Lecture 3 aristotle

托福听力tpo50 lecture1、2、3、4 原文+题目+答案+译文Lecture1 (1)原文 (1)题目 (4)答案 (6)译文 (6)Lecture2 (8)原文 (8)题目 (10)答案 (12)译文 (12)Lecture3 (14)原文 (14)题目 (16)答案 (18)译文 (18)Lecture4 (20)原文 (20)题目 (22)答案 (24)译文 (24)Lecture1原文NARRATOR: Listen to part of a lecture in an ancient history class.FEMALE PROFESSOR: OK, last time we were discussing trade and commerce during the Bronze Age … And I said a little over 3,000 years ago there was quite a lively trade among the countries along the Mediterranean Sea—people were making objects out of bronze, and they were using bronze tools to make other goods, and they developed trade networks to trade these goods with other countries around the Mediterranean … One of the things they traded was glass …And recently there was an archeological excavation in Egypt—on the Nile River, around where it enters the Mediterranean Sea—where they discovered an ancient glass factory. Robert?MALE STUDENT: I thought our textbook said that the Egyptians imported their glass from other countries.FEMALE PROFESSOR: Well, until now that's what the evidence seemed to suggest. I mean, we had some evidence that suggested that the Egyptians were making glass objects, uh, but not glass.MALE STUDENT: OK, am-am I missing something? They're making glass, but they're not making glass.FEMALE PROFESSOR: I said they were making glass objects, right? You see, it was previously thought that they weren't actually making the raw glass itself, that they were importing unfinished glass from Mesopotamia—um, which today is a region consisting of Iraq, and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran—and simply reworking it. Most archeologists believed that the glass factories were in Mesopotamia because that's where the oldest known glass remains come from. You see, there were two stages of glassmaking: the primary production stage, where they made disks of raw glass… Uh, an- and then there was the secondary stage, where they melted the raw glass, the glass disks, and created decorative objects or whatever.And from this new Egyptian site we've learned that the primary production stage had several steps. First, they took quartz—a colorless, transparent mineral—and crushed it. Then they took that crushed quartz and mixed it with plant ash; uh, “plant ash” is just what it soundslike—the ash that's left after you've burned plant material. They slowly heated this mixture, at a relatively low temperature, in small vessels, um containers, like jars, made out of clay. Uh, and that yielded a kind of glassy material…They took this glassy material and ground it up into a powder, and then they used metallic dye to color it… After that, they poured the colored powder out into disk-shaped molds and heated it up to very high temperatures, so that it melted. After it cooled, they'd break the molds, and inside…there were the glass disks. These disks were shipped off to other sites within Egypt and places around the Mediterranean. Then, in the secondary phase, the disks were reheated and shaped into decorative objects. Susan?FEMALE STUDENT: So what kind of objects were people making back then? FEMALE PROFESSOR: Well, the most common objects we’ve found—mostly in Egypt and Mesopotamia—uh, the most common objects were beads; one thing Egyptians were very, very good at was imitating precious stones; they created some beads that looked so much like emeralds and pearls that it was very difficult to distinguish them from the real thing. Uh, and-and also beautiful vessels, uh, with narrow necks; they were probably really valuable, so they wouldn't have been used to hold cooking oil or common food items; they were most likely used for expensive liquids like perfume. Now the glass made at this factory was mostly red; to get this red color, they used copper; in a sophisticated process. Of course, any kind of glass was very valuable, so these red bottles would only have been owned by wealthy people. In fact, because it was so difficult to make, and sort of mysterious and complicated, it was probably a product produced for the royal family, and they probably used glass to show their power. Also, beautiful, expensive objects make great gifts if you're looking to establish or strengthen political alliances…and it's quite possible that ancient Egyptians were actually exporting glass, not just making it or importing it. The trade with Mesopotamia was probably a friendly, mutual trade…because, uh, Mesopotamian glass was usually white or yellow, so Mesopotamians might have said something like, “We'll give you two white disks for two red disks.” There’s no proof ofthat, uh—at least not yet…题目1.What is the lecture mainly about?A. New information about glass production and use in ancient EgyptB. Whether Egyptians or Mesopotamians were the first to invent glassC. Differences between Egyptian glass and other kinds of glassD. Reasons why ancient Egyptians imported glass from other countries2.What is the importance of the archaeological evidence recently found in Egypt?A. It supports the theory that ancient Egyptians imported glass from Mesopotamia.B. It proves that ancient Egyptians made glass objects prior to the Bronze Age.C. It provides the first evidence that glassmaking in the Bronze Age required two different stages.D. It shows that ancient Egyptians were producing raw glass.3.The professor describes a process for making glass disks. Summarize the process by putting the steps in the correct order. [Click on a sentence. Then drag it to the space where it belongs. The last one is done for you.]A.Glass-like material is ground up and dyed blue or red.B.Powdered material is heated at very high temperatures.C.Crushed quartz and plant ash are heated at low temperatures.D.Containers are broken to remove glass disks.4.Based on the lecture, what are two kinds of glass objects that were valued in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia? [Click on 2 answers.]A. BeadsB. Cooking utensilsC. ContainersD. Windows5.According to the professor, what are two reasons why ancient Egyptians exported glass? [Click on 2 answers.]A. To build relationships with foreign leadersB. To hold cooking oil that was sold in other countriesC. To get bronze tools from other countriesD. To acquire colors of glass not made in Egypt6.Why does the professor say this:Robert: Ok. Am……Am I missing something? They are making glass but they are not making glass?Professor: I said they were making glass objects, right?A. To emphasize that glass objects were only made in ancient EgyptB. To find out what the student does not understandC. To indicate that there was no contradiction in her previous statementD. To correct what she said in her previous statement答案A D CABD AC AD C译文旁白：请听一个古代历史课上的讲座片段。

社会科学：1.Economy and bussiness(经济与商业)(1)regulation）1（market pattern(市场形态)---self-sufficient economy自给自足的自然经济---a pure free market economy自由的市场经济（no government intervention/involvement没有政府的干预= 并列关系Free competition自由竞争---monopoly垄断---anti-trustlegislation反托拉斯立法-反垄断---transportation—railroad—oil---financial）---a central government controled/administrated economy计划经济---mixed economy混合经济（social regulation宏观调控---A. aim/purposea. to aviod monopoly宏观调控[make profits挣利润]b.to aviod fraud(经济上欺诈)c.to maintain the stability/saftyof the societyd.to aviod the manipulationfrom the stock holders,security holders and futureholders(股票，证券，期货的恶意操控)---financialmarket(微观调控)B.methoda.tax/taxationernment:spending/expenditure(支出) (2)demand and supply）1（valuation regulation价值规律---考点：relation, case study/analysis(案例研究，分析)---把握目的，位置决定目的（revaluation/appreciation升值；devaluation贬值）(3)marketing(营销) strategy(战略)）1（M & A=merge and accquisition兼并和重组---A.brand sense品牌理念=brand name+artificial meaning/concept/notation(品牌理念)√[case]B.mass media method大众传播手段---advertisement；commercial(特制电视商业有偿广告)；Interneta.logo(商标)b.spokepersonc.introduction(spokesperson---celebrity)d.slogan(标语)---concept(理念)C.contrast对比[cases]---10—记字头D.brand---loyalty品牌忠诚度a.attempt试用b.expansion of productsc.platform平台E.localization本土化（对于跨国公司，跨地公司）a.taste品位b.culture/belief信仰c.cunsumer-testing消费心理，消费习惯公司规模：Agency/firm---company---corporation,enterprise---JV=Joint Venture合资企业---MNC=Multinational Corporation跨国公司(4)business management---human resource(人力资源)[case---e-Person=executive-person高管]---CEO（首席执行官），CFO（首席财政官），CTO （首席技术官），COO（首席运营总监），CAO（游戏公司-首席娱乐总监）A.qualities.---各种执行官pany---success/failureC.theory理论2.Philosophy(哲学)听力中4位有名的哲学家：Socrates(苏格拉底), Plato(柏拉图), Aristotle(亚里士多德), John Dewey(约翰杜威)建树是不变的：(1)Socrates苏格拉底(被绞死)：---柏拉图的老师规律：谈到苏格拉底必谈柏拉图metaphysics(形而上学派)(2)Plato柏拉图《The Republic》理想国---柏拉图最著名的著作，其实是他和他老师苏格拉底共同的功绩：Academy：西方哲学史上，开创了第一家讲哲学思想的学堂：“学源”---1.教育Education---2.伦理道德Ethics(3)Aristotle亚里士多德：）1（他的哲学思想遍及领域之广无人能及方面：physics, natural science, politics, arts, poetics(诗学)）2（但大多数哲学思想在后来一一被推翻）3（是西方哲学思想的奠基人---积极评价）4（当晚年只研究一个领域---伦理道德Ethics---幸福happiness(4)John Dewey约翰杜威---pragmatics实用主义哲学---education教育（专门研究）（philosopher哲学家, thinker思想家, educator教育家））1（率先提出了教育应该全民教育(no social rank education)-无差别，无社会等级教育）2（理论联系实际(“put into practice” theory)）3（个人教育可以带动全民教育(individual education)3.Art History(难题，艺术历史)---所有艺术史文章的考点：该艺术时期的最大特点(hallmark)代表人物(person)代表作品(work)代表人物的第一人第一作(first)诞生的背景和后期给社会带来的影响(background+effect)鼎盛时期的发展情况(peak,summit Baroque巴洛克时期---Music,Fine Arts,Architecture---考点：emotional感性艺术,extreme ornamentation极端的装修装饰dissonance对称,中轴线（又臭又长）Music：(1)trill(颤音)/grace notes修饰音符(2)orchestra(管弦乐队)/symphony(交响乐队)(3)F(发)/B(西)---音名---semi-tone半音阶的使用(4)Opera(歌剧)---鼎盛时期(5)concerto(协奏曲)，sonata(奏鸣曲)Music代表人物：Monteverdi Claudio蒙特威尔第.克劳迪奥！！---歌剧之父，巴洛克音乐之父代表作：Orfeo/Orfio《奥菲欧》鼎盛时期：Technique-oriented纯技术导向的---只有技术没有艺术---以歌剧(Opera)为最Choir唱诗班/巴洛克前期的合唱团---唱merit(赞美歌)---早期用童男童女(纯洁)鼎盛时期比的是谁唱的大声唱的高(男的变声)---出现阉人歌手(eunuch performer/singer)后期分声部(V oices)—理性时期---tenor男高音baritone男中音soprnao男低音mezzo-soprnao女高音alto女中音，女低音Arts：鲁本斯(Robins)---是欧洲第一个巴洛克式的画家---代表作品：Bless Peace《祝福和平》---巴洛克美术之父鼎盛时期：先炫技：比颜色的艳丽(多)---color，线条的复杂性---line complexity 后炫画布(canvas)后期都回归理性Architecture：Appliance实用性—所以不存在过于“炫”特点：(1)huge pillar大型立柱(2)Floating sculpture浮雕(3)mural/fresco壁画Renaissance文艺复兴时期---理性艺术rational art----哲学中也考（内容一样）启蒙运动Enlightenment---相互影响，时间上启蒙运动先人性humanismb 达芬奇Da Vinci美德merit by nature艺术与科学art scienceImpressionism意象派---哲学中也考（乌托邦派utopianism/理想主义派idealism）只限于绘画和音乐---特点：utopianism乌托邦派/idealism理想主义派abstract抽象Imagination/illusion幻想No accompany无伴奏Vague coloration模糊色彩处理Romantics浪漫主义---偏文学---关键词：(1)elaboration修辞(2)Romantic≠love---会进行对比comparison…(3)Wordsworth的生平(life)---最鼎盛时期是早期作品的第一阶段---文章容易出题Work(代表作)-早期第一阶段-代表作不确定Drama戏剧---Neo-classics新古典主义Performance表演艺术Actor/actoress演员Theater舞台（装饰）---注意比较概念---容易出题Compared with Romantic和浪漫主义进行对比注意听：Difference；Advantages/Disvantages：strengh/weakness演员，舞台设计搭配之间的优劣点代表人物：Wordsworth华兹华斯Photorealism照片写实主义---Fine Art---VS---Impressionism---写实，关键，特点：(1)Detail细节(2)reflection:mirror/window镜像画代表人物：七类代表人物---听到新人就记4.History and Anthropology5.Mass Communication(大众传播)6.Political Science地球科学：1.地质地理题：山---Alps阿尔卑斯山Amdes安第斯山脉Rockies罗基山脉Applachians阿巴拉奇亚山Cascades卡斯卡达山脉St.Helens圣海伦斯山山的考法：(1)formation/age形成方式和年代的概念---注意数字(height,length,altitude,age)Range；mountain ranges山脉）1（collision of tectonic plates板块的挤压，碰撞（原因：Plate Tectonic板块构造说Continental Drifting大陆漂移学说Plate movementHotspot热力点 temperature---crust,mantle,core---在mantle---有lava/magama---导致Plate movment）2（during volcanic eruption/action火山爆发（原因：rock---cool downigneous rock火山岩(2)volcano---eruption/erupt考点：classification分类）1（eruption cycle喷发周期（三种火山：active volcano活火山Inactive/extinct volcane死火山Dormant volcane休眠火山=潜在的活火山）2（eruption intensity喷发强度（两种火山：shield volcano盾状火山---没事喷着玩由火山结构决定特点：形状像盾牌，喷发周期短，喷发强度小Composite volcano复式火山---很多层---导致火山的内部压强大(pressure)密度大(density)特点：喷发周期强，喷发强度大听的方法：听火上的类型(type)；听火上的位置(与山的关系---与哪个山相连)(location—other mountain)次生灾害(productive disasters)---火山灰(ash cloud/volcanic ash)地震(earthquake)山崩(landslide)------常说道：Cascade是雪山---终年低温常年积雪---雪崩(avalanche)泥石流(mudslide)杀生(kill creatures)听调查和调查者(survey&research reaults)听火山由静到动的过程(process)湖(Great Lakes)---五大湖---最大湖：Superior最西边----背的方法：SHMEO二大湖：Huron三大湖：Michigan---全部湖水面积都在美国本土第四湖：Erie第五湖：Ontraio最东边都属于：Freshwater lake淡水湖=Sweetwater lake最常考点：咸淡对比---湖水文章经常对比的出题---盐湖saltwater lake---Great Salt Lake位于Utah---容易对比对比方面：(1)date(2)structure---outlet出口—出盐分(3)climate---evaporation amount蒸发量(4)prehistoric lake史前湖---eg：Great Salt lake---Bonnevile Lake邦纳维尔湖海---考点：(1)oceanic volcanic island海洋火山岛---火山周围的海容易长atoll(环状珊瑚岛)---tropical热带，sub-tropical亚热带容易长常见：lagoon泻湖---海洋火山经过长时间的风化侵蚀没了，但是珊瑚还在，造成珊瑚岛周围的海水稳定高---适合mass spawn大规模产卵(2)oceanic current洋流---plankton浮游生物---洋流的交汇可以使得大量的浮游生物的营养物质翻转---特点：死后释放出毕生所吸收的所有海洋元素，供下一代浮游生物享用---靠喝水存活(吸收海水中nutrition)---冷暖流(cold current/warm current)结论：1.temperature gap---温度差horizontal movement2.density gap---密度差verticle movement(3)iceberg/glacier冰山，冰川---冰山顶：ice cap冰底：ice bottom冰层：ice layer/ice sheet）1（formation process形成（核心词：refrozen再冻---remelt再化的循环circulation---把Air---compress挤出(weight主要原因是重力) ）2（movement运动（核心词：velocity速度）3（condition条件（A.frozen snow冻雪B.conserved/permanent low temperature常年低温C.frozen snow→frequently→fern积雪=accumulated snow）4（enviroment/ecology环境和生态（关键方面：climate/landscape）矿石洞：石(rock)：igneous rock火成岩，火山岩（lava---cool down）Sedimentary rock沉积岩，水成岩（eroded by sea/water/ocean water）Metamorphic rock变质岩（stress压力/pressure压强/heat高温）矿(ore)---element(元素)：Oxygen氧气Nitrogen氮Silicon硅（注意读法）Carbon碳Aluminum（注意读法）Calcium钙（注意读法）Sodium钠Iron铁Potassium钾Magnesium镁Titanium钛Hydrogen氢Chloric氯Amino氨Methane甲烷Lead铅Oxide(氧化物)：Monoxide一氧化物Dioxide二氧化物Trioxide三氧化物Peroxide过氧化物洞(cave)---cave-man原始人(1)solution cave酸溶洞（weak/mild acid由中酸，弱酸溶解而成的）(2)sea cave（eroded by water经水侵蚀）(3)lava cave（after volcanic action火山运动之后）2.天文学(Astronomy)(1)9 planets---Mercury水星；Venus金星；Earth地球；Mars火星；Jupiter木星；Saturn土星；Uranus天王星；Neptune海王星；Pluto冥王星(2)solar system太阳系Earth-moon system地月系Galaxy星系(3)luminous/ring/aurora(4)Earth-shape形状/revolution转动生命科学：1.Fly苍蝇：特点：visual systm视觉系统(compound eye复眼)复眼结构(structure)：成千上万的晶状体小眼(ommatidium)构成了一个复眼，并且附着在复眼的表面上复眼特点(features)：时好时坏(1)在一定视觉范围内，复眼对于动态事物高度敏感，静态事物高度近视(2)不能分辨组合图形和立体事物---只能看到平面的2.Bat蝙蝠：特点：auditory system听觉系统器官(organ)：inner ear内耳；tympana中耳；auricle外耳；auditory canal听管；vibrating membrane/disc震动鼓膜、骨盘；eardrum耳膜器官特点(feature)：inner ear→pronunciation/different sound/signalTympana→passage只是声音的通道，预防内耳的病Auricle→collect waves收集声波,decoration装饰(mammal哺乳动物---才有外耳)Auditory canal→birds鸟类(长一个或者两个)Vibrating membrane/disc→蛙跳类动物---decoration装饰有的长在knee膝盖/gill腮→考点：只能辨别声音的存在不能辨别声音的含义，内容蝙蝠专有：Echolocation回声定位系统---利用ultarsound超声波3.defensive system防御系统---monarch butterfly黑脉精斑蝶(1)camouflage伪装Eg:monarch butterfly---特点：在太阳光的照射下，金斑变成惨绿色斑点，与绿叶颜色相同濒临灭绝原因---endangered insect：---等死）1（bump撞死）2（caterpillar---color,horizontal stripe有彩色，横条状---挑食---饿死starve）3（pollinator传粉者---只对着一朵花采，直到采死花为止---nectar花蜜，花粉---被花农毒死(爱恨交加---采的速度快)Disguise伪装：）1（environmental color环境色相一致---最常变绿色）2（location color位置颜色(2)mobbing围攻）1（group living=gregarious residence群居）2（small…没有固定说法---体积弱小）3（predator→prey(叫人)---turnover逆转predator←prey捕食者--被捕食者(3)warning color警告色Natural enemy’s color A黑→B白→C红---evolution进化---导致C遇到B时自然的变成了“黑色”---起到了防御的作用两种情况使得警告色失效：）1（时间长了知道了，聪明---不多见）2（B动物饿疯了(4)poison liquid/gas =毒液，毒气。

Lecture Two: Three Views of StyleWe have seen the definition of stylistics and some definitions of style.Next we will see some most influential and representative views of style.Style as form. （Aristotle）（form and content ）Style as eloquence.（Cicero）（skill to use L persuasively）（the relation with rhetoric）Style is the man. （Buffon）（L use is using it in discourse）Style as personal idiosyncrasy.（Murry）Saying the right thing in the most effective way.（Enkvist）Style as the choice between alternatve expressions. （Ibid）Style as equivalence. （Roman Jacobson）（between form and function）Style as foregrounding. （Leech Mukarovsky）Style as deviation.（Mukarovsky & Spitzer）Style as prominence.（Halliday）Style as the selections features partly determined by the demands of genre, form, themes, etc. （Traugott & Pratt）Style as linguistic features that communicate emotions and thought.（Enkvist）When writers write, they will naturaly try to make their language difffernt from the others’, so as to attract the attention of the readers and also to ensure and secure an independent existence. Or to stand out from the multitude of men of letters. Or just a special position for his writing. And that is to depart from the normal way of expression in a certain sense.Style as deviance.This view of stylistics comes from Widdowson’s remark of style holding that stylistic analysis has no fixed procedure and the technique of doing this kind of analysis is to pick on features in the text which appear to first impressions as unusual or striking in some way and then explore their ramifications. This remark implies that only those unusual or striking features are stylistically relevant. And the implied assumption is that the literary aesthetic effects can only be achieved through deviance. Though some stylisticians hold different views.It leads to such an assumption as that the distinctiveness of a literary text lies in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal. It also gives birth to the approach to style as deviance from the norms of a given language.Mukarovsky is another famous proponent and founder of this view of style. In his famous article Standard Language and Poetic Language, he speaks of style as foregrounding.He asserts that the violation of the norm of standard, especially, its systematicviolation, is what makes possible the poetic utilization of language; without this possibility there would be no poetry. According to Mukarovsky normal use of language “automatizes”language to such an extent that the users no longer see its expressive or aesthetic power; poetry must de-automatize or foreground language by breaking the rules of everyday language. P13Such as the expression “a grief ago”“a presidency ago”“Mr. Smarter”“Mr. Bumble””The advantage of this approach to style is that it helps us keep in mind the there is a difference between everyday language and the language of literature.The disadvantages are that:a.It is difficult to define the norm from which the style of a text deviates.Bloch considers the basis of norm to e statistical, that is, to determinestyle by counting or resorting to the frequency distributions of linguisticfeatures as they differ from that of the language as a whole.b.It tends to lead the readers and stylisticians to value only the language ofthe grammatically highly deviant authors and under value those authorsthat do not deviate or do not deviate so much from the norms of language.And generally speaking, it tends to lead underestimation of thenon-deviant language both within literature and without.Style as choice.Style results from a tendency of speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.The difference between L and style is that L is the sum total of the structures available to the speaker, while style concerns the characteristic choices by a certain writer either consistently or in a given text or context.To say that style is choice of words is not the same thing as saying that it is always a conscious choice, though of course if the writer always chooses his word scrutinously the effect of his way of using L will be all the more obvious as a style. Then that is pick his way forward among words, and it is hard to imagine how much literary work can there be by now. The stock of literature of we human kind no doubt will be greatly diminished. But most, almost all poets, and some writers, and all writers at certain points in their writing do write that way, that is, they a kind of choose scrutinously and seem to pick their way forward among the forest of words.E.g. we Chinese posts have a tradition of refining words. 吟得一字安，捻断数茎须。

Module 1academic ; k 'demik adj. 学术的province 'pr vins n. 省enthusiastic in;θju:zi' stik adj.热心的;amazing 'meizi adj.令人吃惊的；令人惊讶的information ;inf 'mei n n. 消息website web’sait n.网站；网址brilliant 'brilj nt adj.口语极好的comprehension ;k mpri'hen n n. 理解;领悟instruction in'str k n n.常作复数指示；说明method 'meθ d n. 方法bored 'b : d adj.厌烦的；厌倦的embarrassed im'b r st adj.尴尬的；难堪的；困窘的attitude ' titju:d n. 态度behaviour bi'heivj n. 行为；举动previous 'pri:vi s adj.以前的；从前的description di'skrip n n.记述；描述amazed 'meizd adj. 吃惊的;惊讶的embarrassing im'b r si adj.令人尴尬的；令人难堪的technology tek'n l d i n. 技术impress im'pres vt.使印象深刻correction k 'rek n n. 改正；纠正encouragement in'k rid m nt n. 鼓励；激励enjoyment in'd im nt n.享受；乐趣fluency 'flu: nsi n.流利；流畅misunderstanding ;mis nd 'st ndi n. 误解disappointed ;dis 'p intid adj. 失望的disappointing ;dis 'p inti adj.令人失望的system 'sist m n. 制度；体系；系统teenager 'ti:nid n.少年disappear ;dis 'pi vi.消失move mu:v adj.搬家assistant 'sist nt n. 助手; 助理cover 'k v vt.包含diploma di'pl um n.文凭;毕业证书Module 2amusing 'mju:zi adj. 有趣的；可笑的energetic ;en 'd etik adj. 精力充沛的intelligent in'telid nt adj. 聪明的nervous 'n :v s adj.紧张的；焦虑的organized ' :g naizd adj.有组织的；有系统的patient 'pei nt adj.耐心的serious 'si ri s adj. 严肃的shy ai adj.害羞的；羞怯的strict strikt a. 严格的；严厉的impression im'pre n n. 印象avoid 'v id vt.故意避开hate heitvt.讨厌.不喜欢 admitd'mitvt.承认incorrectly ;ink 'rektli adv.不正确地completely k m'pli:tli adv. 十分地;完全地immediately i'mi:di tli adv.立即；即刻appreciate 'pri: ieit vt.感激scientific ;sai n'tifik adj. 科学的literature 'lit r t n. 文学loudly 'laudli adv. 大声地wave weiv vt.挥手；招手joke d uk n. 玩笑；笑话summary 's m ri n.总结；摘要；提要respect ri'spekt vt.&n.尊敬；尊重grade greid n.美成绩；分数headmaster 'hed'mɑ:st n.校长headmistress 'hed'mistris n.女校长period 'pi ri d n.一段时间revision ri'vi n n.复习translation tr ns'lei n n. 翻译timetable 'taimteibl n. 时间表topic 't pik n.话题；题目vacation vei'kei n n. 假期revise ri'vaiz vt.温习功课discipline 'disiplin n.纪律relationship ri'lei n ip n. 关系formal 'f :m l adj. 正式的relaxed ri'l kst adj.轻松的；松懈的；宽松的similarly 'simil li adv.同样地;类似地Module 3 helicopter 'helik pt n.直升飞机motorbike 'm ut ; baik n.摩托车tram tr m n.电车 distance 'dist ns n. 距离abandoned 'b nd nd adj.被遗弃的camel 'k ml n. 骆驼 cassette k 'set n.录音带desert 'dez t n. 沙漠 diamond 'dai m nd n. 钻石expert 'eksp :t n.专家 midnight'midnait n. 半夜product 'pr d kt n.产品train trein vt. 训练scenery 'si:n ri n.风景; 景色shoot u:t vt.shot;shot射杀soil s il n. 土壤journey 'd :ni n. 旅程 circus 's :k s n. 马戏团seaside 'si:said n. 海滨 eagle 'i:gl n. 鹰stadium 'steidi m n. 运动场；体育场frighten 'fraitn vt.是吃惊；惊吓kindergarten 'kind ;gɑ:tn n.幼儿园apartment 'pɑ:tm nt n.美公寓；单元住宅cartoon kɑ:'tu:n n. 卡通；漫画interview 'int vju: n.面试；面谈interviewer'int vju: n.面试时的主考官；面谈者event i'vent n. 事件 rail reil n.铁轨exhausted ig'z :stid adj.疲惫不堪的downtown 'daun'taun adj.商业区的；市中心的vacuum `'v kju m n. 真空；空白ceremony 'serim ni n.仪式 track tr k n. 轨道souvenir ;su:v 'ni n. 纪念品Module 4survey s 'vei n. 调查 neighbourhood n.四邻local 'l uk l adj.地方的；局部的suburb's b :bn.城郊.郊区hometownhum'taun n.家乡attractive 'tr ktiv adj.有吸引力的;吸引人的fortunate 'f :t nit adj.幸运的；吉祥的pretty 'priti adv.很；相当sound saund vi.听起来tourist 'tu ristn.旅游者；观光客bother 'b e vt.打扰；烦扰；麻烦nuisance 'nju:sns n.令人讨厌的人或事rent rent n. 租金harbour n.海港district 'distrikt n.地域；区域；行政区approach 'pr ut vt. 接近gorgeous 'g :d s adj.美丽的；宜人的architecture 'ɑ:kitekt n. 建筑starve stɑ:v vi.饿死 park pɑ:k vt. 停车traffic 'tr fik n.交通 committeek'miti n.委员会organization ' :g nai'z n n.组织unemployed ; nim'pl id adj.失业的；没有工作的household 'haush uld n.家属；家人occupation ; kju'pei n n. 职业professional pr 'fe nl adj.专业的manual 'm nju l adj.用手的；手的employment im'pl im nt n.就业；工作；职业gallery 'g l ri n.美术馆；画廊exchange iks't eind vt. 交换fascinating 'f sineiti adj. 迷人的; 吸引人的afford 'f :d vt. 买得起;有能力支付survive s 'vaiv vi.死里逃生；大难不死contact 'k nt kt vt.联络；联系某人Module 5liquid 'likwid n. 液体 expand ik'sp nd vi.膨胀contract'k ntr ktvi收缩substance's bst nsn.物质mixture'mikst n.混合物 oxygen' ks d nn.氧气electricity;ilek'trisitin.电potassium n. 钾stage steid n.阶段.时期conclusion k n'klu: nn.结论aim eimn.目标.目的reaction ri' k n n. 反应 zinc zi k n. 锌electrical i'lektrik l adj.与电有关的；用电的equipment i'kwipm nt n. 设备；装备reactri' ktvi.化学反应 copper 'k p n.铜sodium 's udi mn.钠 calcium 'k lsi mn.钙magnesium m g'ni:zi mn.镁 oxide' ksaidn.氧化物aluminium ; lju'mini mn.铝 form f :m vi.形成partial 'pɑ: l adj.部分的；局部的rust r stvi.生锈 boil b ilvt.生锈ordinary ' :din ri adj. 普通的;平常的steamsti:mn.蒸汽;水气 floatfl utvi.漂浮dissolve di'z lv vt. 溶解；分解；分离balance'b l nsn.天平 crucible'kru:sibln.坩锅tongst z复夹子;小钳子 flamefleim n.火焰facility f 'siliti n.常作复数设备；工具lecture 'lekt n. 演讲department di'pɑ:tm nt n.大学的科、系astonished 'st ni t adj.吃惊的；惊愕的Module 6contain k n'tein vt. 包含；包括access' ksesn.接近通路 logl gvt.记录；登录crash kr vi.计算机崩溃keyword 'ki: ; w :d n.密码；口令software 's ftw n. 软件breakdown 'breikdaun n.故障source s :s n.来源；出处accessible k'ses bl adj.可进入的；可使用的data 'deit n.复数据defence di'fens n.保护；防卫create kri:'eit vt. 创造；发明network 'netw :k n. 网络designdi'zainvt.设计via vai prep.途径；经由percentage p 'sentid n.百分数；百分率document 'd kjum nt n. 文件invention in'ven n n. 发明permission p 'mi n n. 许可military 'milit ri adj.军事的；军队的concentrate 'k ns ntreit vi.集中注意力、思想等definite 'definit adj. 明确的fantastic f n't stik adj.极好的；美妙的independent ;indi'pend nt adj.独立的essay 'esei n.文章 pass p s vt.超过frequently 'fri:kw ntli adv.时常；经常disadvantage ;dis d'vɑ:ntid n.弊端；缺点average ' v rid adj.平均的statistics st 'tistiks n.复统计数字shorten ' :tn vt.缩短sideways 'saidweiz adv.横着地；斜着地Cincinnati n. 辛辛那提美国城市search n. vt. & vi. 搜寻；寻找in search of 寻找；追求 geography n. 地理书salesman n.售货员;店员 lad n. 少年；小伙子request n.& vt.请求；要求 store n. 商店disappointment n.失望.沮丧 bookseller n. 书商ahead of 在…前面.优于 sailor n. 海员;水手；水兵add vt. 又说;补充说 eyebrow n. 眉毛remainder n. 剩余物；其余的人浙江省高一教材英语词汇limit /'limit/ vt.限制;限定limited /'limitid/ adj.有限的improve /im'pru:v/ vt.改善；提高rapid /'rApid/ adj.快的;迅速的progress /'prEugres; prE'gres/ n.进展；进步make progress 取得进步Engels/'engEls/ 恩格斯article /'a:tikl/ n.文章;论文；冠词praise /preiz/ vt.&n.赞扬;表扬greatly /'greitli/ adv.大大地；非常encourage /in'kQridVE/ vt.鼓励however /hau'evE/ conj.然而;可是；仍然grammar /'grAmE/ n.语法works n.着作;作品；工厂idiom /'idiEm/ n.成语;习惯用语follow /'fRlEu/ vt.跟随;时间等接着keep on 继续做某事.反复 civil /'sivl/ adj.国内的master /'ma:stE/ vt.精通；掌握situation /sitju'eiFEn/ n.位置；形势；情况Russia /'rQFE/ n.俄国；俄罗斯translate /trAns'leit/ vt.翻译translate...into... 把...译成... grasp /gra:sp/ vt.抓住；领会；掌握freely /'fri:li/ adv.自由地；随意地youth/ju:W/n.青年grammatical/grE'mAtikEl/adj.语法的consult/kEn'sQlt/vt.查阅memorize/'memEraiz/ vt.记住natural/'nAtFErEl/adj.自然的 Never mind. 不要紧..aside/E'said/ adv.在一边future/'fju:tFE/n.将来;未来in the future 将来;今后 a set of... 一套...examination /igzAmi'neiFEn/ n.检查；考试medical examination 体格检查reality /ri'Aliti/ n.现实wrist /rist/ n.手腕suppose /sE'pEuz/ vt.假定；猜想name /'neim/ vt.命名；名叫；指定Charlie/'tFa:li/查利男名 code /kEud/n.代号;电码wire /'waiE/ n.金属线；电线sensor /'sensE/ n.传感器；灵敏元件forehead /'fRrid; 'fR:hed/ n.前额plug /plQg/ vt.接上插头通电breathe/bri:T/vi.&vt.呼吸outlet/'aut-let/n.电源插座pick out 选出;拣出flash /flAF/ vi.火焰等一闪;闪亮wireless /'waiElis/ adj.无线的;无线电的wireless telephone 无线电话pulse/pQls/n.脉搏speaker/'spi:kE/n.场声器 Scott /skRt/ 斯科特姓examine /ig'zAmin/ vt.检查；诊察deep /di:p/ adj.深的；深切的 phone call 电话deeply /'di:pli/ adv.深深地take it easy 别着急；别紧张complete /kEm'pli:t/ vt.完成;结束turn off 关电灯、收音机等telephone /'telifEun/ n.电话 vt.&vi.打电话after all 毕竟；终究；别忘了visionphone /'viVEEnfEun/ n.电视电话appear /E'piE/ vi.出现；显得；好象speed/spi:d/n.速度 ten-speed bicycle 十速自行车model /'mRdl/ n.式样 price /prais/ n.价格；代价order /'R:dE/ n.定货；定货单place an order 定购货物 shut /FQt/ vt.&vi.关闭shut off 切断电源等 favourite/'feivErit/ adj.特别giant/'dVEaiEnt/n.巨人 freeway/'fri:wei/ n.高速公路India /'indiE/ n.印度pass /pa:s/ vi.&vt.经过;超过pass by 经过 feel /fi:l/ vt.摸；感知sense /sens/ n.感官；感觉；意义the sense of touch 触觉 happen/'hApEn/ vi.碰巧exactly /ig'zAktli/ adv.确切地;恰恰正是tusk /tQsk/ n.象、野猪等的长牙mistaken /mis'teikEn/ adj.弄错的;错误的smooth /smu:T/ adj.光滑的；平静的sharp /Fa:p/ adj.锋利的；尖的spear /spiE/ n.矛;梭镖 trunk /trQNk/ n.象鼻；树干snake /sneik/ n.蛇 round /raund/ prep.围绕着fan /fAn/ n.扇子 forward /'fR:wEd/ adv.向前;前进at all 根本;全然 get hold of 握;抓住silly /'sili/ adj.傻的；糊涂的roadside /'rEudsaid/ n.路边 adj.路边的quarrel /'kwRrEl/ vi.争吵agree with somebody 同意某人的意见stupid /'stju:pid/ adj.愚蠢的;笨的act /Akt/ vi.行动；做;做事foolishly /'fu:liFli/ adv.愚蠢地；荒谬地paw /pR:/ n.脚爪 chestnut /'tFesnQt/ n.栗子nut /nQt/ n.坚果如胡桃等flatter /'flAtE/ vt.阿谀;奉承；使满意willing /'wiliN/ adj.甘心情愿的share/F/E/vt.分享 n.一份term /tE:m/n.词;用语;字眼Galileo/gAli'leiEu/伽利略Greece/gri:s/ n.希腊Aristotle /'AristRtl/ 亚里斯多德thinker /'WiNkE/ n.思想家observe /Eb'zE:v/ vt.&vi.观察feather/'feTE/n.羽毛conclude /kEn'klu:d/ vt.&vi.推断出;断定object /'RbdVEikt Eb'dVEekt/ n.物体；目标conclusion /kEn'klu:VEEn/ n.结论；推论draw a conclusion 得出结论reasonable /'ri:znEbl/ adj.有道理的seldom /'seldEm/ adv.很少；不常experiment /iks'perimEnt/ n.&vi.实验;试验once /wQns/ conj.一旦...就...mind /maind/ n.想法；意见；心情make up one's mind 下决心truth /tru:W/ n.真理；真相question /'kwestFEn/ vt.对...提出疑问Italian/i'tAljEn/adj.意大利的tower/'tauE/ n.塔theory /'WiEri/ n.理论；原理foot /fut/ n.英尺Pisa /'pi:zE/ n.比萨意大利城市lean /li:n/ vi.&vt.使倾斜；靠leaning /'li:niN/ adj.倾斜的at the same time 同时；但;然而again and again 再三地;反复地result /ri'zQlt/ n.结果；效果unless /'Qn'les/ conj.除非；如果..不. hold...back 阻止 discovery/dis'kQvEri/ n.发现discourage /dis'kQridVE/ vt.使泄气discouraged /dis'kQridVEd/ adj.泄气的telescope /'teliskEup/ n.望远镜prove /pru:v/ vt.证明;证实founder /'faundE/ n.创立者;奠基者grant /gra:nt/ vt.假定..;姑且承认take...for granted 认为...当然accept /Ek'sept/ vt.&vi.承认；接受astronaut /'AstFEunR:t/ n.宇宙航行员hammer /'hAmE/ n.铁锤 vt.锤打land /lAnd/ vt.&vi.使登陆surface /'sE:fis/ n.表面;水面penicillin /peni'silin/ n.青霉素damp /dAmp/ adj.潮湿的 mould /mEuld/ n.霉mouldy /'mouldi/ adj.发霉的 spore/spR:/ n.孢子commonly /'kRmEnli/ adv.普通;通常germ /dVEE:m/ n.细菌 substance/'sQbstEns/ n.物质treat /tri:t/ vt.治疗 disease/di'zi:z/ n.疾病quantity /'kwRntiti/ n.数量antibiotics /Antibai'Rtiks/ n.抗生素necklace /'neklis/ n.项链;项圈Mathilde Loisel/ma'ti:ld lwa'zel/ 玛蒂尔德·卢瓦泽尔Pierre Loisel /'pjer lwa'zel/ 皮埃尔·卢瓦泽尔Jeanne Forrestier/'VEa:n fRres'tje/ 让娜·福雷斯蒂埃possible /'pRsEbl/ adj.可能的because of 因为rather /'ra:TE/ adv.宁可;宁愿；相当surely /'FuEli/ adv.确实;一定；当然diamond /'daiEmEnd/ n.金刚石;钻石government /'gQvEnmEnt/ n.政府 ball /bR:l/ n.舞会scene /si:n/ n.戏剧等的一场cost /kRst/ vi.值多少钱 n.成本franc /frANk/ n.法郎法国货币单位jewelry /'dVEu:Elri/ n.总称珠宝continue /kEn'tinju:/ vi.&vt.继续；连续pretty /'priti/ adj.漂亮的；美丽的pay off R debt /det/ n.债at the most 至多;不超过 vain /vein/ adj.自负的stag /stAg/ n.雄鹿 antler /'AntlE/ n.鹿角的一枝thirsty/'WE:sti/adj.渴的bark /ba:k/ vi.吠叫reflection /ri'flekFEn/ n.反对；水中映像hunter /'hQntE/ n.猎人 branch/bra:ntF/ n.树枝New York/nju:'jR:k/纽约地名 parcel /'pa:sl/ n.包裹mail /meil/ n.邮件 sorting room 分类室can /kAn/ n.筒;罐 tube /tju:b/ n.管子Abraham Lincoln /'eibrEhAm 'liNkEn/ 亚伯拉罕·林肯Kentucky /kEn'tQki/ n.肯塔基美国州名childhood /'tFaildhud/ n.幼年时代;童年dearly /'diEli/ adv.深爱地；热切地now and then 时而;不时 add up to 总计education /edju:'keiFEn/ n.教育；培养no more than 不过;仅仅law /lR:/n.法律;法令storekeeper /'stR:ki:pE/ n.美零售店店主postmaster /'pEustma:stE/ n.邮政局所长spare /sp/E/ adj.空闲的；多余的 spare time 余暇lawyer /'lR:jE/ n.律师；法学家slavery /'sleivEri/ n.奴隶制度think of 考虑;关心;想起 elect/i'lekt/ vt.选举；推选president/'prezidEnt/n.总统freedom/'fri:dEm/ n.自由slave /sleiv/ n.奴隶 set up 建立；创立；竖立southern /'sQTEn/ adj.南方的;南部的rebel /'rebEl; ri'bel/ vi.造反；反叛Negro /'ni:grEu/ n.黑人 adj.黑人的break away from 脱离政党等；打破the Union联邦美利坚合众国break out战争等突然发生last/la:st/vi.持续；耐久nation/'neiFEn/n.国家；民族reunite /'ri:ju:'nait/ vt.&vi.重新统一banker/'bANkE/n.银行家sorrow /'sRrEu/ n.悲痛；遗憾inspire /in'spaiE/ vt.鼓舞；激励inspiring /in'spaiEriN/ adj.鼓舞人心的leader /'li:dE/ n.领袖；领导人wise /waiz/ adj.聪明的；英明的warm-hearted /'wR:m'ha:tid/ adj.热情的；亲切的opening /'EupEniN/ n.开放；开始memorial /mi'mR:riEl/ n.纪念物；纪念碑strengthen /'streNWEn/ vt.&vi.加强；变强regard/ri'ga:d/vt.看待；当作regard...as... 认为...是...George Washington /dVER:dVE/ 乔治·华盛顿hatchet/'hAtFit/n.斧头delight/di'lait/n.快乐chop /tFRp/ vt.&vi.砍;伐 care for 关心；照顾；喜欢crash /krAF/ n.树倒下的哗啦声cherry/'tFeri/n.樱桃 anger/'ANgE/n.发怒dozen /'dQzn/ n.一打;十二个emperor/'empErE/n.皇帝care/k/E/vi.&vt.关心;留心cheat /tFi:t/ n.骗子 vt.骗 vi.欺诈weave/'wi:v/vt.织；编 weaver/'wi:vE/n.织布工；编织者cloth/klR:W/n.布；布料 design/di'zain/ n.图案；花样invisible /in'vizEbl/ adj.看不见的unfit/'Qn'fit/adj.不合适的empire/'empaiE/n.帝国be unfit for 不合适；不胜任 right away 立刻office/'Rfis/n.职务；职责gold/gEuld/n.黄金；金色splendid /'splendid/ adj.灿烂的；辉煌的in order that 为了 loom /lu:m/ n.织布机pretend /pri'tend/ vt.&vi.假装pretend to be doing 是强调不定式的动作正在进行的过程中.pretend to be reading就表示他假装正在读书pretend to do是强调假装要做某事;而不一定正在进行或者是已经发生. pretend to sleep 表示他要去睡觉还有一种完成式pretend to have done 强调假装后面的动作已经完成.silk /silk/ n.蚕丝；丝织品;绸thread /Wred/ n.线 get along with 进展。

科学技术史（英）笔记整理★考点Lecture 1: introductionPossible definitions of “science”:The Latin scientia , root scireAllen Charimos科学始于迷茫，终于更高的迷茫。

★Deng Xiaoping : Science and technology is the first productivity George Sarton: mankind's unique activity of accumulation and progression ★Three aspects of science:1.scientific knowledge科学知识2.scientific methods科学方法3.scientific spirit科学精神Three kinds of research methods of hist of scien&tec:1.annals or chronicles2.conceptual analysis of school of thought :original documents notthe achievements but the mind of those writers思想史学派的概念分析方法3.sociological method社会学的方法:注重科学的社会、文化功能★Functions of history of science & technology:1. to understand sciences better帮助人们更好地理解科学To help people better understand science and application of science ,that is, history of science and application.2. to be a basis of other branchesIt can be a basis of other branches of humanities, a know background basis or a cognition platform for philosophy of science , socioitey of science.3. to bridge liberal arts and sciencesIt can assume its educational function,especially the popularization of science including the understanding of man himself, briding the intercultural rift (conmunication between liberal arts and science ; as buffers between science and humanites)4 . to form a basis for scientific decision-makingIt can form a basis for scientific decision-making,. Recently there have arison some researchs on this aspect worldwide.Lecture 2: Science and technology of the ancient worldAncestry of alphabetic system of writing:腓尼基人★Cancer (巨蟹座)：21st June ~20th JulyAries (白羊座)：21st March~20th AprilLike eye and ear trouble,skin and heart diseasesSurgical equipment made in 2300 BC in BabylonBabylon diseases were described on the clay tablets like eye and ear trouble, skin and heart diseases .surgical equipment made in 2300 BC Lecture 3: Greco-RomanSocrates—Plato------Aristotle----Alexander the GreatAristotelian kinematics:★Motiion of objects on earth fall into 2 types: natural and compulsary Earth-centeredIt's illogical to apply the scientific concepts and inferences applicable to the earthAny objects in motion are propelled by external objects. The speed and propelling force for the motion of objects from the external force are on the right proportion but are on the reverse proportion with resistance.Euclid, virtually founder of the plane geometry.★Archimedes 物理学家，数学家，静力学和附体力学奠基人★杠杆原理lever principle 浮力定律law of buoyancy★Given me a fulcrum, I can propel the earth. Give me a fulcrum and I will turn the earth.Ptolemy(100~170AD)Greek astronomer and geographer.集大成之作《至大论》（约145AD）Ancient Chinese sciences and civilizatiion★Four great invention that have changed the course of the world civilization Paper-making; printing; power; compassConfucius 孔子Menfucius 孟子Taoism 老子Zhuangzi 庄子Mozi 墨子Xunzi 荀子Compendium of Materia Medica 本草纲目东汉Zhang Heng, the famous Chinese astronmerSeismograph as invemted by the Chinese scientist Zhang Heng天坛的祈年殿——祭天祀谷，风调雨顺，国泰民安宇宙理论：盖天说，浑天说，宣夜说★Outstanding achievements of the ancientChinese mathmatics:1.method of numeration记数法2.method of positive and negative ; plus-minus notation正负术3.limit极限4.numerical solution of the equation of a higher degree高次方程的数值解法5.quaternary technique四元术6.congruence expression同余式7.equation方程术8.Jia Xian triangle---Yang Hui triangle贾宪三角——杨辉三角9.method of numeration for the carry digit进位位置记数法★Ancient Chinese concept of scienceAncient Chia brewed a considerable number of very important ideas about sciences(natural concept, scientific conceptand methodology), which has played an important pole of great guidance and influence to the formation and archievements. A scientific theory or a technological invention mayfall in disuse with the historical development and passage of time but scientific concept may be everlasting, retain its eternal chan as time goes by, profoundly enlightenling future souls.chapter 5 Period from the Middle Ages to Renaissance★Significance of the navigation:The navigations have led to the journeys of exploration to discovery more unknown lands , greatly increasing human knowledge about the worldthey live in. More development in other disciplines like navigations and astronomy, making the economy prosper. In addition to the increase of the specific knowledge about the world, journeys of expoloration broadened people’s horizen at that time.Lecture 6: scientific revolutions initiated by the astronomy progress ★Leonardo da vinci (the Renaissance 文艺复兴) Italian painter, architect ★Reformation of the church★The study of Bible 研究圣经德国★Columbus’first voyage On August .3.1492Between 1405 and 1433. Zheng He traveled seven times to the West across the oceans . Zheng He in contrast★Revolutiion initiated by the astronmy progress.★On the revolutions 天体运行论, that the sun is the center of the universe .四大要点：1.The earth is not static.2.The monn is a satellite of earth.3.the sun is the center of the universe.4.heavenly bodies happen to be where they are in a certain order and thereis also law with their motion.Four key figures in answering what has caused planets,especially the earth to be in motion.1.Tycho's main contribution is accurate and compete observation2.Kepler Johaness Kepler turned astronomy from the application ofgeometry into a branch of physical mechanics3.Galileo Galileo revealed the truth behind the heavenly bodies way ofthe telescope and further developed the new(没记)4.Descartes Rene Descartes conceived a finite universe,where no positionor direction is very special and the su is only a fixed star in our region.Tycho Brahe第谷布拉赫1. a great deal of data about planetsTycho's great contribution lies in that he has accumulated a great deal of data about planets through his long observation2. the star” Nova”1572年11月11日，于仙后座发现新星，后命名为“第谷星”3. observation of comets4.successfully cultivated Kepler★Kepler, three laws of Kepler1st law : law of ellipseThe orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci行星沿椭圆轨道绕太阳运动，太阳位于椭圆的一个焦点上2nd law: law of areaA line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.从太阳到行星的矢径在相等的时间内扫过相同的面积3rd law : the law of harmony调和定律The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.行星绕日一周时间的平方和行星各自椭圆轨道的长半轴的立方成正比R^3/T^2=k★Three legacies 三大遗产1 Copernicus’ Ptolemaic system 哥白尼的日心体系2 Collected data from Tychro's accurate observation - data of position of the constellation. 第谷的精确观测资料——星的位置资料3 （On the Magant 1600）论磁★Galileo 1564年2月15日生于比萨，米开朗琪罗死于3日后★Galileo’s neaphysics 新物理学★A falling body does not depend on its mass.贡献: discovery of the planets of JupiterAccording to Aristotle's theory, every object has its own fixed position. Any object away from its fixed position will come back to its original position.Falling body doesn't depend on its mass.Descartes' mechanical methodology 笛卡尔的机械主义方法论French philosopher, physicist, mathematicianFather of modern philosophy: DescartesFather of modern science: GalileoHis main achievements rest with his philosophy. To him, man or universe is a machine. The influence of his mechanical philosophy is profound, which later became the basic thinking mode of scientists after him. Lecture 8 Newton's era★His virtue of modesty:If I see farther than others, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants.★Newton's laws of motion:1.Every object is in a state of rest or in a uniform linear motion ,unlessexerted by an external force.2.The acceleration and the external force of the object are in the rightproportion, the direction of the accelerating velocity and that of the external force are the same.3.There is always an equal counteraction opposite in direction, for everyaction, Newton lays claims to the third law as his discovery. Conclusions about optics: sunlight and the ordinary white light are made up of lights of its own color. These colors are inherent in nature, not caused by prism.★Newton's contributions:1.H has established mechanics as an independent discipline by laying thefoundation for the axioms of the mechanics themselves.通过奠定力学的公理基础把力学确立为一门独立学科。

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TPO-2TPO 02 – Listening PartConversationNarratorListen to a conversation between a student and a professor.StudentUh, excuse me, Professor Thompson. Iknow your office hours are tomorrow, but I was wondering if you had a few minutes freenow to discuss something.ProfessorSure, John. What did you want to talkabout?StudentWell, Ihave some quick questions about how to writeup theresearch project I did this semester—about climate variations.ProfessorOh, yes. You were looking at variations in climate in the Grant Cityarea, right?How far along have you gotten?StudentI’ve got all mydata, so I’m starting to summarize it now,preparing graphs and stuff.But I’m just. . . I’m looking at it and I’m afraid that it’s not enough, but I’m not sure what else to put in the report.ProfessorI hear thesame thing from everystudent. You know,you have t o remember now that you’retheexperton what you’ve done. So, think about what you’d need to include if you weregoing to explain your research project to someone with generalor casual knowledge about thesubject,like . . .like your parents. That’s usual lymy rule ofthumb: would myparentsunderstand this?StudentOK. I getit.ProfessorI hope you can recognizeby mysaying that how much you do know about thesubject.StudentRight.I understand. I was wondering if I should also include the notesfrom the researchjournalyou suggested I keep.ProfessorYes, definitely.You should use themto indicate what your evolution in thought was through time.So, just setup, you know, what was the purpose ofwhat you were doing—to tryto understandthe climate variabilityof this area—and what you did, and what your approach was.StudentOK. So, for example,I studied meteorological records; Ilooked at climate charts; I used differentmethods for analyzing the data, like certain statistical tests; and thenI discuss theresults. Isthat what you mean?ProfessorYes, that’s right. You should include allof that.The statistical tests areespecially important.And also be sure you include a good referencesection whereall your published and unpublisheddat a came from, ‘cause you have a lot of unpublished climate data.StudentHmm . .. something just came into mymind and wentout the other side.ProfessorThat happens to me a lot, so I’ve come up with a prettygood memory management tool. Icarryalit tle pad with me allthe time and jot down questions or ideas that I don’t want to forget.Forexample,I wentto the doctor with mydaughter and her baby son last week and we knew wewouldn’t remembereverything we wanted toask thedoctor, so we actually made a list offivethings we wanted answers to.StudentA notepad is a good idea. Since I’m so busy now at the end ofthe semester,I’m getting prettyforgetfulthese days. OK. I just remembered what I wastrying to say before.ProfessorGood. I was ho ping you’d come up with it.StudentYes. Itends up that I have data on more than just the immediate Grant Cityarea, so Ialsoincluded some regional data in the report.With everything else it should be a pretty goodindicator of the climate in this part of thestate.ProfessorSounds good. I’d be happy to look over a draft version before you hand in thefinal copy,if youwish.StudentGreat.I’ll plan to get you a draft of the paper by nextFriday. Thanks very much. Well,see ya.ProfessorOK.LectureNarratorListen to part ofa lecturein a philosophy class.ProfessorOK. Another ancient Greekphilosopher we need to discuss is Aristotle—Aristotle’s ethicaltheory.What Aristotle’s ethical theory is allabout is this: he’s trying to s how you how to behappy—what truehappiness is.Now,why is he interested in human happiness? It’s not just because it’s something that allpeople want to aim for. It’s more than that.But to get there we need to first make a veryimportant distinction. Letme introduce a couple oftechnicalterms: extrinsic value and intrinsicvalue. To understand Aristotle’s interest in happiness, you need to understand this distinction.Some things weaim for and value, not for themselvesbut for what theybring about in additionto themselves. IfI value something as a means to something else, then it has what we will call“extrinsic value.” Otherthings we desire and hold to be valuable for themselvesalone. Ifwevalue something not as a means to something else,but for itsown sake, letus say that it has“intrinsic value.” Exercise. Theremay be some people who value exercise for itself, but I don’t.Ivalue exercise because if Iexercise, I tend to stay healthier than I would if I didn’t. SoI desire to engage in exercise and I value exercise extrinsically .. . not for its own sake, but as ameans to something beyond it. Itbrings me good health.Health.Why do Ivalue good health? Well, hereit getsa littlemore complicated for me.Um,health is important for me because Ican’t . ..do other things I want to do— play music, teachphilosophy—if I’m ill. So health is important to me—has value to me—as a meansto a productivelife. Buthealth is also important to me because I just kind oflike to be healthy—it feelsgood. It’spleasant to be healthy,unpleasant not to be. So to some degreeI value health both for itselfandas a means to something else: productivity.It’s got extrinsic and intrinsic value for me. Thenthere’s some things that are just valued for themselves. I’m a musician, not a professionalmusician; I just play a musical instrument for fun. Why do I value playing music? Well,like mostamateur musicians, I only play because, well, Ijust enjoy it.It’s something that’s an end in itself.Now,something else I value is teaching. Why? Well, it brings in a modest income,but Icouldmake more moneydoing otherthings. I’d do it even if theydidn’t payme. I just enjoy teaching.In that sense it’s an end to itself.But teaching’s not something that has int rinsic value for allpeople—and that’s true generally.Most things that areenjoyed in and of themselvesvary fromperson to person.Some people value teaching intrinsically, but othersdon’t. So how does allthis relateto humanhappiness? Well, Aristotle asks: is theresomething that all human beings value .. . and valueonly intrinsically,for itsown sake and only for itsown sake? Ifyou could find such a thing, thatwould be the universal final good, or trulythe ultimate purpose or goal for all human beings.Aristotle thought the answer was yes. What is it?Happiness. Everyone will agree,he argues, thathappiness is theultimate end to be valued for itselfand really only for itself. For what otherpurpose is therein being happy? What does it yield? The attainment ofhappiness becomes theultimate or highest good for Aristotle.The nextquestion that Aristotle raises is: what is happiness? We all want it; weall desire it; weall seekit. It’s thegoal we have in life. But what is it? How do we fin d it? Here he notes,withsome frustration, people disagree.But he does give us a couple ofcriteria, or features, to keep inmind as welook for what true human happiness is. True human happiness should be,as he putsit, plete in that it’s allwe require. Well,true human happiness .. . if you had that,what else do you need?Nothing. And, second, truehappiness should be something that I canobtain on myown. I shouldn’t have torely on other people for it. Many people value fame andseekfa me. Fame for them becomesthegoal. But,according toAristotle, this won’t work either,because fame dependsaltogether too much on other people.I can’t getit on myown, withouthelp from other people. Inthe end, Aristotle says that true happiness is theexercise of reason—alife of intellectualcontemplation . . .of thinking. So let’s see how he comes tothat.LectureNarratorListen to part ofa psychology lecture.The professor is discussing behaviorism.ProfessorNow,many people consider John Watson tobe the founder ofbehaviorism. And like otherbehaviorists, he believed that psychologists should study only the behaviors theycan observeand measure. They’renot interested in mentalprocesses. While a person could describe histhoughts, no one else can see or hear them toverify the accuracyof his report.Butone thing youcan observe is muscular habits. What Watson did wasto observe muscular habits because heviewed them as a manifestation of thinking. One kind ofhabit that he studied are laryngealhabits. Watson thought laryngeal habits . . .you know, from larynx, in other words, relatedto thevoice box . . . he thought those habits were an expression of thinking. Heargued that for veryyoung children, thinking is really talking out loud to oneself because theytalk out loud even ifthey’renot trying to communicate with someone in particular. Asthe individual matures, thatovert talking to oneselfbecomes coverttalking to oneself, but thinking still shows up as alaryngeal habit. One ofthe bits ofevidence that supportsthis is that when people are trying tosolve a problem, they, um, typically have increased muscular activityin the throat region. That is,if you put electrodeson the throatand measure muscle potential—muscle activity—you discoverthat when people are thinking, like if they’re diligently trying to solve a problem, thatthere ismuscular activity in the throat region.So, Watson made the argument that problem solving, or thinking, can be defined as a set ofbehaviors—a set of responses—and in this case theresponse he observed was the throat activity.That’s what he means when he calls it a laryngeal habit. Now,as Iam thinking about what I amgoing to be saying, mymuscles in mythroat are responding. So, thinking can be measured asmuscle activity.Now,the motor theory.. . yes?StudentProfessor Blake,um, did he happen to look at people who sign? I mean deaf people?ProfessorUh, he did indeed,um, and to jump ahead, what one finds in deafindividuals who use sign language when they’re given problems ofvarious kinds, theyhave muscular changes in their hands when theyaretrying to solve a problem .. . muscle changes in the hand, just like themuscular changes going on in the throat region for speaking individuals. So,for Watson, thinkingis identicalwith the activity ofmuscles. A related conceptof thinking was developed by William James. It’s called ideomotor action.Ideomotoraction is an activity that occurswithout our noticing it,without our being aware ofit.I’ll give you one simple example.Ifyou think of locations, theretends to be eyemovement thatoccurswith your thinking about that location. In particular,from wherewe’resitting, imaginethat you’re asked tothink of our university library. Well, if you close your eyesand think of thelibrary, and if you’re sitting directlyfacing me,then according tothis notion, your eyeballs willmove slightly to theleft, to your left, ‘cause the library’s in that generaldirection.James and otherssaid that this is an idea leading to a motor action, and that’s why it’s called“ideomotor action”—an idea leads to motor activity.Ifyou wish to impress your friends andrelatives, you can change this simple process into a magic trick. Ask people to do something suchas I’ve just described: think ofsomething on theirleft; think of something on their right. You getthem to thinkabout two things on eitherside with their eyesclosed, and you watch their eyesverycarefully. And if you do that, you’ll discover that you can see rather clearlythe eyemovement—that is, you can see themovement of the eyeballs. Now,then you say, thinkofeitherone and I’ll tellwhich you’rethinki ng of.OK. Well, Watson makesthe assumption that muscular activity is equivalent to thinking. Butgiven everything we’ve been talking about here,one has to ask: are therealternativesto thismotor theory—this claim that muscular activitiesare equivalent to thinking? Isthereanythingelse that might accountfor thischange in muscular activity,otherthan saying that it is thinking?And theanswer is clearlyyes. Isthereany way to answer the question definitively? I think theanswer is no.LectureNarratorListen to part ofa lecturein an astronomy class. You will not need to rememberthe numbers theprofessor mentions.ProfessorOK. Let’s get going. Today I’m going to talkabout how the asteroid belt was discovered.And .. . I’m going to start bywriting some numbers on the board. Heretheyare:We’ll startwith zero,then 3, .. . 6, .. . 12.Uh, tellme what I’m doing.Female studentMultiplying by2?ProfessorRight.I’m doubling thenumbers, so 2 times12 is 24, and the nextone I’m going to w riteafter 24would be . ..Female student48.Professor48. Then 96. We’ll stop therefor now. Uh, now I’ll writeanother row of numbers under that.Tellme what I’m doing. 4, 7, 10 . . .How am Igetting this second row?Male StudentAdding 4 to the numbers in the first row.ProfessorI’m adding 4 to each number in the first row to give you a second row.So the last two will be 52,100, and now tellme what I’m doing.Female StudentPutting in a decimal?ProfessorYes, Idivided all t hose numbersby 10 by putting in a decimal point. Now I’m going to writethenames ofthe planets under the numbers. Mercury. .. Venus. . . Earth.. .Mars. So,what do thenumbers mean? Do you rememberfrom the reading?Male StudentIsit the distance of theplanets from theSun?ProfessorRight.In astronomical units—not perfect, but tantalizingly close. The value for Marsis off by. . .6or 7 percentor so. It’s . .. but it’s within 10 percentof theaverage distance to Marsfrom theSun.But Ikind of hav e toskip the one afterMars for now. Then Jupiter’s right thereat 5-pointsomething, and then Saturn is about 10 astronomical units from the Sun. Um, well, thispattern isknown as Bode’s Law.Um, it isn’t really a scientific law, not in thesense of predi cting gravitationmathematically or something, but it’s attempting a pattern in the spacing ofthe planets, and itwas noticed byBode hundreds of years ago. Well,you can imagine thatthere was some interestin whythe 2.8 spot in the pattern was skipped, and um . .. but therewasn’t anything obviousthere,in the earlytelescopes. Then what happened in the late 1700s? The discovery of . .. ?Female StudentAnother planet?ProfessorThe nextplanet out,Uranus—after Saturn. And look, Uranus fits in the next spot in the patternprettynicely,um, not perfectly,but close. And so then people got really excitedabout thevalidityof this thing and finding the missing object between Marsand Jupiter.And telescopes,remember,weregetting better.So people wentto work on finding objectsthat would be at thatmissing distance from theSun, and then in 1801, the object Cereswas discovered.And Cereswas in the right place—themissing spot. Uh,but it was waytoo faint to be a planet. Itlooked like a little star. Uh, and because of itsstarlike appearance, um, it was called an“asteroid.” OK? “Aster” is Greekfor “star,” as in “astronomy.” Um,and so, Cereswas the firstand is thelargest ofwhat became many objectsdiscovered at that same distance. Not just onething, but all the objectsfound at thatdistance from the asteroid belt. So the asteroid belt is themost famous success ofthis Bode’s Law.That’s how the asteroid belt was discovered.LectureNarratorListen to part ofa lecturefrom a Botanyclass.ProfessorHi, everyone. Good tosee you all today.Actually, I expected the population to be a lot lowertoday.It typically runs between 50 and 60 percenton the day theresearch paper is due. Um, I was hoping to have your examsback today,but, uh, the situation was that Iwent away for theweekend, and Iwas supposed to get in yesterdayat five, and I expected tofully completeall the examsby midnight or so, which is the time that Iusually go to bed,but myflight was delayed,and Iended up not getting in unt ilone o’clock in the morning. Anyway,I’ll do mybest to have them finished by the nexttime we meet.OK. In the last class, we started talking about useful plant fibers. In particular,we talked about cotton fibers, which we said were veryuseful, not only in thetextile industry,but also in the chemicalindustry,and in the production of manyproducts, such as plastics,paper,explosives,and so on. Todaywe’ll continue talking about useful fibers, and we’ll begin with a fiber that’s commonly known as “Manila hemp.” Now, for some strange reason, manypeople believe thatManila hemp is a hemp plant. But Manila hemp is not really hemp. It’s actually a member of the banana family—it even bears littlebanana-shaped fruits. The “Manila” part of thename makes sense, because Manila hemp is produced chiefly in the Philippine Islands and, ofcourse, the capitalcity ofthe Philippines is Manila.Now,as fibers go,Manila hemp fibers arevery long. Theycan easily be severalfeetin length and they’realso verystrong, veryflexible. Theyhave one more characteristic that’s veryimportant, and that is that theyare exceptionally resistant to salt water.And this combination ofcharacteristics—long, strong, flexible, resistant to salt water—makes Manila hemp a greatmaterialfor ropes, especially for ropesthat are gonna be used on ocean-going ships. In fact,bythe early1940’s, even though steelcableswere available, most ships in the United StatesNavywerenot moored with steelcables; theyweremoored with Manila hemp ropes.Now,whywas that? Well,the main reason wasthat steelcablesdegrade very, veryquickly incontactwith salt water.Ifyou’ve ever been to San Francisco, you know that the Golden GateBridge is red.And it’s red because ofthe zinc paint that goes on those stainless steelc ables. That, if theystartat one end ofthe bridge and theywork to theother end, bythe time theyfinish, it’s already time togo back and start painting the beginning of the bridge again, because the bridge was built with steelcables, and steelcablescan’t takethe salt air unless they’re treatedrepeatedly with a zinc-based paint.On the other hand, plant products like Manila hemp, you can drag through the ocean for weekson end.Ifyou wanna tie your anchor to it and drop it right into theocean, that’s no p roblem,because plant fibers can stand up for months, evenyears, in direct contactwith salt water.OK.So how do you take plant fibers that individually you could break with your hands and turn them into a rope that’s strong enough to moor a ship that w eighs thousands of tons? Well,what youdo is you extract these long fibers from the Manila hemp plant, and then you takeseveral of these fibers, and you group them into a bundle, because by grouping the fibers you greatlyincrease their breaking strength—that bundle of fibers is much stronger than any of theindividual fibers that compose it.And then you takethat bundle offibers and you twist it a little bit, because by twisting it, you increase itsbreaking strength even more. And then you take severalof these little bundles, and you group and twist them into bigger bundles, which you then group and twist into even bigger bundles, and so on, until eventually,you end up with a very, verystrong rope.源于：小马过河相关推荐：2012年11月18日托福写作真题解析2012年11月18日托福口语真题解析2012年11月18日托福阅读真题解析2012年11月18日托福听力真题解析。

TPO-40托福听力题目文本——对话部分(Conversation)【附答案】托福TPO，英文名为TOEFL Practice Online，中文直译为托福线上练习，TPO都是历年托福真题，对托福备考是非常有帮助的，今天为大家分享的是TPO-40托福听力题目文本——对话部分(Conversation)【附答案】。

TPO-40托福听力题目文本——对话部分(Conversation)【附答案】QUESTIONS1. Why does the student go to see the professor?a. To find out all the requirements for a projectb. To discuss a service gap at a restaurantc. To get help understanding concepts relevant to his projectd. To get help with designing a business plan2. Why does the professor mention a student in another class?a. To describe an interesting topic for a projectb. To explain the cause of her initial confusionc. To point out that she has not received e-mails from all her students yetd. To indicate that she has several students doing projects about restaurans托福听力主旨题的答题技巧新托福听力考试总共有六大技巧的测试与考核。

与这六大技巧相对，ETS有六大题型的测试，分别是：主旨题、细节题、句子功能题、态度题、结构题和推论题。

外研版（19）高一必修一第四单元词组和句型总结1.be familiar with …对…..熟悉2.be familiar to sb.为某人所熟悉3.lose track of 不了解…..的情况，不了解…..的动态4.Keep track of 与…..保持联系；记录例句：He lost track of his good friend after graduation5.deliver sb. a lecture 给…..作报告6.thanks to 归功于…..，多亏……7.in advance 提前8. change significantly 变化显著9.social media 社交媒体10.tend to 照顾；11.tend to do sth.倾向于做…..12.enable sb.to do sth.使某人有能力做某事13.throw the baby out with the bathwater 不分良莠一起抛弃14.pour in 蜂拥而至15.pour down （雨）倾盆而下16.be anxious about …为…..担心/担忧17.with anxiety 忧虑地18.postpone（=put off ）doing sth. 推迟做某事19．Make one’s fortune 发财20..ought to 应该；应当21.correspind with …与…通信联系22.turn up 1)(意外或终于)出现2）调低（音量）23.be ashamed of 对…..难为情24.work out 理解；锻炼；训练；进展顺利；算出；拟出（计划、安排）.25.face to face 面对面26.stay in touch with …和…..保持联系27.are up to 从事28.keep in mind 记住29.make friends online 网上交朋友30.make it clear to sb. that 对某人清楚表明31.be set in 以…为背景32.on earth 地球上33.figure out 计算出；理解34.hear from sb.收到某人来信35.strike the match 划火柴36.a plain clothes 便服37.step out of 迈步走出38.felt lost 感到茫然39.in my opinion（=in my view ）我认为40.in the distance 在远处句型：1.(教材p 39 ) As Aristotle said, no one wouldchoose to live without friends ,even if he had all other goods.As sb. said 正如某人所说As 引导的非限制性定语从句，指代整个主句，并作从句的宾语。