e、g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1、Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy、2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2、Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3、Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements、In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc、They form an important part of the English vocabulary、Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1、Semantic unity (语意的整体性): words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity、Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom、The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom、2、Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable、1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article、4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity、习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1、idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 、idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语(as poor as a church mouse)3 、idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语(look into)4 、idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语(tooth and nail 拼命)5 、sentence idioms 句式习语(never do things by halves)Use of idioms(习语的使用)1、Stylistic features(文体色彩):1）colloquialisms(俗语)2）slang (俚语)3）literary expressions(书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派)different meanings、2、Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理):(1)alliteration头韵法(2)rhyme尾韵法2)lexical manipulation(词法处理)(1)reiteration(duplication of synonyms)同义词并举[scream and shout](2)repetition 重复[out and out](3)juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3、figures of speech(修辞格)(1)simile明喻(2)metaphor暗喻(3)metonymy换喻/以名词代动作:live by one’s pen(4)synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体:earn one’s bre ad(5)Personification拟人法(6)Euphemism委婉语:kick the bucket(die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式):1、addition增加2、deletion删除3、replacement替换4、position-shifting位置转移5、dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源)、Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1、Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典与双语词典):最早的词典都就是双语的(1)、Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD)、The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language、(2)、Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2、Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc、)可以就是单语或就是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information、Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information、2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3、Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)(1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>(2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000](3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音与最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。

---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ English Lexicology 英语词汇学简图Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3)a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1. 2. 3.4. No enough letters: alphabet from latin Pronunciation changed more rapidly Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling all national character 全民性stability 稳定性productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类by use frequency 按使用频率分：basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇basic word stock 基本词汇1/ 28obvious characteristics 明显的特点nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词neutral in style文体上中性by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词frequent in use 使用频繁denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Chapter 2 DevelopmentIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语Balto-Slavic波罗的海-斯拉夫语Eastern set：东部诸语族：Indo-Iranian印度-伊朗语Armenian 2.1 Indo-European 印欧语亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语Italic Western set：西部诸语族：意大利语Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Danish 丹麦语Swedish 瑞典语 German 德语 Dutch 荷兰语 Flemish 佛兰德语English 英语Latin 拉丁语言Hellenic 希腊语——GreekGermanic日耳曼语Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语3/ 28Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon 古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇 Highly inflected 高度转折 complex endings 复杂的结尾 vowel changes 元音变化 2.2 Historical review 历史概述Middle English (1150-1500) 中古英语French words 法语词汇leveled endings 水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语Modern English (1500-up to now) 现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词no endings 无结尾Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语 from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。