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语言学概论(教案)第一章：语言与语言学1.1 语言的定义与特性引导学生理解语言是一种符号系统，用于人类交流和思维。
讨论语言的普遍性和特殊性，例如普遍语法和语言习得机制。
1.2 语言学的范畴与分支介绍语言学的定义和范畴，包括语音学、词汇学、语法学、语义学等。
讨论语言学与其他学科的关系，如心理学、社会学、哲学等。
第二章：语言的结构2.1 语音与音系分析语音的物理特性，如音高、音强、音长等。
探讨音系的基本原理，包括音素、音位和音韵规则。
2.2 词汇与词义研究词汇的构成和分类，如词根、前缀、后缀等。
讨论词义的变化和引申，以及词义之间的关系。
第三章：语法与句法3.1 语法的基本概念介绍语法的研究对象和意义，包括句子结构、词类、词形变化等。
探讨语法规则的形成和变化。
3.2 句子的构成与分类分析句子结构的成分，如主语、谓语、宾语等。
讨论句子的分类和功能，如陈述句、疑问句、祈使句等。
第四章：语义与语用4.1 语义学的基本原理介绍语义学的定义和研究方法，包括词汇语义学和句子语义学。
探讨语义的成分分析和意义之间的关系。
4.2 语用的基本概念讨论语用的定义和范畴，包括语境、语用含义、言语行为等。
分析语用在实际交际中的应用和作用。
第五章：语言的变异与变化5.1 语言的变异现象探讨语言的变异形式，包括方言、俚语、行话等。
分析语言变异的原因和影响。
5.2 语言的变化与演变研究语言的变化过程和规律，包括语音变化、词汇变化、语法变化等。
探讨语言演变的原因和社会因素对语言变化的影响。
第六章：语言的接触与影响6.1 语言的接触形式分析语言接触的类型，如双语、多语、语言借用等。
探讨语言接触的原因和结果，以及接触语言对个体和社会的影响。
6.2 语言的扩散与传播研究语言扩散的过程和模式，如语言的传播、语言的替换和语言的消亡。
分析语言扩散的社会经济和文化因素。
第七章：语言的记录与描写7.1 语言记录的方法和技术介绍语言记录的基本方法，如语音记录、文字记录和计算机记录。
语言学概论知识梳理一、导言1、中国、印度、希腊-罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出，存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象。
3、运用语言进行交际的过程大体可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。
三、第二章语言是符号系统1、语言是符号系统。
2、符号是具体事物的标记或代号，是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，其作用是指称现实现象二、第一章语言的功能1、语言的功能：社会功能（信息传递、人际互动）、思维功能。
2、所谓“社会”，指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
3、语言社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
4、语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
5、语言的社会功能的另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这可以称为语言的人际互动功能。
6、大脑的左半球管右半身的动作，还控制着语言功能以及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能，掌管抽象的、概括的思维。
7、大脑的右半球管左半身的动作，还在音乐等艺术感知、人的面貌识别、立体图形的识别、整体把握能力、内在想象力等方面起着主要作用，掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
8、儿童语言的学习与心智的发展是同步的，并且有所谓的“临界期”：人出生之后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天的正常的社会环境，其语言习得与心智发展的潜能就失去了。
9、聋哑人也是能思维的。
①和常人一样，生活在人类社会中，有健全的大脑和发音器官。
只是因听不见别人说话而学不会语言。
②聋哑人不能运用听觉符号传递信息表达思想，但可以通过别的感觉器官得到补偿（视觉符号，手语，动觉，触觉）。
10、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性与语言的性质密切相关。
语言的普遍性质是语言的最根本的性质。
3、符号包括形式和意义两方面，二者不可分离，相结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式。
第一章语言和语言学1.语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语言学必须明确自己的研究对象，才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号，包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。
3.什么是语言的客观存在形式语言的客观存在形式首先表示为有声的口头语言即口语，而当出现了文字以后，又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。
4.语言符号的强制性正因为语言符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同一社会，同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个人可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际工具的作用。
5.语言与言语的区别语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话只能属于言语。
第二章语音1.声音的四要素：音高，音强，音长，音质2.振幅：也就是发音体振动时离开平衡位置的最大偏移距离。
3.频率：发音体在每一秒钟内振动的次数。
4.音高：就是声音的高低。
它是由频率的大小决定的。
频率同音高成正比。
频率越大，声音越高；频率越小，声音越低。
5.音强：就是声音的强弱。
它是由振幅的大小决定的。
振幅同音强成正比，振幅的大小又决定于使发音体振动外力的大小。
外力大，振幅就大，声音就强；外力小，振幅就小，声音就弱。
6.音长：就是声音的长短。
它是由发音体振动的持续时间决定的。
发音体振动的持续时间长，声音就长；发音体振动的时间短，声音就短。
7.基音：振动中有一个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声音叫做“基音”。
其他振动发出的声音叫做“陪音”。
8.乐音：当基音的频率的陪音的频率之间存在着整数倍的比例关系时，会形成一种复杂而有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声音叫做乐音。
9.噪音：如果基音的频率和陪音的频率之间不存在整倍数的比例关系，就会形成一种杂乱无章的不规则的声波形式，这种声音叫做噪音。
10.语音的生理基础：语音是由人的发音器官协同动作而产生的，人的发音及其运动是“语音的生理基础”，决定着语音的生理特征。
第二部分章节题库第1章导论I.Fill in the blanks.1.In Saussure’s view,the relationship between signifier(sound image)andsignified(concept)is_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
3._____refers to the role language plays in communication(e.g.to express ideas, attitudes)or in particular social situations(e.g.Religious,legal).（北二外2016研）【答案】Function【解析】本题考查语言学中对“语言的功能”的定义。
功能指的是语言在沟通中（例如表达观点、态度）或在特定社交场合（如宗教、法律）中所起的作用。
4.The features that define our human languages can be called_____features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
语言学重点、难点导言——语言是语言学的研究对象语言学的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊—罗马19世纪，历史比较语言学的形成，标志语言学成为一门独立学科；20世纪初，索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志语言学从此成为一门现代科学。
普通语言学，也称理论语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。
其任务是综合各种语言的研究成果，归纳语言的一般规律。
第一章——语言的功能语言的功能分为社会功能和思维功能社会，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能，语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面就是人际互动功能，会话过程中传达出来的不仅是说话人表达的字面意思，同时还有他的主观意图、喜怒哀乐等情感因素，听话人进行迅速地接受、领会、反应，并在回答中显示出来。
语言具有社会性（本质属性），具体表现在以下几个方面：1、性质不同。
动物的属于生理现象，人类语言伴随着情感、心理活动，是有意识的。
2、功能不同。
动物适应自然，限于觅食、求偶等，人类用语言思维，通过语言来认识和改造世界。
3、结构不同。
动物的结构简单，没有系统，没有再生能力，也缺少发展变化。
4、获得途径不同。
动物的“语言”能力与生俱来。
语言与社会的关系：第一，语言的产生是随着社会的发展而产生的，是人类社会形成的必然产物。
第二，语言与社会同时存在、互相依赖。
语言依存于社会，民族消亡了这种语言也随之消失。
语言消亡或者弃置不用，也将导致该民族特征削弱。
第三，语言与社会共同发展，互相促进。
社会对语言产生巨大影响；社会发展到什么程度，语言就发展到什么程度；发达的语言可以推动社会的发展。
语言的思维功能，语言是思维的工具，是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维成果的贮存所。
语言的功能区主要存在于左半脑。
人类思维的类型：1、直观动作思维，直观动作思维指的是能直观思维对象（直接感知思维对象），并通过思维者自身的感受获得的思维，主要是心理活动，基本没有语言参与。
第一章语言的功能语言学三大发源地中国、印度、希腊-罗马20世纪初瑞士语言学家索绪尔为现代语言学之父并写出《普通语言学教程》语言的功能：社会功能、思维功能语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有紧密的联系。
语音语法语汇社会功能：语言的信息传递功能、语言的人际互动功能语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能第二章语言是符号系统语言与符号符号包含形式和意义的两个方面形式是人们的感官可以感知的。
感知的形式都具有专门的意义符号的形式和意义是不可分割的，二者结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式符号的形式和意义都是一般性的征候是事物本身的特征，他传递的某种消息，可以通过它自身的物质属性来推断。
语言符号的任意性和线条性是德.索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出的符号具有社会性，它的形式和意义之间没有必然的联系，符号的形式和意义联系一定经过使用者的社会约定。
语言的任意性：作为符号系统的成员，单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只是具有社会约定的关系。
在不同时期语音形式和意义的联系也是会变化的语言的线条性：语言符号在使用中是以符号序列的形式出现，符号只能一个跟一个依次出现，在世间的线条上绵延，不能再空间的面上铺开。
语言符号的层级关系语言符号系：一种很复杂的分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转特点：分层和不同层面上分为大大小小不同的单位语法单位：语素、词、词组、句子。
音义结合的最小符号单位是语素音系层：音位→音节→音步语法层：语素→词→词组/短语→小句→句子语言层级装置中低一层的单位比高一层的单位少得多，高一层的单位都是低一层单位按照一定的规则组合而成的。
组合关系*聚合关系组合关系：符号和符号组合起来，形成高一级结构。
处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成分。
结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：通过结构成分的替换和可替换成分的聚合关系如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在组合结构的某一环节上能够相互替换并且替换后结构关系会不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群。
导言部分一、语言学：以语言为研究对象的科学、研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。
二、语言的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊－罗马三、小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成。
四、语言交际的过程：编码－发送－传递－接受－解码五个阶段。
五、根据研究对象的不同把语言学分为专语语言学和普通语言学。
五、1共时语言学：以同时的静态分析的方法、研究语言相对静止的状态。
描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，时从横的方面研究语言。
（如现代汉语、当代英语）五、2历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵的方面研究语言的历史。
（如汉语史）五、3专语语言学：又称具体语言学、个别语言学，是以一种或几种有联系的语言为研究对象，研究某一语言的结构。
五、4普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言研究成果而建立起来的。
五、5现代语言学之父：瑞士索绪尔代表作《普通语言学教程》六、语言学流派：1历史比较语言学：是比较方言或亲属关系语言的这种成系统的差异，重建语言史的一门学科。
历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位：历史比较语言学，为后来的结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件，它在19世纪进入了系统的研究，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
历史比较语言学代表人物：初期：丹麦拉斯克；中期：德国施莱歇尔2、结构语言学的分支：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
美国描写语言学代表人物：布龙菲尔德代表作《语言论》七、语言的三要素：主要是语音、词汇和语义、语法三部分第一章语言的功能第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是音义结合的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
一、1语言的作用：语言是人类社会的交际工具，每个社会无论经济发达还是落后，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离布开语言这个交际工具。
语⾔学纲要第⼀章1.语⾔的社会功能：信息传递功能、⼈际互动功能2．狼孩问题（刘连仁）3.思维的⼯具是语⾔。
4.聋哑⼈思维的原因：1、聋哑⼈和常⼈⼀样，⽣活在⼈类社会中，有健全的⼤脑和发⾳器官，他们的⼤脑也分左右两半球，各有专门的分⼯。
他们主要是因为⽿聋听不见别⼈说话，才学不会语⾔。
⼀旦恢复或获得了听觉，聋哑⼈也就可以逐渐学会说话。
2、⼤脑是⼈的⼀切活动的司令部，⼈的各种感觉器官由它统⼀指挥，组成⼀个完整的体系。
聋哑⼈不能从听觉中得到应有的信息，但可以通过别的感觉器官得到补偿。
3、“眼观六路，⽿听⼋⽅”，听觉获得信息的可能性⽐视觉⼤得多，因为⼈们交际⼤多是通过有声语⾔进⾏的，所以，通过视觉的交际，效果究竟不如有声语⾔，这不能不给聋哑⼈思维能⼒的发展带来影响。
对聋哑⼈来说，不会说话确实有很多不便。
5.⼉童习得语⾔的过程1、咿呀期2、独词句阶段3、双词句阶段4、电报体阶段5、接近成⼈阶段6.思维离不开语⾔的实验根据：⼈脑左右两半球有明确的分⼯，各司其责。
7.思维能⼒是全⼈类共同的，语⾔是各民族不同的。
第⼆章1.语⾔是哪⼀类符号？（多选）如听觉（狭义）如触觉符号；视觉符号；听觉符号（⼴义）2.语⾔符号具有两⽅⾯的内容：（1）物质的实体。
（2）约定俗成的意义。
3.什么现象属于征候，如炊烟、号脉、指纹、脚印。
（征候是事物本⾝的特征，征候与象征事物之间的联系是⾃然的或有因果关系的。
）4.语⾔符号是⾳和义相结合的。
5.语⾳层包括⾳位、⾳节、⾳步。
⾳位是⼀种语⾔中语⾳⼦系统的最⼩单位。
语素是最⼩的语⾳语义结合体。
6.语⾔层级的特点：（选择题）第⼀，从⾳系层到语法层有⼀个质的变化。
⾳系层都是只有形式没有意义的，语法层都是既有形式⼜有意义的。
第⼆，从⾳系层到语法层，都有量的扩充。
⼈类语⾔的⾳位数⽬都是很少的，由这些有限的⾳位可以构成⼏百上千个⾳节，再构成⼏千上万个语素，再构成⼏万甚⾄⼏⼗万个词，到句⼦这⼀级，数量就是⽆限的了。
第一章：语言与语言学A语言的特性：一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性：语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
2. 规约性：语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。
二、二层性：指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
（有限手段无限使用，人类交际最显著特征）三、创造性：指语言的能产性，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
四、移位性：指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点（好处：使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考）B与动物语言区别：由于喉部结构的差异，不适合吐字发音。
但可使用手势语言C语言的功能：信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络：一、传统语言学：1.从哲学角度思考（名实之争）：区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究（梵文）：为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度（主要比较印欧语系）：试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们共同母语（提供了科学的方法）二、现代语言学（20c，结构语言学）语言是一个符号系统，提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”（符号可感知）与“所指”（符号所代表的内容）、“组合关系”（两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系）与“聚合关系”（某一位置能够互相替代）（区分历时）更强调共时研究，重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”，认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。
E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想：生成语言学派：语言是人类内在化的能力，人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。
强调语法的天赋性、自主性，着重探索人类语言的机制、共性，同时探究各个语言的参数差异，即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。
天赋假设：语言是天赋，儿童生下了就有普遍语法，婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。
语言学概论(教案)第一章：语言与语言学1.1 语言的定义与特征介绍语言的定义，强调语言是一种符号系统，用于人类交流和思维。
讨论语言的基本特征，如结构性、性、动态性等。
1.2 语言的类型与分类介绍不同类型的语言，如自然语言、人工语言、手语等。
讨论语言的分类方法，如根据语言系属、使用人数等。
1.3 语言学的基本概念与研究领域介绍语言学的基本概念，如语言、言语、方言等。
讨论语言学的主要研究领域，如语音学、语法学、语用学等。
第二章：语言的起源与发展2.1 语言的起源探讨语言的起源问题，介绍不同学者的观点，如生物进化论、社会接触论等。
2.2 语言的发展讨论语言的发展过程，包括语音变化、语法演变、词汇扩展等。
2.3 语言的变迁与演变介绍语言的变迁与演变现象，如借词、方言形成、语言灭绝等。
第三章：语言的结构与功能3.1 语言的结构分析语言的结构，包括音素、音节、词汇、句子等层面。
3.2 语言的语音系统介绍语音学的基本概念，如音素、音位、声调等。
3.3 语言的功能讨论语言的主要功能，如表达意义、传递信息、实施交际等。
第四章：语言的变异与方言4.1 语言的变异探讨语言的变异现象，包括地域变异、社会变异、个体变异等。
4.2 方言的形成与分类介绍方言的形成原因，如地理隔离、社会分化等。
讨论方言的分类方法，如根据语音特征、语法规则等。
4.3 方言与标准语的关系分析方言与标准语的关系，包括互相影响、竞争、共存等。
第五章：语言的接触与交流5.1 语言接触的概念与类型介绍语言接触的概念，强调不同语言之间的相互影响。
讨论语言接触的类型，如借词、混合语、语言转用等。
5.2 语言借用的现象与影响分析语言借用的现象，如借用词、借用语法结构等。
讨论语言借用对借用者和被借用语言的影响。
5.3 语言的国际传播与全球化的影响探讨语言在国际传播中的作用，如英语的全球普及。
分析语言全球化对语言多样性的影响，如语言侵蚀、语言死亡等。
第六章：语言的变异与语言变化6.1 语言变异的类型与原因介绍语言变异的类型，如语音变异、语法变异、词汇变异等。
I. INTRODUCTIONI. Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1.1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.1.1.3.2 Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.1.1.3.3 Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writing for the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.1.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French wordsLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.1.1.3.5 Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‟s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b)Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditionalgrammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.II. Language2.1 What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.2.2.1 ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2.2.2 ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.2.2.3 DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.2.2.4 DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.2.2.5 Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.II. PHONOLOGY2.1 The phonic medium of languageThe linguist is not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.. This limited range of sounds is the phonic medium of language.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language. Phonetics has three branches—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. articulatory phonetics: from speaker‟s point of view, how speakers articulate sounds acoustic phonetics: form hearer‟s point of view, how hearers perceive sounds auditory phonetics: how sounds travel in the air2.2.2 Organs of speechlungs <<<< windpipe <<<< glottis < vocal cords (when they are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration — voiceless sounds; if they are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” ---voiced sounds.Oral cavity : Lips, tongue, teeth, teeth ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvular[ p ] [ v ] [ s ] [ d ] [ l ] [ k ]Nasal cavity : Lungs<<<< windpipe<<<<glottis<<<< nostrils2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet: the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Diacritics: a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: a set of symbols with each letter representing one sound (used in textbooks, dictionaries, ect)Narrow transcription: letter symbol + diacritics (a set of symbol to show the fine distinctions between sounds)(used by phoneticians for the detailed study of sounds)2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsThe English speech sounds can first of all be classified into vowels and consonants. The basic difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of the English consonantsThe English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and also in terms of place of articulation.Bilabial Labio-dental Dental AlveolarPalatal Velar GlottalStop VL p t k VD b dFricatives VL F θs h VD V zAffricatesVLVDNasals VD m nLiquids VD l, rGlides VD wTable 1 Consonants in EnglishIn terms of manner of articulation, The English vowels can be classified into the following types:1) Stops(plosives) The obstruction created by the speech organs is total and thespeech sound, produced when the obstruction is audibly released.2) fricatives The obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passagein the mouth with friction.3) affricates The obstruction, complete at first is released slowly with frictionresulting from partial obstruction as in fricatives.4) liquids5) nasals6) glides (semivowels)According to the place in the mouth w here the obstruction occurs, the English vowels can be classified into the following types:1) bilabials 2) labiodental 3) dental 4) alveolar5) alveolar-palatal 6) palatal 7) velar 8) glottal2.2.4.2 Classification of the English vowelsPure vowels can be distinguished as front, central, and back according to the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.front vowels central vowels back vowelsOpenness of the mouth is also considered in the analysis of the English vowels. So there are open vowels, and close vowels, and all the rest are either semi-open or semi-close.A second variable is the shape of the lips. They can be rounded and unrounded. Individual vowels are also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening.Front Central Backi: u: Close ISemi-close e :Semi-open :æOpen :2. 3 Phonology2. 3.1 Phonetics and phonologyBoth phonetics and phonology study the speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature: it is interested in all the speech sounds used n all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophoneA phone is a phonetic segment or unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistics communication are all phones. One speech sound is one phone. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. Phonemes are abstract. They are not any particular sound, but rather they are realized by a certain phones in certain phonetic contexts.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, free variation, and minimal pairIf two phonetically similar sounds distinguish meaning, they form a phonemic contrast. If they do not distinguish meaning, they may complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesThere are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:1. The first phoneme must be /s/;2. The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/;3. The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/.Sequential rules are language specific.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleThe assimilation rule assimilates one morpheme to another by …copying‟ a feature of a sequential phoneme thus making the two sounds more similar. For example: i nc orrect;i np ut, i nd ecent.2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleThe deletion rule tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example: desi g n, k nife.2.3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, length, and intonation.Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.2.3.5.1 StressStress, including both word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English.E.g.1) 形容词词义动词词义´abstract 抽象的ab´stract 摘要；提炼frequent [´] 时常发生的[ ] 常去（地点）perfect [´] 完美的；[ ] 使完美present [´] 出席的[ ] 给；赠；呈递2)复合名词词义名词短语词义´heavy weight 重量级拳击手heavy ´weight 特别重的人或物´red cap 宪兵red ´cap 红色的帽子´small fry 不重要的人或者物small ´fry 小鱼苗´tall boy （卧室用的）高衣柜tall ´boy 高个子的男孩2.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language.2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in almost all languages. In English there are four basic types of intonation:Falling tone indicates that what is said is a straightforward, matter-of-fact statement. Rising tone often makes a question of what is said.Fall-rise one often indicates that there is an implied message in what is saidIII. Morphology3. 1 MorphologyMorphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.3.1.1 Open class and closed classIn English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are open classes, since we can regularly add new words to them. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class word s since new words are not usually added to them.3. 2 Morphemes—the minimal units of meaningThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. Every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.Some morphemes can constitute words by themselves. They are called free morphemes. A morpheme that cannot occur alone is called a bound morpheme. Suffixes and prefixes are both bound morpheme.3. 3 Derivational and inflectional morphemesWhen a derivational morpheme is added to other morphemes or words a new word is derived, or formed.An inflectional morpheme is added to morphemes or words but does not change their syntactic category. Instead, they are purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.3.4 Morphological rules of word formationThe ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. We call them productive morphological rules.3.5 CompoundsDerivational and free morphemes combine to form new words. This process of word formation is called derivation. Another way to produce words, or compound words, to be more exact, is to string together words.When we form compounds, the following points are noteworthy:a) When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.b) In many cases, the two words fall into different categories. Then the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound word, with the exception of compounds with a preposition.c) It is more often than not that compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compound word sequence.a)The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.。
