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VERB (VII) THE NON-FINITESTHE INFINITIVEThe tenses of the infinitive comprise relative time indication.1) The indefinite infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with or posterior to the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence, e.g.He seems to know this. (= It seems that he knows this.)He seemed to know this. (= It seemed that he knew this.)He seems to be studying hard (= It seems that he is studying hard.)They decided to discuss the problem at the next meeting. (=They decided that they would discuss the problem at the next meeting.)2) The perfect infinitive shows that the action expressed by the infinitive is prior to the action indicated by the finite form of the verb, e.g.He is said to have invented the machine by himself. (=It is said that he [has] invented the machine by himself.)11.3 Uses of the Infinitive and the Infinitive Phrase1) As subject, e.g.It is necessary for us to pay more attention to spoken English.2) As predicative, e.g.The common aspiration of the entire people there is to bring about an early reunification of their fatherland.3)As object, e.g.He promised to arrange for you to speak first.4) As attribute, e.g.Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties.5) As appositive, e.g.Our task, to dislodge the enemy from its entrenched position, was accomplished in time.6) As adverbial, e.g.I am sorry to have kept you waiting. (cause)The window was wide open to admit air. (purpose)7) As part of complex objectAs part of complex object the infinitive is often used after such verbs or phrasal verbs as: Advise, allow, ask, beg, bid, call on, care for, cause, compel, depend on, desire, expect, feel, get, hate, have, hear, help, imagine, invite, let, expect, look at, listen to, long for, make, notice, observe, order, permit, press, prevail upon, prove, rely on, see, tell, teach, take, tempt, trust, urge, vote for, watch, wish, e.g.I didn‟t hear anyone say anything about the matter.The commander ordered his men to complete combat readiness within ten minutes.8) As logical predicate in the nominative absolute construction, e.g.We shall meet at the entrance at ten to eight, the company to set off at eight sharp.9) As independent element, e.g.To tell [you] the truth, they didn‟t quite like the idea.To be fair, he has worked hard these days.10) To express a wish, (used alone) e.g.To be young again! (= I wish I were young again.)11.4 For +Noun (or pronoun in objective case) + InfinitiveThe preposition “for” may introduce a construction in which a noun (or pronoun in objective case) has an infinitive attached to it. The noun or pronoun is the logical subject of the infinitive, .e.gIt was hardly possible for us to fulfil the task without the help of others (subject)For him to do the job alone is impossible. (subject)What we want is for you to understand the matter clearly. (predicative)We deem it advisable for him to go there at once. (object)I am anxious for him to have a good rest. (adverbial)The time has come for you to do some extensive reading. (attribute)11.5 Omission of the Particle “to”The particle “to” is to be omitted:1)After all auxiliary and modal verbs except in “ought to”, “used to”, and “have to” .2)As part of complex object after verbs such as see, hear, feel, watch, observe, perceive, notice, behold, e.g.I feel my heart beat fast.We saw him cross the street.I heard her open the door.But: Now I saw him to be the boy I had seen the day before. (collocated with “be”)I felt the picture to be in full agreement with the original.He was seen to cross the street. (passive)She was heard to open the door. (passive)3)After the object of the causative verbs (let, make, have, etc.), e.g.I will have him do it.But : What would you have me to do?I will have someone to translate the story for me.The landlord made her suffer a lot.Let me try, please.Cf: He bade me [to] come in. (literary)I will get him to do it.4) In some idiomatic constructions, e.g.I had rather die than betray my motherland.I would rather go later.You had better do the homework by yourself.Better be alone (= One had better be alone) than in bad company.Cf: Better to die (=It is better to die) standing than to live on one‟s knees.The people there couldn‟t do anything but fight on.I hate doing nothing but wait and see.We have nothing to do but enjoy ourselves.But: …I am sure we in English had nothing to do but [to] fight the battle out.‟THE PARTICIPLE11.7 Tenses in the ParticipleSimilar to those of the infinitive, the tense forms of the participle comprise relative time indication.1)The present participle(1)When used in the function of an attribute, the indefinite form denotes that the action of the participle is either simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or going on at the moment of speaking, e.g.Come next Monday and hand in your report to the teacher sitting (=who will be sitting) at the desk. (simultaneousness)The teacher talking (=who is talking) with our monitor now will teach us next term. (an action going on at the moment of speaking)But the passive form can only denote an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, e.g.The factory being built at present is a new iron and steel plant.(2)When used as the adverbial, the indefinite form of terminative verbs or verbs of a mixedlexical character usually indicates that the action of the participle is prior to or simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, e.g.Passing into the ante-room, he sat dow n on the edge of a chair… (priority)Coming down the stairs, he was full of happiness. (Snow)But if it derives from a durative verb, it always indicates simultaneousness and so with all the indefinite forms introduced by the conjunction when and while, e.g.Standing by the window, he watched the drifting clouds.When crossing the street, she saw him getting off the bus.(3)The perfect form of a terminative verb or a verb of a mixed lexical character always indicates an action already completed, that is, an action which precedes the action expressed by the finite form, e.g.Having arranged everything to everybody‟s satisfaction, he left us.Having crossed the marsh, I saw a trace of white over the moor. (bronte)But if the form is of a durative verb, it refers to neither priority nor completeness, e.g.Having been here for years, he is quite familiar with everything about him.Having stayed home with all his people for the holiday, he enjoyed himself thoroughly.2)The past participle(1)With terminative verbs, the past participle expresses an action already completed before that expressed by the finite verb, e.g.A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this stream.Overcome with emotion, she couldn‟t help crying.(2)With durative verbs, it has no perfective meaning and denotes an action simultaneous with the action of the finite verb, e.g.I felt highly amused.He is a teacher loved and respected by all the students.11.8 The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive in its adjective uses (及物动的过去分词作形容词用时，总是含有被动的意思。
Unit Eleven 宾语从句语法讲解：宾语从句：一，宾语从句的定义：在复合句中作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。
考点一，宾语从句的引导词1，如果宾语从句是由陈述句转变而来时，其引导词用that引导, that 无意义，在口语中和非正式用语中常省略。
如：They are good doctors . He tell us .------ He tell us (that) they are good doctors .2，如果宾语从句是由一般疑问句转变而来，其引导词要用if / whether ,意为“是否”。
如：Mr. chen asks , “ Are you all here ? .” ------ Mr. chen asks if / whether we are all here . 3，如果宾语从句是由特殊疑问句转变而来的，其引导词用原来的疑问词。
如：Tom asked me ,” When did you begin to study English ?” ------Tom asked me when I began to study English .[ 口诀陈述that 来引导，有时可以省略掉。
一般问句表“是否”，if 或whether 来引导。
特殊问句作宾从，疑问词连接就可行。
考点二，宾语从句的时态1，主句的时态为一般现在时，从句的谓语动词的时态要根据具体的情况用相应的任何时态。
如：Mike knows (that) the doctor has returned . 迈克知道这个医生已经回来了。
I don’t know if my sister was having a party at home at 9:00 last night . 我不知道昨天晚上九点我的妹妹是否正在家里举行一场聚会。
2，主句的时态为一般过去时，从句的谓语动词的时态要用相应的某一过去的时态。
如：The lady said she would buy a gift for her son .这位夫人说她将为儿子买件礼物。
Chapter 11 EXTERNALITIES•An externality refers to the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.•Externalities cause markets to be inefficient, and thus fail to maximize total surplus.When the market works as it shouldWhen the market works as it should……•Recall: Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” of the marketplace leads self-interested buyers and sellers in a market to maximize the total benefit that society can derive from a market. But market failures can still happen.EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.•When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•NegativeExternalities–Automobile exhaust–Cigarette smoking–Barking dogs (loudpets)–Loud stereos in anapartment buildingEXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•Positive Externalities–Immunizations–Restored historic buildings–Research into new technologiesEXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•Negative externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.•Positive externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.Welfare Economics: A Recap•The Market for Aluminum•The quantity produced and consumed in the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that itmaximizes the sum of producer and consumersurplus.•If the aluminum factories emit pollution (a negative externality), then the cost to society of producingaluminum is larger than the cost to aluminumproducers.Figure 1 The Market for AluminumQuantity ofAluminum0Price ofAluminum EquilibriumDemand(private value)Supply(private cost)Q MARKETWelfare Economics: A Recap•The Market for Aluminum•For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus thecost to those bystanders adversely affected by thepollution.Figure 2 Pollution and the Social Optimum EquilibriumQuantity ofAluminum 0Price ofAluminumDemand(private value)Supply(private cost)Social cost (private cost and external cost)Q OPTIMUM OptimumExternalCost Q MARKETNegative Externalities•The intersection of the demand curve and the social-cost curve determines the optimal output level.•The socially optimal output level is less than themarket equilibrium quantity.Negative Externalities•Internalizing an externality involves altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions.•To achieve the socially optimal output…•the government can internalize an externality byimposing a tax on the producer to reduce theequilibrium quantity to the socially desirablequantity.Positive Externalities•When an externality benefits the bystanders, a positive externality exists.•The social value of the good exceeds the privatevalue.•A technology spillover is a type of positive externality that exists when a firm’s innovation or design not only benefits the firm, but enters society’s pool of technological knowledge and benefits society as a whole.Figure 3 Education and the Social OptimumQuantity ofEducation0Price ofEducation Demand(private value)Supply(private cost)Q MARKET Social value(private andexternal benefit)Externalbenefit Equilibrium OptimumQ OPTIMUMPositive Externalities•The intersection of the supply curve and the social-value curve determines the optimal output level.•The optimal output level is more than theequilibrium quantity.•The market produces a smaller quantity than issocially desirable.•The social value of the good exceeds the private value of the good.Positive Externalities•Internalizing Externalities:•Subsidies•Used as the primary method for attempting to internalizepositive externalities.•Industrial Policy•Government intervention in the economy that aims topromote technology-enhancing industries•Patent laws are a form of technology policy that give the individual (orfirm) with patent protection a property right over its invention.•The patent is then said to internalize the externality.PRIVATE SOLUTIONS TO EXTERNALITIES•Government action is not always needed to solve the problem of externalities.•Types of Private Solutions–Moral codes and social sanctions–Charitable organizations–Integrating different types of businesses–Contracting between partiesThe Coase Theorem•The Coase theorem is a proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their own.•Transaction costs•Transaction costs are the costs that parties incur inthe process of agreeing to and following through ona bargain.Why Private Solutions Do Not Always Work•Sometimes the private solution approach fails because transaction costs can be so high that private agreement is not possible.PUBLIC POLICIES TOWARD EXTERNALITIES•When externalities are significant and private solutions are not found, government mayattempt to solve the problem through . . .–command-and-control policies.–market-based policies.Command-and-Control Policies: Regulation•Usually take the form of regulations: •Forbid certain behaviors.•Require certain behaviors.•Examples:•Requirements that all students be immunized.•Stipulations on pollution emission levels set by theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA).and Subsidies•Government uses taxes and subsidies to align private incentives with social efficiency.•Corrective taxes are taxes enacted to correct the effects of a negative externality.•Also called Pigovian taxesand Subsidies•Examples of Regulation versus Corrective Tax •If the EPA decides it wants to reduce the amount ofpollution coming from a specific plant. The EPAcould…•tell the firm to reduce its pollution by a specific amount(i.e. regulation).•levy a tax of a given amount for each unit of pollution thefirm emits (i.e. corrective tax).Market-Based Policy 2: Tradable Pollution Permits•Tradable pollution permits allow the voluntary transfer of the right to pollute from one firm to another.•A market for these permits will eventuallydevelop.•A firm that can reduce pollution at a low cost mayprefer to sell its permit to a firm that can reducepollution only at a high cost.Figure 4 The Equivalence of Corrective Taxes and Pollution Permits Quantity of Pollution0Price ofPollutionDemand for pollution rights PCorrective tax (a) Corrective Tax2. . . . which, togetherwith the demand curve,determines the quantityof pollution.1.A correctivetax sets theprice ofpollution . . .QFigure 4 The Equivalence of Corrective Taxes and Pollution Permits Quantity of Pollution 0Demand forpollution rightsQ Supply of pollution permits (b) Pollution PermitsPrice ofPollution 2. . . . which, togetherwith the demand curve,determines the priceof pollution. 1. Pollution permits set the quantity of pollution . . .PBoth the Corrective Taxes and PollutionPermit approaches canyield the same result.。
新概念英语第二册第11课课文详解及语法解析课文详注 Further notes on the text1. One good turn deserves another.礼尚往来。
(1)名词turn的含义之一是“(协助或损害他人的)举动”、“行为”：Yesterday George did me a good/ an ill turn.乔治昨天做了一件对我有利/不利的事。
He is always ready to do a turn for others.他总是乐于为他人做好事。
(2)deserve的意义为“应受”、“应得(奖赏、惩罚等)”、“值得”，通常为及物动词：His words deserve attention.他的话值得注意。
Mary deserves the prize.玛丽应得这个奖。
2. He gets a good salary…他的薪水很高……good在这里的意思是“相当大/多的”、“相当可观的”：It takes me a good three hours to get there.我花了整整3小时才到达那里。
3. …but he always borrows money from his friends and never pays it back.……但他却总是向朋友借钱，并且从来不还。
(1)连词and在这句话中可解释为“并且”、“另外”(in addition)。
(2)pay在这里的意思是“偿还(债务等)”。
pay还能够解释为“付”、“支付(价款、账单等)”，如课文的最后一句话：…so now you can pay for my dinner!……所以现在你能够替我付饭钱了!pay 既是及物动词也能够是不及物动词：How much did you pay for that dress?那件衣服你花了多少钱?I paid the bill.我付了账。
语法 Grammar in use在前10课的语法中，我们比较了一般过去时、一般现在时、现在完成时、现在实行时和过去实行时等时态以及和它们相关的时间状语，另外还学习了被动语态。
人教版九年级英语语法unit11知识点Unit 11 Language points in the 9th Grade English Grammar TextbookIntroduction:In the 9th Grade English Grammar textbook, Unit 11 focuses on several important grammar points. Understanding these points will not only help students to improve their English language skills but also enable them to communicate effectively in various situations. In this article, we will discuss the key grammar concepts covered in Unit 11 and how they can be applied in real-life scenarios.1. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives:One of the crucial grammar points in Unit 11 is comparative and superlative adjectives. Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things, while superlative adjectives are used to compare multiple things. For instance, "The elephant is larger than the dog" demonstrates the use of the comparative adjective, while "The elephant is the largest animal in the zoo" shows the application of a superlative adjective. Mastering these concepts allows students to express their preferences and make comparisons more accurately.2. Adverbial Clauses of Time:Unit 11 also covers adverbial clauses of time, which are used to explain when an action occurred. By using conjunctions such as "when," "before," "after," and "while," students can effectively convey temporal relationships. For example, "I will go to the movies when I finish my homework" demonstrates the use of an adverbial clause of time. By understanding this concept, students can construct more complex sentences and describe events in a more precise manner.3. Direct and Indirect Speech:Direct and indirect speech is another significant aspect covered in Unit 11. Direct speech involves quoting someone's exact words, while indirect speech reports what someone said. By mastering this grammar concept, students can accurately convey information they have heard or express someone else's opinion. For example, changing the direct speech "She said, 'I am going to the park'" to indirect speech results in "She said that she was going to the park." Knowing how to use direct and indirect speech helps enhance communication skills and ensures accurate transmission of information.4. Passive Voice:Understanding the passive voice is essential for effective communication. The passive voice is used when the focus is on theobject of an action, rather than the subject. It is formed using the auxiliary verb "be" and adding the past participle of the main verb. For example, changing the active sentence "John painted the picture" to passive results in "The picture was painted by John." Being proficient in using the passive voice enables students to express ideas more accurately and create varied sentence structures.5. Reported Speech with Modal Verbs:Unit 11 also introduces reported speech with modal verbs. Modal verbs, such as "can," "must," and "should," express possibility, necessity, or advice. When reporting someone's speech that involves modal verbs, it is essential to make appropriate changes. For example, changing the direct speech "He said, 'I can swim'" to indirect speech results in "He said that he could swim." Understanding the usage of reported speech with modal verbs enables students to convey messages accurately and convey others' thoughts and opinions.Conclusion:The aforementioned grammar points covered in Unit 11 of the 9th Grade English Grammar textbook are integral to effective English communication. Comparative and superlative adjectives, adverbial clauses of time, direct and indirect speech, passive voice, and reported speech with modal verbs are essential components that allow studentsto express themselves and understand others better. By mastering these grammar concepts, students can enhance their language skills and become confident and proficient English communicators.。
第11课的内容： ⼀、重要句型或语法 1、复习第1-10课的关键句型 第1-10课的重点内容有：简单句及其语序、⼀般现在时、现在进⾏时、⼀般过去时、现在完成时、冠词、不定代词、过去进⾏时、⽐较关系、表时间的介词、被动语态。
2、动词不定式 本课侧重的是动词不定式做宾语补⾜语的⽤法，如：He wants me to ask you a question. / Frank helped Tom to dig this hole. ⼆、课⽂主要语⾔点 I was having dinner at a restaurant when Tony Steel came in. 1)复习过去进⾏时的⽤法，侧重when的⽤法，即主句动词⽤过去进⾏时、when引导的从句动词⽤⼀般过去时，注意与while的区别(while引导的并列句的动词⽤过去进⾏时，另⼀个并列句⽤⼀般过去时或过去进⾏时)。
如原句可以改为：While I was having dinner at a restaurant, Tony Steel came in. 2)注意restaurant的拼写和读⾳。
Tony worked in a lawyer\s office years ago, but he is now working at a bank. 1)可从but前后两句话中的时间状语years ago和now来提问学⽣动词时态的使⽤。
2)注意work in a lawyer's office和work at a bank中不同地点采⽤的不同的介词。
3)lawyer只需识记基本意思，注意bank也可以表⽰河岸。
He gets a good salary, but he always borrows money from his friends and never pays it back. 1)get a good salary，收⼊不错。
Chapter 11Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching⏹Applied linguistics⏹Krashen’s Input hypothesis⏹i+1 principle⏹Interlanguage⏹Syllabus⏹Contrastive analysis⏹Error analysis⏹Error/mistake11.1 Applied linguistics•Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems.•Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.Applied Linguistics应用语言学语言学的一个分支，主要关心的是如何应用语言学理论、方法和成果来阐释其他领域遇到的语言问题。
应用语言学发展最充分的分支是外语教学，有时这个名称似乎只指这个领域。
但是近年来出现了好几个其他应用领域，包括语言故障的语言学分析（临床语言学）、母语教育中的语言使用（教育语言学）、词典学的发展、翻译、人工智能和风格学等。
⏹应用语言学不但运用语言学知识，还利用社会学、心理学、人类学、信息论等方面的知识，并把这些理论和知识应用与实践方面，例如，语言教学大纲的设计、言语矫正、语言规划、问题学研究等等。
•Applied linguistics–Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.–Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.•According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority –“it‟s like that”, “it‟s an exception”, or “it‟s less formal”.11.2 Linguistics and language learning•Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories.–In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.2.1Grammar and language learningfocus on form 语法形式中心As a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.Focus on Form•Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.The definition of UG•In linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.•Universal grammar acts as a way to explain how language acquisition works in humans, by showing the most basic rules that all languages have to follow.Universal Grammar (UG)•Noam Chomsky–A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence.–The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals.–While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.Universal Grammar•Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. •According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low.•The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play.•The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching.–Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky‟s linguistic theory.Drawbacks•UG‟s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition.•UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax).•The communication function is discarded in UG.•Chomsky is concerned only with …competence‟, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.Grammar-based teaching•Grammar-translation method•Audiolingual method•Situational language teachingGrammar-translation method•The Grammar-Translation Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.•At one time The Grammar-Translation Method was called Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek。
The Audiolingual Method听说法•The Audiolingual Method is a method of foreign or second Language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing. In the audiolingual method, mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.•The Audiolingual Method uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques.Situational language teaching•Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact on language courseswhich survive in some still being used today.•Objectives•a practical command of the four basic skills of a language, through structure•accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar•ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations•automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns.2.2 Input 输入•Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.•This input may come in written or spoken form.•In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse.a. Input输入的语言：有两个意思：（用于语言学习）指学习者已听到、已接受并能吸收的语言。
