Marker constituents of the natural antioxydant

小学上册英语第2单元寒假试卷(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.What do you call the act of learning about something?A. StudyingB. TeachingC. ExploringD. Researching答案: A2.My friend has a unique __________ (视角) on life.3.The Himalayas are famous for their _______.4.I love the sound of ______ (音乐) while studying. It helps me focus and feel ______ (轻松).5.The clouds are ______ (fluffy) and white.6.Which shape has three sides?A. SquareB. CircleC. TriangleD. Rectangle答案: C7.We have ______ (math) class after lunch.8.My pet rabbit has a _______ (特殊的) name.9.My favorite _________ (玩具) is one that makes funny noises.10.I enjoy watching the clouds __________ in the sky. (移动)11. A __________ is a substance that changes color in acid or base solutions.12.What is the capital of Sri Lanka?A. ColomboB. KandyC. GalleD. Jaffna答案:A.Colombo13.What is the name of the activity where you throw a ball into a hoop?A. BasketballB. FootballC. SoccerD. Baseball答案: A14. A _____ (植物影响研究) can explore ecological relationships.15.We should keep ______ (环境清洁) for plants to thrive.16.Mount Kilimanjaro is found in _____ (14).17.The capital of the Gambia is ________ (班珠尔).18.The pH scale measures how __________ a substance is.19.I see a __ in the sky. (cloud)20.The dolphin swims in ______ (海洋) with grace.21.The cake is ________ (漂亮).22.At the pet shop, I saw a _______ (小仓鼠) running in a wheel.23.I like to _____ with my friends. (hang out)24.She is very ________ at drawing.25.听录音排序。

语言学概论语言学课后习题答案P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not randomin their use. Although the link between form and meaningis arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way onceit has become established in the linguistic community. P12explain the primacy of human language over animal communication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor inhuman language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed. c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 list five Chinese onomatopoetic words 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basisof language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages inthe world. We need to look into the common features ofall languages, the range of variations among languages,the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language,the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone? Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme isa block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean inthe term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, \P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean? When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to bein complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yielda regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm arecommonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English. P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word? Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called \\or\connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning.As for its various associated meanings, however, wehave to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situationand the context of culture.P82 1. Divide the following words into morphemesby placing a \each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally 5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7)soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate+-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have? The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in \\(2) -(r)en: as in \and (5) zero, as in \P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself.A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word. For example, the definite article \the lexeme \P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuousconstituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related. One phrase markeris derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsiblefor the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane (b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagramof constituent structure for each of the following sentences: (a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street. (2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist. (3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115 Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed throughtransformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntacticmovement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences. (a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public. (b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard. (c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deepstructure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the following sentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive froma deep structure in the form of The computer program can do \this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- \content\to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the \sentence, and its variant is \This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that botha be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both of which have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's inthe VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (, permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning? Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms. True synonyms are rare. The so-called \their origin,in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of words belong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs, downstairsf. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms;d)parent,child:relational antonyms; f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the wordsin the following pairs. 1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or \part of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both thesubordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or \In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. \is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the following utterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. → John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret. →She had told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. → The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. → The paper was dipped into the liquid 2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. → His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. → They are not here at present. c) Mary's computer is terrific. →Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. → Two of our friends were at the party.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, forthey seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in eachof the verbs in the following sentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 482–491Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectJournal ofEthnopharmacologyj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /j e t h p h a rmThe potential of metabolic fingerprinting as a tool for the modernisation of TCM preparationsHelen Sheridan a ,Liselotte Krenn b ,Renwang Jiang c ,Ian Sutherland d ,Svetlana Ignatova d ,Andreas Marmann e ,Xinmiao Liang f ,Jandirk Sendker g ,∗aTrinity College,Dublin,School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences,East End Development 4/5,Dublin 2,Ireland bUniversity of Vienna,Department of Pharmacognosy,Althanstrasse 14,A-1090Vienna,Austria cGuangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Drugs Research,College of Pharmacy,Jinan University,Guangzhou 510632,People’s Republic of China dBrunel University,Brunel Institute for Bioengineering,Uxbridge,Middlesex UB83PH,United Kingdom eUniversity of Düsseldorf,Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology,Universitätsstr.1,40225Düsseldorf,Germany fChinese Academy of Sciences,Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics,Bio-technology Department,457Zhongshan Road,Dalian 116023,People’s Republic of China gUniversity of Münster,Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry,Hittorfstrasse 56,48149Münster,Germanya r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Received 31October 2011Received in revised form 30January 2012Accepted 31January 2012Available online 7 February 2012Keywords:Chinese herbal medicines ExtractionCompound analysis MetabolomicsFingerprint analysisa b s t r a c tA vast majority Chinese herbal medicines (CHM)are traditionally administered as individually prepared water decoctions (tang )which are rather complicated in practice and their dry extracts show techno-logical problems that hamper straight production of more convenient application forms.Modernised extraction procedures may overcome these difficulties but there is lack of clinical evidence supporting their therapeutic equivalence to traditional decoctions and their quality can often not solely be attributed to the single marker compounds that are usually used for chemical extract optimisation.As demonstrated by the example of the rather simple traditional TCM formula Danggui Buxue Tang,both the chemical com-position and the biological activity of extracts resulting from traditional water decoction are influenced by details of the extraction procedure and especially involve pharmacokinetic synergism based on co-extraction.Hence,a more detailed knowledge about the traditional extracts’chemical profiles and their impact on biological activity is desirable in order to allow the development of modernised extracts that factually contain the whole range of compounds relevant for the efficacy of the traditional application.We propose that these compounds can be identified by metabolomics based on comprehensive finger-print analysis of different extracts with known biological activity.TCM offers a huge variety of traditional products of the same botanical origin but with distinct therapeutic properties,like differentially pro-cessed drugs and special daodi qualities.Through this variety,TCM gives an ideal field for the application of metabolomic techniques aiming at the identification of active constituents.© 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionThere is an increasing interest in the use and application of CHM throughout the Western hemisphere.Notwithstanding the intake of powdered herbal drugs in different delivery forms,the typical preparation of CHM involves some kind of extraction of herbal drug material.Traditionally,the most important delivery form is theAbbreviations:AR,Astragali Radix;ASR,Angelicae sinensis Radix;CHM,Chi-nese herbal medicine;CMM,Chinese Materia Medica;DBT,Danggui Buxue Tang;FP,fingerprint analysis;PCA,principal component analysis;PLS-DA,partial least square discriminant analysis;SCO,supercritical carbon dioxide;SFE,Supercritical Fluid Extraction;TCM,traditional Chinese medicine.∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+492518333379;fax:+492528338341.E-mail address:Jandirk.sendker@uni-muenster.de (J.Sendker).water decoction of a mixture containing typically 2–12different herbal materials (Yi and Chang,2004).It should be explicitly stated that the item which is finally administered to a patient is an extract which is not just represented by the botanical origin of its herbal ingredients but also influenced by any procedure that is applied to the herbal material.Any such procedure may severely impact upon the extract’s chemical composition and hence the products’qual-ity with regard to its therapeutic efficacy.This is especially true for complex TCM formulae where we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between the thousands of chem-ical compounds that constitute the herbal metabolome(s).Besides showing synergistic effects on a pharmacodynamic level,chem-ical compounds of a TCM formula or even an individual herbal material can also interact with each other (i)on a pharmacoki-netic level,influencing the solubility,stability or resorption of compounds or (ii)on a biochemical level,where residual herbal0378-8741/$–see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.01.050H.Sheridan et al./Journal of Ethnopharmacology140 (2012) 482–491483enzymes may impact the chemical composition;(iii)a mixture of herbal drugs could even be shown to contain metabolites that none of the individual herbal ingredients displayed(Nüsslein et al.,2000; Spinella,2002;Gu et al.,2004;Nualkaew et al.,2004;Ma et al., 2009;Nahrstedt and Butterweck,2010).Facing this complexity, the recent approaches for modernisation of CHM,aiming at the development of more convenient and better standardised prod-ucts,bear the risk that such features are lost by turning away from the traditional products and their traditional drug processing and extraction procedures.Extract optimisation is frequently guided by the analysis of single compounds which can often be regarded as the active substance(Yan et al.,2010).Yet,lacking the appro-priate knowledge,the activity of many herbal preparations cannot be clearly linked to single chemical compounds(Vlietinck et al., 2009).Even very well established herbal products like extracts of Salicis cortex have shown efficacy beyond that which is explicable by their content of salicin derivatives which have been consid-ered to solely constitute the extract’s active substance for decades (Schmid et al.,2001).With regard to CHM,it seems desirable that the traditional procedures like the unique pàozhìdrug processing and the extraction of specific combinations of herbal drugs are sys-tematically investigated for their impact on the herbal extracts’therapeutic qualities and metabolomes(Yi and Chang,2004;Zhao et al.,2010).In this review we will describe the current situation and problems connected to the extraction and compound anal-ysis of CHM and show possible research approaches to gain the chemical information required for a rational extract modernisation that gives consideration to the complex composition of traditional preparations.2.Traditional extraction of CHMThe majority of CHM for oral use is applied as water decoc-tions(tang).Other oral preparations include macerates in aqueous ethanol,the intake of powdered drugs suspended in water or pre-pared in pills,e.g.with honey,water or rice gruel as excipients(Li et al.,2007;Martin and Stöger,2008).Decoctions,macerates and suspensions are very simple to prepare and allow a highflexibility of the recipes.A factor which fundamentally influences the chem-ical composition of extracts is the pàozhìprocessing of the crude drug prior to extraction.This is of special importance for the detox-ification of toxic materials like Aconitum drugs(Singhuber et al., 2010)but also for the preservation of active constituents,ease of administration,flavour correction or cleansing(Zhu,1998).Many drugs can be processed by various methods like stir-frying,steam-ing or calcining in order to gain a product with altered therapeutic properties and–implicitly–altered chemical composition(Zhao et al.,2010;Zhan et al.,2011).To prepare a typical traditional decoction,a complex TCM for-mula is macerated with water for a period of time before afirst boiling step follows.Afterfiltration,the herbal material is re-extracted a second time(usually with less water)and the combined extracts are ingested and/or kept for further use.The time spans for soaking and cooking depend on the drugs as well as on the indica-tion.As a rule of thumb,decoctions for acute conditions are cooked for a shorter period of time as compared to preparations for chronic diseases.Over thousands of years numerous special instructions for the boiling process have been developed in the use of CHM.These methods seem to be related to the different physical,chemical and pharmacological characteristics of the active compounds(Martin and Stöger,2008;Körfers and Sun,2009).Herbal drugs containing volatile or temperature-sensitive sub-stances are added only a few minutes before the end of thefirst boiling period to avoid losses or decomposition(hòuxià).Expen-sive drugs,e.g.Ginseng Radix or Panacis quinquefolii Radix might be cooked separately to optimise the yield and avoid adsorption of active compounds to other ingredients within the prescription (lìngji¯an,lìngd¯un).In some instances drugs have to be added to the mixture wrapped in a thin cloth(b¯aoji¯an),this occurs with drugs like Typhae Pollen,which might lead to turbid decoctions or Inulae Flos which contains drug particles which could cause intestinal irri-tations.For toxic drugs such as Aconiti radix,which are only used orally after pàozhìprocessing,additional cooking steps or longer boiling times for the preparation are recommended.In prepara-tions containing Acori Rhizoma,an extended decoction process(in summary3h)has been proven to be very efficient for the reduction of genotoxicß-asarone(Chen et al.,2009).3.The example of Danggui Buxue Tang(DBT)In order to evaluate the significance of traditional procedures for the therapeutic value of a CHM,the rather simple two-herb for-mula DBT has been chosen as a model to investigate the influence of numerous extraction parameters on the chemical composition and pharmacological efficacies of a water decoction.The traditional composition of DBT as established over the centuries is reported as five parts Astragali Radix(AR)and one part Angelicae sinensis Radix (ASR).An investigation of several mixtures with different ratios of the two drugs has shown the best pharmacological effects as well as the highest yields of the(active)markers astragaloside IV,caly-cosin,formononetin,ferulic acid,total saponins,totalflavonoids and total polysaccharides for the traditional composition,while the undesired compound ligustilide was found to be least con-centrated with this ratio.The concentrations of these compounds varied over the examined drug ratios(AR:ASR from1:1to10:1) by a factor of∼2,demonstrating a significant impact of the drug ratio on the extraction yield(Dong et al.,2006;Po et al.,2007). Systematic investigations compared different durations of boiling, drug-solvent-ratios and numbers of extractions for DBT and also examined the chemical properties of both herbal ingredients’indi-vidual extracts.It could be shown that the treatment with DBT was up to twice as effective as individual extracts of its herbal ingredients at the same concentration.Interestingly,the extraction corresponding most closely to the traditional prescription(twofold extraction of the drug mixture with the eightfold amount of water and an entire boiling time of2h)resulted in the best extraction of active markers and the best effect in two bio-assays(Song et al., 2004;Gao et al.,2006).A mixture of individually prepared extracts of AR and ASR showed an inferior pharmacological effect when compared to the traditional co-extraction of the drugs as well as a lower concentration of active markers.It is interesting to note that the investigated markers from ASR(ligustilide and ferulic acid) showed an astonishing increase of concentration of more than25 fold when co-extracted with ASR,indicating a massive influence of AR on the extraction of these compounds(Mak et al.,2006).Another study of DBT yielded similar results with respect to biological activ-ity,however,the chromatographicfingerprints did not show such a huge influence of co-extraction on the ASR markers.The authors concluded that other,non-observed compounds influenced by co-extraction would impact the biological activity(Choi et al.,2011). The pàozhìprocessing of ASR with rice wine prior to extraction was also examined and resulted in higher extraction yields of astraga-loside IV,isoflavones and polysaccharides(Dong et al.,2006).As the processing of ASR with rice wine results in a decreased con-centration of ligustilide in the processed product,it was examined if the co-extraction of AR with pure ligustilide would impact the extraction yields of AR markers;in fact,ligustilide lowered the yields of these markers in a dose-dependent manner,indicating that the pàozhìprocessing of ASR influences the activity of DBT by altering its properties with regard to co-extraction with AR(Zheng484H.Sheridan et al./Journal of Ethnopharmacology140 (2012) 482–491et al.,2010).Further,the exchange of ASR with another drug,Radix Chuanxiong,which shares the occurrence of ligustilide and ferulic acid with ASR,was examined,resulting in both an inferior pharma-cological efficacy and lower concentrations of the AR markers when compared to a DBT extract,indicating that other,non-observed compounds of ASR may impact the quality of DBT(Li et al.,2009).It must be stated that the activities in the above mentioned stud-ies were assessed by completely different methods.Nevertheless, the example of DBT impressively demonstrates that the subject of extraction is not a trivial one and that the chemical composition and pharmacological efficacies of the traditional water decoctions are influenced to an astonishing degree by a multitude of factors which apparently have found their optimum in the traditional DBT prescription.4.Modernisation of CHM extractsThe development of modernised extracts and application forms is desired for numerous reasons:(i)individually prepared water decoctions are more likely to entail quality shortcomings caused by improper herbal drugs when compared to herbal medicines produced in industrial scale under best controllable conditions. (ii)Water decoctions are probably the worst possible preparation in terms of stability and may give rise to microbial contamina-tions,decomposition of constituents by hydrolytic or oxidative reactions or precipitations that may impact the product’s qual-ity.(iii)TCM water decoctions are infamous for their unpleasant organoleptic properties.(iv)The rather complicated and time con-suming preparation and storage of water decoctions may cause compliance problems while modernised application forms based on dry extracts(granules,capsules,tablets,etc.)are easily man-ageable for both patients and practitioners.(v)The possibility for standardisation of large-scale extracts is a prerequisite for future evidence-based research.(vi)The blinding of clinical studies employing traditional water extracts is hampered by their strong organoleptic properties(Martin and Stöger,2008;Flower et al., 2011).As evident from the studies on DBT,turning away from traditional procedures bears the risk of altering the product’s therapeutic properties.Therefore some modernisation approaches, directly based on water decoctions,have been developed to over-come the above mentioned problems.One such approach involves the delivery of water decoctions in sealed,separately packaged, daily dosages thus increasing the compliance and stability of the product.Also an unpleasantly tasting herbal placebo composed of nine culinary herbs was designed(Flower et al.,2011).4.1.Pressurised hot waterPressurised hot water extraction at high temperature is some-times applied and can be regarded as a kind of modernisation.This method has been shown to decrease the extractant’s polarity and thus provides the extraction of a wider range of compounds(Deng et al.,2007).Nevertheless,it is reported that the use of pressure cookers for the preparation of decoctions to shorten cooking times leads to less active preparations(Martin and Stöger,2008).4.2.Formation of granulesA major approach to modernise and facilitate the application of CHM was the introduction of granules,which are usually pre-pared from decoctions byfluid-bed granulation or spray-drying. As the technological properties of such extracts are impaired by high amounts of hydrophilic constituents,especially carbohydrates which result in hydroscopic,sticky and hence hardly processable extracts.Thus,excipients are added to the decoction of the herbal material(one step procedure)or mixed with the spray-dried prod-uct(two step procedure)(Martin and Stöger,2008;Ai et al.,2008). Rather high amounts of additives are required(Wang et al.,2011) and these additives further add on to the extract dose which is already quite large due to the presence of polar“bulk material”. Another method to improve the technological properties is the removal of highly polar compounds from the extract by ethanol precipitation prior to drying(Tan et al.,2006).Such preparations can be instantly applied by suspension in hot water or can be used to produce single dosage forms like capsules.An advantage is that these products can be applied quickly avoiding the time consuming preparation of a decoction.e of less polar extractantsOther modernisation approaches employ less polar extractants and hence can yield a dry extract with superior technologi-cal properties when compared to dried water extracts.These approaches comprise the extraction with(hydro)alcoholic or organic extractants performed by different extraction techniques like maceration,Soxhlet extraction,microwave-assisted extrac-tion,ultrasonic extraction or accelerated solvent extraction. Though these different extraction techniques show clear distinct properties(e.g.thermal decomposition during Soxhlet extraction, solvent limitations for microwave-assisted extraction),the dif-ferences can mainly be attributed to extraction speed while the chemical composition of the resulting extracts after establishment of equilibration is mainly influenced by the kind of extractant used and its temperature(Yan et al.,2010).From a general view, the differences in extract composition between these techniques can be regarded as negligible when compared to the differences between any of these techniques employing(hydro)alcoholic or organic solvents and a traditional water decoction.A study com-paring hydroalcoholic extracts of more than30drugs with their respective water decoctions clearly showed that decoction in most cases allows an extraction of phenolics which is similarly efficient as maceration with50%ethanol.The yields after extraction with 80%methanol,a very common method for analytical determina-tion of phenolics and their testing on antioxidant activity,was much lower.In this study,most of the decoctions,among them drugs from Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch,Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.)Bge.or Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.,showed better or similar antioxidant activity as compared to the hydroethanolic macerates.The activity of the80%methanolic extracts was worse for almost all tested drugs(Li et al.,2007).In a comparison of aque-ous and ethanolic extracts from different drugs a more pronounced effect on various CYP enzymes was proven for the water extracts (Tang et al.,2006).4.4.Supercritical Fluid Extraction(SFE)A completely different extraction technique that by its techni-cal properties is attractive for large scale extraction,is Supercritical Fluid Extraction(SFE).This is an extraction technique which takes advantage of the enhanced solvating and penetrating capacity of gases or liquids in their critical phases(ASTM,2006).The unique properties of supercriticalfluids were observed more than a cen-tury ago,but only in the last four decades SFE has emerged as an extraction technique(Khosravi-Darani,2010).Advantages of SFE in contrast to conventional extraction are(i)superior extraction efficiency and selectivity for low polar phytochemicals.The extrac-tion efficiency and selectivity can be tuned by optimising pressure and temperature(Wang et al.,2008;Liu et al.,2008a).(ii)Among the many applicable solvents for SFE,the most commonly used for extraction of CHM is supercritical carbon dioxide(SCO)which is inert,easily available,inexpensive,odourless,environmentalH.Sheridan et al./Journal of Ethnopharmacology140 (2012) 482–491485friendly and has mild critical point properties.To increase the sol-ubility of compounds from CHM in SCO,small amounts of polar modifiers,e.g.ethanol,may be added,usually not more than10%of the amount required for conventional extraction techniques(Chen and Ling,2000;Silva et al.,2009;Chen et al.,2011).(iii)SCO is eas-ily removable from the extract by depressurization,and thus no solvent residue is left in the extract(Vagi et al.,2002).(iv)Prefer-able product stability.The extraction is conducted at oxygen and light free operating conditions which prevent oxidation and light dependent changes,for example,a SCO extract of tomatoes could be stored for more than half a year at−20◦C without lycopene loss (Lenucci et al.,2010).Furthermore,the low temperatures minimize thermal degradation of sensitive materials,e.g.volatiles.As a green separation technique,SFE has a promising future in its application in thefields of TCM and natural products(Martinez,2008).However,there are limitations for any of the extraction method-ologies to be considered for the production of more convenient application forms.Because of the“Lipinski rule offive”(Lipinski et al.,2001),it is generally believed that less polar extractants like alcohols,acetone or SCO are capable of extracting pharmacologi-cally relevant analytes while excluding higher amounts of polar, technologically difficult“bulk material”like carbohydrates,pro-teins,amino acids etc.from the extract.However,this is a very reductionistic view which actually applies to a single active com-pound and especially excludes the possibility of pharmacokinetic synergism in herbal extracts,which has been shown to have a major impact on the chemical composition of CHM(e.g.Mak et al., 2006).It cannot be generally ruled out that the extraction of very polar constituents(needing water as extractant)can be essential for producing efficient extracts from specific drugs or for specific appli-cations,polymeric carbohydrates or compatible solutes like ectoine are examples for such highly polar bioactive compounds(Lentzen and Schwarz,2006).When relating any modernised CHM extract to the long experience of TCM it should be considered that its clinical efficacy should at least match the one of the traditional prepara-tion it relates to.It has been shown that the single active markers that are typically used for the quality control of herbal drugs may not be able to fully explain a product’s quality,especially when the drug is used as part of a co-extracted herbal mixture(Schmid et al.,2001;Li et al.,2009;Vlietinck et al.,2009),and frequently not even an active marker is known but analytical markers without known clinical relevance are used as a surrogate.As a consequence, such single markers cannot be generally recommended to guide the optimisation of an extract.Hence,for the rational development of new products it is essential to increase our knowledge about which chemical compounds define the quality of a traditional prepara-tion,so a production chain can be established thatfinally yields an improved product lacking technologically problematic“bulk mate-rial”while conserving any compound that has been shown to be relevant for the traditional product’s quality in terms of clinical efficacy.In summary,the rational modernisation of CHM requires further research to identify chemical compound that can be linked to an herbal preparation’s quality considering pharmacodynami-cally and pharmacokinetically relevant compounds.5.Fingerprint analysis in activity studies of herbal extractsA major challenge in the modernisation of CHM is the incorpo-ration of between one and twelve herbs in a given formula,thus conferring a high degree of complexity and the potential for vari-ation in composition and quality of a preparation.It has also been established that interactions between chemical components may take place during traditional co-extraction of complex herbal mix-tures and thus impact the extract’s chemical composition.Due to the lack of knowledge about the chemical compounds that completely constitute the quality of many CHM,the widespread practice of using single herb monographs and analysing of sin-gle compounds for the characterisation of CHM extracts tested in pharmacological or clinical studies seems to be insufficient.This is of particular issue when dealing with HM that contain multi-ple herbs,and can be illustrated by the fact that sometimes the same,rather unspecific metabolites are used for the quality assess-ment of herbal drugs with distinct clinical properties.Examples are chlorogenic acid,which is used as a marker compound for Caulis Lonicera,Flos Lonicera and Flos Chrysantemi,or berberine,which is used as a marker compound for Rhizoma Coptidis and Cortex Phel-lodendri(Zhou et al.,2008).Consequently,a more comprehensive view on the chemistry of extracts is desirable.It is obvious that the metabolomic techniques currently available forfingerprint analy-sis(FP)of complex biological and herbal samples and those with evolving applications in this area,have the potential to enhance the quality control of CHM and to assist with the correlation of bioactiv-ity with composition.FP can be defined in this context as an analysis aiming at the representation of an extract’s chemical composition to a maximum possible degree;while being largely untargeted,FP can also be used for or as an addition to the quantification of single compounds.Chromatographic FP and the simultaneous determination of multiple compounds is becoming an important trend(Liang et al., 2010).However an analysis of97original papers1assessing bio-logical effects of CHM extracts revealed that only16provided–exclusively chromatographic–FP data while24characterised the extracts by quantifying relevant single compounds and57did not chemically characterise the tested extract at all.We consider the presentation of FP data within activity studies of herbal extracts as fundamental information for chemical characterisation.Consider-ing the possible variability of an extract’s chemical profile that can be caused by differences in the herbal materials(growth conditions, post-harvest treatment,pàozhìprocessing,etc.)or manufacturing (extraction conditions,drying,etc.)it must be stated that the exam-ined item in such studies is literally unknown without at least some basic chemical characterisation.Different methods are used for FP which may be roughly cat-egorised as(i)low resolution techniques like TLC or IR-based methods which are typically applied for assessing the identity or origin of an herbal material by visual or–in case of NIR–computer aided comparison of signal patterns,mostly without(detailed) assignment of signals to chemical compounds(Xie et al.,2006;Sun et al.,2010).(ii)High resolution techniques like GC,HPLC,MS,NMR or hyphenated techniques allow for a detailed assignment of signals to the detected chemical compounds and are commonly accepted as well suited for FP aiming at a comprehensive extract charac-terisation as well as for metabolomic approaches.The advantages and disadvantages of these methods with regard to suitable tar-get metabolites,reproducibility of signal intensities and positions, sensitivity,resolution and sample preparation efforts have been extensively discussed(Verpoorte et al.,2008).It must be stated that no available analytical method is capable of fulfiling the demand for a complete qualitative and quantitative assessment of a biological sample’s whole chemical composition.1The literature research was performed with either Scopus or Pubmed using an OR-conjuncted combination of any botanical identifiers given by the consor-tium’s priority list of species(CP2005Latin binominal species name,taxonomically accepted Latin binominal species name,Latin drug names,Pinyin names,Latin binominal synonyms).The search result was then refined by limiting the hits to the topics“Extraction”and“Chemistry”or adding these terms to the general search term with“AND”conjunctions for Pubmed,respectively.The97papers mentioned here were chosen from the results by the fact that they assessed the biological activity of an herbal extract.。

洛阳“PEP”2024年11版小学6年级上册英语第六单元测验卷考试时间：100分钟（总分:120）A卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题)1、听力题：A chemical change alters the chemical ______.2、填空题：The _____ (海豚) is a friendly animal that loves to jump out of the water.海豚是友好的动物，喜欢跳出水面。

3、填空题：The ______ (小鼠) scurries quickly across the floor.4、填空题：The rabbit is very _______ (活泼).5、听力题：The stars are ___ (twinkling/shining) in the night.6、填空题：The ________ can sometimes be very shy.7、填空题：The _____ (ancient) Egyptians worshipped many gods.8、What is the main ingredient in a scone?A. FlourB. SugarC. ButterD. Egg答案:A9、填空题：The ______ of a tree can provide shelter for birds. (树冠可以为鸟类提供栖息地。

)10、Which word means the opposite of "hot"?A. WarmB. ColdC. SpicyD. Boiling11、填空题：The tortoise is known for its _______ (耐心).12、听力题：A ____ is known for its unique way of moving and can jump very high.13、填空题：The __________ is a large lake located in East Africa. (维多利亚湖)14、听力题：The __________ is a layer that protects life on earth.15、选择题：What do we call a person who is skilled in performing magic tricks?A. MagicianB. IllusionistC. PerformerD. Entertainer16、听力题：The invention of the steam engine changed _______ transportation forever.17、What do you call the hard outer covering of an egg?A. ShellB. CrustC. CoatingD. Layer答案:A18、What do you call the process of making cheese?A. FermentationB. PasteurizationC. CurdlingD. Creaming答案:C19、填空题：My __________ (玩具名) is made of __________ (材料).20、What is the capital of Chile?A. SantiagoB. ValparaísoC. ConcepciónD. La Serena答案: A21、听力题：They are _____ (riding) their bikes.22、听力题：The ______ is a season when flowers bloom.23、听力题：The _____ (床) is cozy.24、What do you call a small, round fruit that is usually red or green?A. OrangeB. AppleC. BananaD. Pear答案: B25、听力题：A ______ is a natural barrier formed by geographical features.26、听力题：We see a ___ (tree/rock) in the garden.27、听力题：I can _____ my name in cursive. (write)28、听力题：We enjoy _____ (playing) games.29、听力题：My sister is a ______. She enjoys helping animals.30、What is the capital of Canada?A. TorontoB. OttawaC. VancouverD. Calgary答案: BA reaction that produces heat is said to be ______.32、填空题：The first person to win the Nobel Prize in Physics was _______. (亨利·贝克勒尔)33、填空题：The ______ (秋风) can cause leaves to fall.34、填空题：There are many _______ (stars/moons) in the sky.35、听力题：The element with the symbol F is __________.36、填空题：A __________ (气体收集) method is used to gather gas produced in reactions.37、What is the name of the fairy tale character with long hair?A. CinderellaB. RapunzelC. Snow WhiteD. Belle答案: B38、听力题：They are watching a ________.39、What do we call the liquid we drink?A. JuiceB. WaterC. MilkD. Soda40、听力题：The ________ (elephant) is very large.41、选择题：What do we call a large body of saltwater?A. OceanB. SeaC. BayD. All of the above42、听力题：I like to _____ (travel) in summer.I can _____ (swim/fly) in the pool.44、填空题：It’s fun to jump in __________ puddles. (水)45、填空题：There are many different types of _______ (小昆虫) in the world.46、What do you call a baby horse?A. FoalB. ColtC. FillyD. Calf答案:A47、填空题：The _____ (老虎) is a powerful predator in the wild.48、填空题：A garden can be a wonderful place for ______ and relaxation.(花园可以成为放松和休息的绝佳场所。

[0181]《语言学导论》第1批作业[单选题]When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas, it serves a _____ function.A:expressiveB:evocativeC:performativeD:phatic参考答案：D[判断题]The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.参考答案：错误[单选题]_____ is the study of meaning in language.A:SyntaxB:Applied linguisticsC:MorphologyD:Semantics参考答案：D[单选题]By _____, we mean language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.A:cultural transmissionB: interchangeabilityC:displacementD:creativity参考答案：C[单选题]Which of the following statements is FALSE:A:Language is just for communication.B:Language is one of many ways in which we experience the world.C: Language is a sign system.D:Language is arbitrary and conventional.参考答案：A[单选题]Of the following sounds, ______ is a rounded vowel.A:[au]B: [u:]C:[ju:]D:[e]参考答案：B[单选题]There are ______ morphemes in the word "policemen".A: twoB:threeC:fourD:five参考答案：B[单选题]The syllabic structure of the word "children" is ______.A:CVCCVCB:CCVCCCVCC:CCVCCVCD:CVVCCVC参考答案：A[单选题]_____ are produced when the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate ant the back of the throat and the air is allowed to pass through it.A:Semi-vowelsB:AffricatesC:NasalsD:Glides参考答案：C[单选题]_____ studies the changes in language and language use with respect to social factors.A:SociolinguisticsB:Comparative linguisticsC:SyntaxD:Computational linguistics参考答案：A[单选题]A ______ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.A:rootB:free morphemeC:stemD:suffix参考答案：C[单选题]Which one of the following statements does not account for the primacy of speech over writing in linguistic analysis? _______A:Speech existed long before writing systems came into being.B:Speech is more complex than writing.C:Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.D: Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.参考答案：B[单选题]Foreign language learners' errors may be caused by ________.A:borrowing patterns from the mother tongueB:extending patterns form the target language, e.g. by analogyC:expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already knownD:all the above three参考答案：D[单选题]Language serves the ________ function when it is used to express the speaker's feeling or attitude or to arouse a certain feeling or attitude in the hearer.A: phaticB:informativeC:emotiveD:directive参考答案：C[单选题]Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.A：FalseB：True参考答案：B[判断题]Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.参考答案：错误[单选题]If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______.A：prescriptiveB：analyticC：descriptiveD：linguistic参考答案：C[单选题]Modern linguistics regards the written language as _____.A：primaryB：betterC：secondaryD：unchangeable参考答案：C[单选题]Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _____ and meanings.A：senseB：soundsC：objectsD：ideas参考答案：B[单选题]Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A：ArbitrarinessB：DisplacementC：DualityD：Meaningfulness参考答案：D[判断题]A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.参考答案：错误[判断题]Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.参考答案：正确[单选题]The branch of linguistic study called _____ is concerned with how speakers use the sentences of a language to achieve effective and successful communication.A:sociolinguisticsB:pragmaticsC:syntaxD:computational linguistics参考答案：B第2批作业[判断题]A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.参考答案：错误[判断题]Componential analysis is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.参考答案：正确[判断题]The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages.参考答案：错误[判断题]Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.参考答案：正确[判断题]Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.参考答案：错误[判断题]The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by Halliday.参考答案：错误[判断题]Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.参考答案：错误[判断题]Hyponymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.参考答案：错误[判断题]What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.参考答案：正确[判断题]“alive” and “dead” are complementary antonyms.参考答案：正确[判断题]Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.参考答案：正确[判断题]Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.参考答案：错误[判断题]Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages.参考答案：错误[判断题]For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction on the part of adults.参考答案：正确[判断题]Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input.参考答案：正确[判断题]Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages.参考答案：错误[判断题]The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual.参考答案：正确[判断题]“Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.参考答案：错误[判断题]The Cooperative Principle is advanced by Paul Grice.参考答案：正确[判断题]Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way.参考答案：错误第3批作业[填空题]The _______ relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.参考答案：paradigmatic[填空题]"Poor John" and "ran away" are the _____ constituents of the sentence "Poor John ran away".参考答案：immediate[填空题]Michael A. K. Halliday has developed the ______ grammar.参考答案：systemic-functional[填空题]The transformational-generative grammar was proposed by the American linguist Noam ______.参考答案：Chomsky[填空题]The word "brunch" is formed by way of _____ from "breakfast" and "lunch".参考答案：blending[填空题]_______ is the study of teh formation of sentences in a language.参考答案：Syntax[填空题]____ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.参考答案：Morpheme[填空题]A ____ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.参考答案：stem[填空题]Morphemes that may constitute words by themselves are ______.参考答案：free morphemes[填空题]A ____ is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.参考答案：root[填空题]______ affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to.参考答案：Inflectional[填空题]"WTO" is an ______ made up from teh first letters of the name of the organization "World Trade Organization".参考答案：acronym第4批作业[判断题]All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.参考答案：正确[单选题]In first language acquisition, imitation plays ___.A：a minor roleB：a significant roleC：a basic roleD： no role参考答案：A[单选题]The syllabic structure of the word "ac hieved” is ______.A:VCCVCCB:VCVCCC:VCVVCVCD:VCCVCVC参考答案：B[单选题]_______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A:RootsB:StemsC:AffixesD:Compounds参考答案：C[单选题]The relation between the two words "buy” and "sell” can be described as____.A: gradable antonymyB:converse antonymyC:complementary antonymyD:synonymy参考答案：B[单选题]Many Chinese English learners may, at the beginning stage, produce "mans” and "photoes” as the plural forms of "man” and "photo”. This i s most likely the result of _______ in the process of foreign language learning.A:Negative transferB:OvergeneralizationC:Positive transferD:mother tongue interference参考答案：B[单选题]Which of the following qualities is not the requirement of a good test? _______.A:ObjectivityB:ReliabilityC:ValidityD:Both A and C参考答案：A[单选题]Which of the following statements about machine translation is likely to be wrong?_______.A: Machine translation has always been a chief concern in computational linguistics.B:There are areas where machine translation surpasses human translations.C:Sooner or later, machine translation will replace human translation completely.D:In some areas, human translations surpasses machine translation.参考答案：C[单选题]Teaching culture in our language classes can _______.A:get the students familiar with cultural differencesB:help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture willC:emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesD:All of the above.参考答案：D[单选题]According to Grice's theory, a conversational implicature arises when the cooperative principle and its maxims are _______.A:strictly observedB:secretly and deliberately violatedC:blatantly or apparently violatedD:Both A and B参考答案：C[单选题]The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A：voicelessB：voicedC：vowelD：consonantal参考答案：A[单选题]Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _____.A：in phonemic contrastB：in complementary distributionC：the allophonesD：minimal pair参考答案：A[单选题]The sound /f/ is ____.A：voiced palatal affricateB：voiced alveolar stopC：voiceless velar fricativeD：voiceless labiodental fricative参考答案：D[单选题]The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _____.A：lexicalB：morphemicC：grammaticalD：semantic参考答案：C[单选题]____ is a voiced alveolar stop.A：/z/B：/d/C：/k/D：/b/参考答案：B[单选题]The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ______.A：identicalB：sameC：exactly alikeD：similar参考答案：D[单选题]A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A：backB：centralC：frontD：middle参考答案：C[单选题]_____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A：WordsB：MorphemesC：PhonemesD：Sentences参考答案：B[单选题]Bound morphemes are those that ____.A： have to be used independentlyB：can not be combined with other morphemesC：can stand as words on their ownD： have to be combined with other morphemes参考答案：D[判断题]The statement "His car is yellow" entails the statement "He has a car".参考答案：错误[判断题]Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.参考答案：错误[单选题]Language serves the _______ function when it is used to talk about language itself.A:recreationalB:metalingualC:phaticD:performative参考答案：B[单选题]The Cooperative Principle that language users are believed to follow was initially proposed by_________.A:GriceB: AustinC:ChomskyD:Saussure参考答案：A。

小学上册英语第5单元综合卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The chemical symbol for uranium is ______.2.The chemical symbol for barium is ______.3.My ________ (玩具名称) makes me feel special.4.The __________ (拿破仑战争) changed Europe significantly.5.What do you call the sound a dog makes?A. MeowB. BarkC. MooD. QuackB6.What is the name of the first successful Mars rover?A. SpiritB. CuriosityC. PerseveranceD. Opportunity7.What is the name of the fairy tale character who left a glass slipper?A. Snow WhiteB. CinderellaC. Sleeping BeautyD. Little Red Riding HoodB8.Which fruit is yellow and curved?A. AppleB. BananaC. GrapeD. Orange9.The stars are ________ in the sky.10.The plant needs water and _______ (植物需要水和_______).11.I write a card to my __________. (朋友)12.I can jump ___. (high)13.What do you call the main character in a story?A. ProtagonistB. AntagonistC. SidekickD. NarratorA14.The _______ (The Great Depression) brought economic hardship to millions.15.Which instrument is used to measure time?A. ThermometerB. ClockC. BarometerD. SpeedometerB16.What do you call a young antelope?A. CalfB. FawnC. KidD. LambA17.They are playing ______ (hide-and-seek) outside.18.The _______ of a wave can be described by its speed and frequency.19.The __________ is where most biological activity occurs.20.We have ______ (课外活动) after school.21.The _______ provides shade on hot days.22.Which planet is known as the "Red Planet"?A. EarthB. MarsC. JupiterD. Saturn23.Which instrument has keys and is played with fingers?A. GuitarB. DrumsC. PianoD. ViolinC24.What is the opposite of "fast"?A. SlowB. QuickC. SpeedyD. Rapid25.What type of animal is a frog?A. ReptileB. MammalC. AmphibianD. BirdC26.I need a new ___. (pencil)27.The duck waddles to the ______.28.The chemical symbol for aluminum is _____ (Al).29.What do we call the time it takes for the Earth to spin around its axis?A. DayB. MonthC. YearD. CenturyA30.The ________ (果实) is sweet and juicy.31.My __________ (玩具名) is a great __________ (名词) for learning.32.I enjoy making ______ with friends.33. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of ______.34.The __________ (历史资料) are essential for research.35.Orion is a well-known ______ in the night sky.36.I love ________ (春天) because of the flowers.37.Which animal is known for its ability to change colors?A. ChameleonB. FrogC. RabbitD. DogA38.Which season is known for falling leaves?A. SummerB. WinterC. FallD. SpringC39.The wind is _____ (strong/weak).40.The chemical formula for sodium phosphate is ______.41.He is very _____ (机智) in conversations.42.I like to bake ______ during the holidays.43.What is the capital of the USA?A. New YorkB. Los AngelesC. Washington,D.C. D. ChicagoC44.The ______ (植物研究) helps us understand ecosystems.45.Which of these animals can fly?A. FishB. EagleC. SnakeD. FrogB46.Some frogs can change ______.47.The teacher _____ us to be quiet. (tells)48.What do you call a collection of stories in one book?A. AnthologyB. NovelC. MagazineD. JournalA49.The Mediterranean Sea is between Europe and _______.50.The _____ (生物多样性) of plants is vital for ecosystems.51.I enjoy visiting the ________ (自然历史博物馆).52.Dolphins are very _______ animals.53. A ferret is often kept as a _______ (宠物).54.What is the largest continent on Earth?A. AfricaB. AsiaC. EuropeD. North AmericaB55.I like to play with _____ (积木) in the afternoon.56. Wall was built over many ________ (长城是经过许多________建成的). The Grea57.We can _____ (share) plants with friends.58.The dog is ___ the ball. (chasing)59.My sister has a pet _________ (仓鼠).60.My favorite animal is a _______ (小猫) because it is so cute.61.My favorite place to study is _______ (咖啡馆).62.The __________ (科技应用) enhance everyday life.63.Which fruit is red and often used in pies?A. BlueberryB. CherryC. BananaD. GrapefruitB64.What do we call the study of weather?A. AstronomyB. GeographyC. MeteorologyD. BiologyC65.Which of these is a fruit?A. LettuceB. CarrotC. PeachD. OnionC66.The chemical symbol for californium is _____.67.Which insect can produce honey?A. AntB. FlyC. BeeD. MosquitoC68. A ______ is a natural feature that influences local ecosystems.69.What do you call a collection of stories or poems?A. AnthologyB. NovelC. TextbookD. MagazineA70.Which continent is known for its deserts?A. AsiaB. AfricaC. EuropeD. AntarcticaB71.She is an _____ (作家) and writes amazing stories.72.ta Stone unlocked the mysteries of ________ (古埃及文字). The Russ73. A ______ (自然保护区) protects plant species.74.The _____ (nectarines) are juicy peaches.75.The ____ can often be heard making a loud noise at night.76.The sea turtle returns to _________ (沙滩) to lay eggs.77.What do we call the science of living organisms?A. ChemistryB. BiologyC. PhysicsD. GeologyB Biology78.My favorite song to sing is ______.79.What do we call a large body of water?A. RiverB. LakeC. OceanD. Pond80.What is the capital of Portugal?A. LisbonB. MadridC. RomeD. ParisA81.The otter uses tools to crack open _______ (贝壳).82.Which season comes after summer?A. SpringB. WinterC. FallD. Summer83.What is the main ingredient in a cake?A. FlourB. SugarC. EggD. All of the above84.How many hours are there in a day?A. 12B. 24C. 36D. 48B85.The car is parked _____ (in front/behind) the house.86.The soup is ___ (hot/cold) today.87.The _____ (fireflies) light up the night.88.What do we call the process of using sunlight to generate electricity?A. Solar energyB. HydroelectricityC. Wind energyD. Geothermal energyA89.What do you call a collection of songs performed by a musician?A. AlbumB. PlaylistC. MixtapeD. CompilationA90. A _______ can provide a lovely fragrance to your home.91.What do you call a baby crocodile?A. HatchlingB. PupC. CalfD. Kid92.ocean) is home to many fish and other marine life. The ____93.My friend, ______ (我的朋友), has a great sense of humor.94.What is 20 7?A. 12B. 13C. 14D. 1595.The ________ was a famous philosopher who influenced Western thought.96.What is the name of the natural satellite that orbits the Earth?A. MarsB. VenusC. MoonD. Sun97.My friend is ______ (很有创造力).98.What is the capital of Croatia?A. ZagrebB. BelgradeC. LjubljanaD. SarajevoA Zagreb99.What is the capital of the United Arab Emirates?A. Abu DhabiB. DubaiC. SharjahD. AjmanA100.What is the name of the action of treating someone with kindness?A. CaringB. HelpingC. SupportingD. LovingA。

小学上册英语第一单元测验卷(含答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.I can create art with my ________ (玩具名称).2.She is a great ___. (singer)3.The __________ (古代中国) practiced calligraphy as an art form.4. A __________ (反应物) is needed for a reaction to occur.5.My ________ (玩具名称) is a great way to relax.6.I want to _____ (go/stay) home now.7. A _____ (植物保护组织) works towards conservation goals.8.The ______ (植物的生命周期) is an interesting topic.9.I can ________ a story.10.My dad is a __________ (修车工).11.The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of _____.12.The temperature is __________ today than it was yesterday. (比昨天更高)13.My sister has a lovely _______ (我妹妹有一个可爱的_______).14.The _____ (植物变化) can signal environmental shifts.15.An example of a noble gas is ______.16.The ______ helps regulate the body's temperature.17.The Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of about _______ degrees.18.My favorite game is _______ (视频游戏).19.The ________ (discussion) is constructive.20.I can ___ (see/hear) you.21.The _____ (植物资料) can provide insights into care.22.The _____ (sunflower) turns towards the sun.23. Panther Party was founded to combat ________ (种族不平等). The Bost24.Flowers need ______ to grow.25.My sister is a _____ (演员) who loves theater.26.My _____ (爷爷) is very wise.27.I like to ________ in the afternoon.28.The chemical reaction between an acid and a base is called _____.29.The __________ is a wetland area that is home to many plants and animals. (沼泽)30. A galaxy is made up of millions of ______.31.The ______ (种子) of a plant can be small or large.32.He is my good _____ (伙伴).33.I want to grow a ________ in my room.34.An endothermic reaction absorbs ______ from the environment.posting is a great way to recycle ______ matter for your garden. (堆肥是回收有机物质以供花园使用的好方法。

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the nounacting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference thenoun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without totalloss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may befree or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence formslept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that astem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may containa root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original wordeither changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonologicalfactors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, thegrammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of theinfluence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one soundsegment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers ortheir brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part orcutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in thelanguage.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic andother languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur inutterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked andaccepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understoodin its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do withgeneralization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formationis also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。

Lesson 1 DNA CLONING: AN OVERVIEW第一课克隆：概要DNA cloning：DNA doning facilitates the isolation and manipulation of fragments of an organism's genome by replicating them independently as part of an autonomous vector.DNA克隆：DNA克隆通过独立复制可以用分离和操作方法使生物体基因组片段成为自发性载体的一部分。

Hosts and vectors: Most of the routine manipulations involved in gene cloning use Escherichia coli as the host organism. Plasmids and bacteriophages may be used as cloning vectors in E. coli. Vectors based on plasmids, viruses and whole chromosomes have been used to carry foreign genes into other prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.宿主和载体：大多数的基因克隆使用的常规操作，以大肠杆菌为宿主生物体。

质粒和噬菌体可作为大肠杆菌的克隆载体。

以质粒、病毒和整条染色体为载体，将外源基因导入其他原核和真核生物。

Subcloning: Subcloning is the simple transfer of a cloned fragment of DNA from one vector to another; it serves to illustrate many of the routine techniques involved in gene cloning.亚克隆：克隆是克隆的DNA片段从一个载体到另一个载体的简单传递；它可以用来说明基因克隆中的许多常规技术。