语言学第一章整理

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

第一章语言学的一个分野，日本语学。

1-1-1 现代言语学和索绪尔语言是以表现想法和感情，传达意志为机能的记号的体系。

言语学是一门把语言作为对象的学问。

现代上制作言语学的基础是瑞士的语言学家，索绪尔。

索绪尔的理论死后呗发行的^一般言语学讲义^而被世人所知。

这里概述了讲义中的最重要的三点。

1，言语记号的恣意性和社会性。

日本语中被称作《いぬ》的生物，在英语里称作《dog》。

中文称作《狗》。

这些叫法，本来的称呼方法和本来的概念没有必然的关系的词语来表示。

例如，现在《いぬ》这样的生物，叫做《ねこ》也没有关系。

就像这样，人类的语言记号，和名字之间没有必然的联系，一般上，言语记号是表现物体音声的侧面，和和只是对象，两者间完全没有必然的联系。

这样的理论就被称为索绪尔的恣意性。

但是可以保证各种语言的不同。

而且，也可以看到语言的的恣意性切断了外界的样子。

例如，在日语中，一个母亲生下的男孩们＜あに＞和《弟》被区别，（也就是说，これは私の兄｜弟です。

即使这样说，也不能说これは私の兄弟です。

）英语两者都叫做brother.（所以，this is my brother 这样的叫法是可以的。

）言语的恣意性是用语言第一次起名字时的性质。

一旦被取了名字，个人就不能改变了。

例如，讨厌《いぬ》这样的称呼虽然把称作《いぬ》这样的生物称作《ねこ》也不通，别人无法理解。

所以，语言记号一旦决定了称呼方法，个人是不能改变的，这就是语言的社会性。

2，ラングとパロール《かかと踵》发这样的音的时候，<kakato>的ka1是呼出气息的ka2却是几乎不发出气息的。

同样的音在title里面的两个音也可以这样说。

这样的情况，两个k音，t音物理上不一样，以日语为母语的人和以英语为母语的人却把这两个音认识为同一种音。

像这样的，母语话的人对于语言有着抽象的认识，各种各样包含变异的实际的音声，按照那种知识来认识。

索绪尔把这种抽象的知识（上面举得例子，无视k,t在物理上性质的不同，称作音素。

I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writingfor the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA)Descriptive function(cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B)Expressive function(emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C)Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3.Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking. Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4.Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。

1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others)，metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society， e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。

第一章:语言和语言学§1语言的客观存在形式1口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。

2书面语:文字出现以后,语的第二种客观存在形式。

3言语交际是一个编码和解码素:生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。

人要接受语言所素:组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题;发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力;复杂的生理和物理问题。

总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码。

“码”即所谓的言语4书面语和口语的主要差别。

是那些口语所特有的面部表情、手势和体态,还有口气和语调用书面的文字语言来描述出来的成分,也就是书面语补上的某些省略以后影响理解的成分。

用二者的分析可以用公式理解:口语的基本语言成分=书面语的基本语言成分+用书面描写的口语非语言成分。

5书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。

书面语克服了人和人之间进行交际、和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐。

6语言和种族的关系。

二者有必然的联系,根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素素有关,但是语言是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

7语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代化的,可以从各个不同的角度,根据不同的需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面。

门现代意义上的科学首先要有明确的研究对象,然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论体系和方法论体系,那样才能成为一门现代意义上的科果研究对象长期不确定确,或者研究对象太杂,范围太宽,研究就不可能深入,就不可能形成自己的理论体系和方法论体系。

8什么是语言的客观存在形式。

首先表现为人类社会中人与人之间的口头交际行们每个人从出生那一天起就始终生活在一定的社会群体中。

人类为了繁衍生息,为了共同进行劳动生产,为了保护个人和整个群体,就要相互合作,相互协调,这就需要互相传递信息,互相交流思想感情。

完整版<语言学概论> 第一章: 语言和语言学一识记内容1口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言2书面语:文字出现后语言的第二种客观存在形式3符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体4能指:语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分5所指:也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容6聚合关系:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类7组合关系:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现了部分与整体之间的关系8语言学:是研究语言的科学9普通语言学:语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论10理论语言学:把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学11应用语言学:侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用12传统语言学:一般泛指20世纪前的语言学,特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学13结构主义语言学:索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”,至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”“结构主义语法”,往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学,那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派,并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学二领会内容不用识记,大体知道即可1言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程？答:人要说话所需要的因素:生活经历社会环境当前处理的问题社会问题文化问题哲学问题逻辑问题人要接受语言所需要的因素:组织与分析的能力心理生理问题:发音听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力:复杂的生理和物理问题总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码“码”即所谓的言语2书面语和口语的主要差别？答:书面语比口语多了一些成分,是那些口语所特有的面部表情手势和体态,还有口气和语调用书面的文字语言来描述出来的成分,也就是书面语补上的某些省略以后影响理解的成分用二者的一致性来分析可以用公式理解:口语的基本语言成分=书面语的基本语言成分+用书面描写的口语非语言成分3书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义？答:书面语克服了人和人间进行交际传递信息和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐4语言和种族的关系？没有必然的联系,根本原因:语言能力和生理因素心理因素有关,但语言是一种社会现象,完全是在一定语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系5语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代意义上的科学？答:语言客观存在形式是极其多样化的,可以从各个不同的角度,根据不同的需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面要形成一门现代意义上的科学首先要有明确的研究对象,然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论体系和方法论体系,那样才能成为一门现代意义上的科学如果研究对象长期不确定不明确,或者研究对象太杂,范围太宽,研究就不可能深入,就不可能形成自己的理论体系和方法论体系6语言和言语的区别？答:“语言”是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分因此也可以说“语言”是一个抽象的实体,是从言语活动中抽象出来的全社会约定俗成的一个均质的系统“语言”就有内在一致的规律,而“言语”则很难找到内在一致的规律语言=言语活动-言语,言语带着个人性,语言带着社会性7任何符号,包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体？答:无法把语言符号的声音实体和所表示的意义分开:声音离开了意义就不再是语音的声音,意义离开了声音也就不再是语言的意义,而且声音和所表示的意义一旦分开,语言符号也就不存在了语言的形式和意义是语言的两个不可分割的方面8语言符号的强制性？答:语言符号是社会约定俗成的,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,是不能任意改变的,因为如果个人可以任意改变,那就互相听不懂了,也就从根本上丧失柴交际工具的作用9语言符号的可变性？一方面在口耳相授的过程中细微的偏离现象是不可避免的,时间的推移,细微的偏离积累成明显的差异另一方面社会生活的不断变化,人口的增加,居住条件的改变,民族的形成,国家的出现,书面语的产生生产和科学技术的发展社会内部的阶层和行业等等的分化,都必然会引起语言在功能上的分化和发展10语言是一个系统?语言是一个人和人之间表达思想感情的符号系统,而人的思想感情是非常复杂的,因此表达人的思想感情的语言系统也必然是非常复杂的由语音系统语汇系统语法系统语义系统等子系统组成是各种不同的语言符号根据严密的组织规律分层次组织起来的,不同单位间互相联系互相制约的系统11语言系统的各个子系统的系统性是不平衡的?答:语言系统的各个子系统的系统性是有明显差异的,其中语音系统的系统性最强,几乎达到牵一发而动全身的地步语法子系统的系统性也很强,但比语音系统稍差一些就是按照一定的规律去进行语言的发音时态的变换等等语言系统的各个子系统均有这样的规律12语言系统具有相对的封闭性和自主性?答:系统性还表现为相对的封闭性,整个语言系统是在封闭状态下运转的,在一般情况下不依赖外界因素的支撑,不受外界因素的影响如果没有相对的封闭性也就不成其为一个系统13语言系统的层次性?答:语言的出层次性是就整个语言系统和各个子系统而言语言的层次性是就整个语言系统和各个子系统而言,都是分层次的,不是单一层次的,而且有上位层次下位层次之分大小依次为:语速—词—短语—句子,句子是最小的交际单位,句子和句子可以组合成语篇,语篇是最大的交际单位14组合关系的含义？答:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现在部分和部分,整体和部分之间的关系上15聚合关系的含义？答:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类16组合关系和聚合关系的关系?聚合是在组合关系中体现出来的,或者说是在组合关系中分析出来的,而组合又体现为聚合关系的线性序列17普通语言学的含义和主要研究领域?研究领域包括的内容有:语言的定义,语言学的研究对象,语言和社会的关系,语言和思维的关系,语言本体的语音语法语汇语义和文字的一般规律,不同的语言结构系统的共性和特性等等18应用语言学的性质和主要研究领域?把语言学的理论和具体成果用来为社会实际生活中的某个领域服务,任何一门应用语言学都有自己的理论,都是依据一定的语言学理论结合具体应用领域的需要而形成的,是主要性质主要研究领域:1最早为第二语言教学的理论2实验语音学,是现代通讯领域应用语音学的理论和成果改进通讯质量和效能的体现3计算机的广泛翻译自然语言理解等等结合语言学的理论和成果,形成的新的应用语言学4也可用来侦破刑事案件19古代哲学家对语言的研究古代的语言本体研究?不论中外,古代哲学家都把对语言的哲学思辩作为语言研究的重点印度人希腊人已经对语法进行了深入系统的研究,奠定了后世语法研究的基础中国人则对语义文字音韵进行了深入系统的研究,这些都是对语言本体的研究,即使今天看来也是真正的语言学研究20历史比较语言学的产生?几个阶段:1从16世纪到18世纪,由于国际贸易的发展,西方一些学者懂得的语言和了解的语言大大增多217世纪和18世纪不少人纷纷搜集和编纂多语种的对照词表,有人发现欧亚两洲语言有明显相似之处,并开始加以比较研究,后来语言学吸收近代生理学和声学的研究成果,建立了科学的语音学,并运用其的理论和方法发现语言之间严格的语音对应规律3从18世纪末到19世纪初,历史比较语言学学科终于建立起来了21普通语言学的产生?答:由于语言学在各方面取得的成就,特别是对更多的语言的认识,就有可能产生关于“语言”的一般理论或者说普遍理论,这就是现在的“普通语言学”22索绪尔的主要贡献?主要贡献在从语言本体的角度界定了“语言,明确地限定了语言学的研究对象范围和重点,使语言学脱离了早期什么都研究,什么都难以深入的缺陷,走上研究对象相对单纯,因而有可能逐步形成本学科特有的理论体系和方法论体系的现代科学的道路23社会语言学功能语言学认知语言学等语言学新学派的产生?由于过分强调语言的自主性,企图摆脱语言跟人和社会之间客观存在的千丝万缕的联系,并在不同程度上忽视语义研究,也就越来越显露出自己的局限性,因此,就兴起了社会语言学功能语言学认知语言学24语言学和文学的关系?文学是语言的艺术,文学作品长期以来是语言学的研究素材诗律学修辞学文章学更跟文学创作和文学作品分不开的在基础科段,语言和文学是不分家的25语言学在历史学和考古学中的应用?答:中国甲骨文和金文的辨认全靠汉代语言学家许慎给我们留下了一部《说文解字》,而甲骨文和金文的解读则大大促进了中国古代史的研究古埃及的文字没人能认读,后来语言学家解读了在一块石碑上刻下的这种文字和古希腊文对照的铭文,才解开了古埃及文字之谜,美洲玛雅文字的解读则揭开了欧洲人来美洲以前印第安人历史的神秘面纱26语言学研究在语言规划中的作用?答:确定官方语言和教学语言,民族语言规范化,发展中国家同样需要补课27语言学研究与计算机科学?信息处理是对语言文字资料的处理一方面是现有的语言学研究成果还远远不能满足这方面的要求三思考内容1什么是语言的客观存在形式?答:语音是语言的物质外壳,是语言的客观形式,客观存在形式有两种:一利是有声的口头语言,一种是以文字作为载体的书面语一言2为什么说语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言不完全是一模一样的?答:1)语言的客观存在形式有口语和书面语2)不同的人说同一个句子时各有不同,有个人特点同一个人在不同时间地点说同一句话也不能完全相同3)书面语也有个人特点4)语言学家研究的是经过主观的在不同程度上已经理想化和简单化了的语言5)所以说,语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的不同3应该如何理解口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的?口语是语言的第一种客观存在形式,而书面语是第二种客观存在形式,任一种语言总是先有口语,后有书面语,任何一种书面语又都只能是在口语的基础上产生的,并且或迟或早的总是要随着口语的演变而演变古往今来只有极少数语言在口语的基础上产生了相应的书面语,大多语言只有口语,并不存在书面语4为什么说语言虽然是民族的重要标志,但并不是最可靠的标志?在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用同一种语言,因此语言就成了民族的一个重要标志但是在很多情况下,民族又突破了语言作为标志的现象,这样看来,尽管“语言”是最直观,最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准5为什么不能单凭“相互理解程度”来区分语言和方言?“相互理解程度”是西方一些语言学家所采用的区分语言和方言的唯一标准,即他们认为:相互不能理解的是不同的语言同时主张:相互能理解的各个方言从属于同一民族语言,使用同一语言的人属于同一民族,使用不同语言的人属于不同的民族其实,这种通过识别“语言”和“方言”,从而识别“民族”的惯例并不具有普遍意义单凭“相互理解程度”,也就是依据语言结构差异的程度,来确定身份未定的“话”是属于同一“语言”的不同“方言”,还是不同的语言,从而确定有关的社会群体是一个民族还是不同的“民族”,这种方法是把复杂的问题过于简单化了,而且很可能会在政治上引起严重的后果,即可能会把本属于同一民族但通话有困难的群体所使用的同一“语言”的不同“方言”当作不同的“语言”,从而认为这些社会群体是不同的民族2客观上,在有些地区,分属于不同国家和民族的居民使用的语言差别很小,甚至是一模一样的“话”,按照“相互理解程度”的理论,这些居民说的“话”应为一种语言,因而他们也应属于一个民族这样推论与客观事实是不相符的3实际上,按照“共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感”,并参考社会政治因素来区分“语言”和“方言”才是正确和可行的处理方式6区分语言和言语有什么意义?答:区别语言和言语是使语言学成为一门真正的现代意义上的科学所必须的,区别语言和言语可以纯化语言学的研究对象,并把对象限制在一个内部一致的出均植系统的范围内,而使语言学回到本体研究部分,从而提高语言学研究的科学性7应该如何理解语言符号的任意性?“符号”有一个根本特性,那就是任何符号都是约定俗成的,符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系8语言符号的离散特征和线形特征对语言系统的结构特点有什么重大意义?语言符号的离散特征和线形特征使语言系统的组合单位的成员之间,整个语流的各个部分之间就都有可能形成各种关系,产生各种相互影响线形特征使离散的语言符号有可能组合成大小不等的语言单位,组合成连续的语流9为什么尽管语言是客观存在的,可是以语言为研究对象的语言学却存在着不同的理论学说和观点?答:1对语言的观察角度不同侧重点不同目的不同依据的理论不同使用的方法不同依据的素材不同等因素会造成语言学存在着不同的理论2即使以上都相同,但由于时代的不同,整个社会的科学发展水平不同,个人的学术水平和学术态度等等主观因素不同,结论也就不可能完全相同3客观语言是浑然一体的,并和参与交际的各方周围的社会环境等等是分不开的语言学家要根据不同的需要运用现有的研究手段对研究现象加以切割分析,然后再进行综合4作为社会现象具有鲜明的地区性民族性和历史性,并永远处于发展演变的过程之中10语言学研究可以有哪些不同的角度？1)着眼于语言的“本体”,也就是重点研究语音语法语汇语义等语言系统内部结构规律:2)着眼于语言的社会功能重点研究语言在社会中的功能以及语言和社会之间的关系和相互影响:(3)着眼于语言和思维之间的关系,重点研究语言和思维之间的相互关系和相互影响(4)还可以是别的角度,如哲学角度或其他角度(5)多角度研究可以促进语言学繁荣第二章语音一识记内容1语音:人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义并作为语言符号系统栽体的声音,是语言的物质外壳2声音的四要素:音高音强音长音质3振幅:发音体振动时离开平衡位置的最大的偏移4频率:发音体在每一秒钟内振动的次数单位赫兹5音高:声音的高低,由频率有大小决定6音强:声音的强弱,由振幅的大小决定7音长:声音的长短由发音体振动的持续时间决定8音质:声音的个性或特色,又叫音色,是一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征9响度:指人们听觉上所感到的声音的强弱10基音:在复合声波中有一个频率最低的振动,由它发出的音叫“基音”11陪音:复合波中除去基音外,由其他振动发出的声音叫陪音12乐音:当基音的频率和陪音的频率之间存在着整倍数的比例关系时,会形成一种复杂而有规则的具有周期性重复特征的声波形式,这种声音叫做乐音13噪音:如果基音的频率和陪音的频率之间不存在整倍数的比例关系时,就形成一种杂乱无章的不规则的声波形式,这种声音就是噪音14语音的生理基础:语音是人的发音器官协同动作而产生的,人的发音器官及其运动是“语音的生理基础”,决定着语音的生理特征15声门:两片声带之间的空隙叫音声门,两块杓状软骨之间的空隙叫气声门,合称为声门16齿龈:紧靠上齿的凸起的部分17硬腭:上腭前面凹进去的部分18软腭:上腭后面比较柔软的部分19舌叶:舌头自然平伸时,与齿龈相对的部分20舌面:舌叶后面的部分21舌根:与软腭相对的部分是舌面后,叫舌根22口音:当软腭和小舌向后上升并抵住喉壁时,通向鼻腔的通道被堵塞,气流只能从口腔呼出,这样发出的音叫口音23鼻音:气流完全从鼻腔呼出时发出的音24鼻化音:气流同时从口鼻腔呼出时发出的音25主动的发音器官:能够活动的发音器官,如唇舌头软腭等26被动的发音器官:不能活动的发音器官,如上齿齿龈硬腭等二领会:1语音在语言中的作用?1)语音是由人的发音器官发出的,负载一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音,语音是语言的物质外壳2)语言借助声音这种可以感知的物质形态,才能使语言成分物质化,无形的意义才能够被传递接收辨别和理解3)人们在进行言语交际时,说话人则听觉器官接收到的这些声音来辨别和理解对方的意思,语言借助声音把说话人和听话人的大脑联结起来4)离开语音这个物质外壳,语言就无法发挥其社会交际工具的作用2语音和一般声音的本质区别?:1)语音是人的发音器官发出的,所以风声雨声等不是语音2语音必然负载一定的意义咳嗽打喃喃的声音是人的,不是语音3)语音负载的意义应属于语言符号系统即使几个人把咳嗽的声音约定为“有人来了”,仍不是语音,因为它没有经过社会的约定俗成而成为语言符号系统的构成要素3音高与发音体的形状和质地的关系?1音高与发音体的形状和质地有关相对而言,大的长的粗的厚的松的发音体振动慢,频率低,发出的声音也低:小的短的细的薄的紧的发音体振动快,频率高,发出的声音也高2)语音的高低和人类声带的长短松紧有关一般而言,妇女和儿童的声带较短较薄,声音就高一些:成年男子声带较长较厚,声音就低一些同一个人的声音的高低变化,靠控制声带的松紧调节4音高在语言中的作用?答:音高变化在语言中有重要作用在汉语等声调语言中,音节内的音高变化可以构成区别意义的声调句子的语调具有丰富的表达功能,而任何语言的语调的主要构成要素都是音高变化5音强与发音体振动的外力的关系?答:音强指声音的强弱它决定于振幅的大小振幅的大小决定于使发音体的外力的大小外力大,振幅就大,声音就强,反之,声音就弱语音的强弱决定于发音时用力的程度和气流量的大小,说话时比较用力,呼出的气流量比较大,发出的声音就比较强,反之,发出的声音就比较弱6音强响度关系密切,但二者又不是一回事?答:指人们听觉上感到的声音强弱,主观感受与客观实际不一定一致实验证明,一个强度大的声音听起来不一定比一个强度较小的音更响亮除了音强外,音高等因素也会对响度产生影响7音强在语言中的作用？答:音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用英语俄语等西方语言的词重音,汉语的轻声都与音强的变化有关比如英语中的content是名词,意思是内容Content是形容词,意思是满意的利用音强位置的变化来区别不同的词汉语中精神第二个字读轻声,是形容词,是活跃,有生气的意思如果第二个字不读轻声,是名词,指人的思想品德宗旨的意思8音长在语言中的作用？答:音长变化在许多语言和一些汉语方言中有区别意义的作用如英语中的feel感觉,与fill填充汉语广州话中的三与心都是利用音长变化来区别意义的9对语言说来说,重要的,能起区别意义作用的是相对的音高音强和音长？这是因为,以音高为例,在读诗这个字时,妇女和儿童的绝对音高比成年男子高,但只要相对是高而平的调子,就不会使人听成‘实史式“,读同一个字时,同一个人提高噪门或压低嗓门绝对音高不同但相对音高没变别人也不会听错音强音长也是如此10音质的性质？音质指声音的个性或特色是声音区别于其他声音的基本特征音质是由声波的形式决定的声波形式决定于基音和陪音的配比关系由于陪音的数量频率和振幅的不同,以及它们和基音在频率振幅等方面配比关系的不同,就形成了千变万化的声波形式,,从而产生千差万别的音质11乐音和噪音的区别？1)发音体不同乐音的发音体是声带,噪音的发音体是参与发音的有关部位2)声波形式不同乐音的基音和陪音的频率之间成整倍数的比例关系,声波形式有规则,具有周期性重复特征:噪音的基音和陪音的频率之间不存在整倍数的比例关系,声波形式没有规则,杂乱无章3)听感不同乐音听起来和谐悦耳,噪音听起来嘈杂刺耳12音质与发音体发音方法以及共鸣器的形状之间的关系？答:发音体不同,音质就不同,如敲打木板和敲打金属,发出的声音音质就不同发音方法不同,音质就不同,如小提琴上的同一要弦,用弓拉和用手弹,发出的声音音质就不同:共鸣器的形。

第一章语言的功能语言的功能是多方面的,从宽泛的意义讲，大致都可以归入语言的社会功能和思维功能两方面。

第一节：语言的社会功能语言的社会功能：信息传递功能和人际互动功能。

一、语言的信息传递功能：信息传递功能是最基本的社会功能。

这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。

各种信息传递形式的比较：身势等非语言的形式，独自传递的信息有限，多半是辅助语言来传递信息；文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式；旗语之类则是在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式；语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。

二、语言的人际互动功能建立或保持某种社会关联，即是语言的人际互动功能。

可以这样理解：说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时，在也表达主观的情感、态度和意图，寻求听话者的反馈。

而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观信息的同时，也了解了说话者的主观情感态度，从而做出回应。

说话者———————————————————————————→受话者（寻求反馈）传递客观经验信息；表达主观情感、态度和意图（做出回应）第二节：语言的思维功能一、语言和思维的关系语言是社会现象，是社会的交际工具，同时也是心理现象，是人类思维的工具。

思维功能是语言功能的另一个重要方面。

二、语言思维功能的生理基础大脑是语言思维功能的生理基础，语言功能区主要存在于左半球。

（左半球掌管抽象、概括的思维，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维）（不过，人脑分工是存在的，但其运用是综合性的）。

三、儿童语言习得和思维的发展1.独词句→双词句（孩子学话中的关键的两步）从某类概念→不同事物的区别和不同事物中共同的东西，同时把统一的事物分析成不同的要素。

独词句体现了词与事物的联系，特别是词指称整类事物的概括性。

双词句体现了造句的基本原理，就是选择需要的词，按照学会的格式把它们组合在一起。

2.大体发展趋势：独词句→双词句→实词句→虚词的掌握→熟练运用语言也就是外界的现象概念范畴化的过程。

3.儿童语言习得的条件：儿童语言习得一定得具有先天生理基础，其中最重要的就是大脑的结构和功能。

Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。

第一单元 What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics 语音学\Phonology 音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax 句法学\Semantics 语义学\Pragmatics 语用学\Sociolinguistics 社会语言学\Psycholinguistics 心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics 语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology 音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology 形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax 句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of ling u istics st u diesSemantics 语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics 语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics 社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics 心理语言学：Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics 应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics. Some important distinctions in linguistics 人类学/神经语言学/数理语言学/计算语言学1.1.Prescriptive vs Descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavio.rModern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language1.5ynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.6peech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1)speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languagenguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual usepetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of hi s languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language?什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”) Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1)arbitrariness 武断性2)productivity 创造性3)duality 二重性4)displacement 移位性5)cultural transmission 文化传递性单元二Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

第一篇语言学概论第一章语言的本质一、语言的社会功能(一)语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

1.语言和说话语言不同于说话。

语言是从话语中抽象出来的一套语音、词汇和语法的规则，而说话或话语则是运用语言"生产"出来的"产品"。

语言存在于说话或话语之中。

2.语言是人类的交际工具语言是社会现象，是一种特殊的社会现象，全民共同使用。

它与社会相互依存，是人们交流思想、进行交际的工具。

没有语言，就无法形成人类社会。

3.语言是人类最重要的交际工具(二)语言是思维的工具1.语言和思维的关系思维不同于思想，是指动脑筋、认识现实的过程。

思维离不开语言。

2.儿童学习语言的过程儿童学会语言的过程与思维能力的发展相辅相成。

3.关于聋哑人的思维聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响。

4.思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。

二、语言符号的性质和特点(一)符号甲能代表乙，甲就有条件成为乙的符号。

(二)语言符号语言符号是音与义相结合的统一体。

语言符号的音义结合是社会约定的。

正确理解音、义、物之间的相互关系是掌握语言符号性质和特点的关键。

(三)语言符号的特点：语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。

1.任意性语言符号的音义关系是由社会约定的，用什么样的“音”去表达什么样的“义”，人们说不出道理，完全由社会约定，因而这种音义的任意性关系又叫约定性。

比如能制造劳动工具的动物，汉语叫人rén(人)，维吾尔语叫adem，英语叫man。

所以马克思说：“物的名称，对于物的性质，全然是外在的。

”这就是语言符号的任意性。

2.线条性语言符号是由发音器官发出的一个一个的声音。

这一连串的语音在同一说话时间里，始终是而且只能是以一根线的形式伸展开来，即一个声音接着一个声音相继出现，好像一条锁链一环扣一环，而不能同时发出两个声音。

这就是语言符号的线条性。

三、语言符号的系统性(一)语言的层级体系语言中的各种单位相互间紧密联系，彼此依存，组成一个系统。