Social Security System - USA and China

美国社会保障管理局美国社会安全局（又叫社会保障管理局）是隶属于联邦政府下的一个独立的管理社会保障的机构。

他的社会安全福利计划计划包括退休和遗嘱福利以及残障福利金。

为了达到这些福利计划的标准，大部分美国人需要根据他们的收入来缴付一定的社会保障税，将来的福利很大程度上取决于雇员的对社会保障税的贡献。

社会安全局是根据最近编入美国宪法42章第901条款建立的。

他现任的主管是Michael J. Astrue。

他就任于2007年2月12日。

他有六年的任期，将在2013年2月19日届满。

社会安全局总部坐落于马里兰州的Woodlawn，刚好是巴尔的摩市的西面。

整个社会安全局还包括10个地区分局，8个处理中心，大约1300个现场办公室和37个远程服务中心。

截止2007年，大约有62，000名雇员受雇于社会安全局。

社会保障现今是美国最大的社会福利项目，占用了大概37%的政府支出和7%的国内生产总值。

据估计，整个社会保障计划大概使美国40%左右的65岁以上的老人摆脱了贫困。

社会安全局历史社会保障如同其名称一样，是提供保障。

为了保护个人免于未来的灾难，美国政府将这些风险分散在整个社会的每个个体成员身上，从而使得每一个家庭承受灾难发生时不承担整个负担。

尽管德国19世纪就开始了社会保障，二战后美国则成为社会保障体系的世界典型，1941年罗斯福和邱吉尔签署的大西洋宪章是社会保障国际化的标志。

美国的社会保障项目诞生于1935年，旨在为工作人员及其家属提供老年人、残疾人、生存者保险受益。

与社会福利不同的是，社会保障受益者是有条件限制的。

其前提条件是如果一个人及家庭想要得到社会保障的受益，他必须有就业纪录，工作一定的时间，而且在就业时必须对社会保障体系有所贡献，按时缴纳社会保障金。

这个项目是由社会保障管理局(SSA)管理的。

1965年后它还包括了医疗保险项目下的健康保险受益。

最初社会保障法规覆盖的范围很广，包括联邦拨款的社会福利项目和失业补偿救济。

美国⽹络空间安全体系（1）：美国⽹络空间安全相关机构与职责介绍美国的⾏政机构是美国管理公共事务的⾏政组织体系,它是美国政治制度的重要组成部分。

美国⾏政机构的组成包括联邦⾏政机构和州及地⽅⾏政机构，联邦⾏政机构包括总统办事机构、内阁和独⽴机构。

同样，美国⽹络空间安全相关机构也包括总统办事机构、内阁和独⽴机构，除此之外还包括美国的军事机构、情报机构、⽴法和司法机构等。

那么，美国⽹络空间安全相关的机构有哪些？这些机构的职责⼜是什么呢？下⾯笔者做⼀下梳理与介绍。

⼀、⽹络空间安全办公室（CSO）奥巴马于2009年在美国的国家安全委员会（NSC）和国家经济委员会（NEC）下设置了⽹络空间安全办公室（CSO）。

⽹络空间安全办公室（CSO）是美国政府在⽹络空间安全⽅⾯最⾼的协调机构，负责为政府编纂和制定所有的⽹络空间安全政策，在整个国家范围内统⼀协调⽹络空间安全相关事务，包括协调国家层⾯的保护和危机事件的应对，每年定期向美国总统汇报⽹络空间安全⽅⾯的各种情况，并提出发展建议。

2012年5⽉，迈克尔•丹尼尔接替霍华德•施密特担任现任CSO协调员，⽹络空间安全协调员同时担任总统特别顾问，有权直接接触美国总统，被媒体称为“⽹络空间沙皇”。

⼆、美国国防部（DoD） & 美国国家安全局（NSA）美国国防部（DoD）是美利坚合众国政府下属的⼀个部门，它的中⼼是五⾓⼤楼，国防部的领导是美国国防部长。

美国国防部（DoD）的⾸席信息官（CIO）担任国家安全系统委员会（CNSS）的主席，该机构负责协调美国政府各个部门和局商讨信息保障政策，设⽴国家级的信息保障政策、指令、指南、操作规程。

美国国家安全局（NSA）是⼀个美国政府的情报机构，作为美国DoD的⼀部分进⾏管理。

在信息保障⽅⾯的职责包括阻⽌外国敌对势⼒获取敏感或涉及国家安全的信息；在情报⽅⾯的职责包括收集、信息处理，以实现国外收集情报和反间谍的⽬的，并⽀持军事⾏动。

另外，美国国家安全局（NSA）也拥有⾮常强的研究能⼒，组织撰写了著名的《信息保障技术框架》（IATF）。

美国网络信息安全治理机制及其对我国之启示随着互联网信息技术的飞速发展，网络空间保障成为全球范围内的热点话题。

尤其是在美国，作为全球最先进的网络信息技术国家，其网络信息安全治理机制得到广泛关注和学习。

本文将分析美国网络信息安全治理机制，探讨其对我国网络信息安全治理的启示，以期提高我国网络信息安全治理水平。

一、美国网络信息安全治理机制在美国，网络信息安全治理由联邦领导、军方、企业和公民自发组成的网络安全社区共同协作，形成了较为完善的网络信息安全治理机制。

具体包括以下几个方面。

1.创立网络安全机构美国领导成立了许多网络安全机构，包括国家安全局(NSA)、国家信息安全中心(NISC)、国家电力安全监管委员会(NESCC)、国防部信息技术局(DITC)和美国联邦调查局(FBI)等。

这些机构都有其不同的职责和权力，共同维护美国国家安全和网络信息安全。

2.监管网络安全领导和军方对网络信息安全的监管非常重视，利用各种手段监管和管理网络安全。

比如，美国国家电力安全监管委员会负责管控电力系统的安全，防止因攻击导致停电等灾难性事故的发生，保护该行业的基础设施安全。

军方和安全机构积极参与对网络安全的监管与维护，采取各种手段打击网络攻击和恶意行为，保障国家的网络安全。

3.数据保护措施为保护个人和公司数据的安全，美国领导制定了一系列法律和行政措施。

比如，1996年的健康保险可移植性与责任法案 (HIPAA)旨在保护健康保险相关数据的安全；2003年的灾害应对与反恐法案 (DAA)则针对国家安全和反恐目的，强化了个人信息保护措施。

4.私营部门与领导合作美国领导和私营部门之间通力合作，共同维护网络安全。

领导与企业联手打击黑客、间谍等网络犯罪，领导通过立法和指导企业更好地维护网络安全。

私营部门则进行研发并提供企业网络安全解决方案，协助领导管理网络安全事务。

二、美国网络信息安全治理机制启示1.强化法律保障在我国，网络信息安全管理法规体系需要进一步完善和升级。

美国个人数据保护法律制度的演进与启示目录一、内容描述 (2)1.1 背景与意义 (3)1.2 文献综述 (4)二、美国个人数据保护法律制度的历史演进 (5)2.1 初步立法阶段（1970s-1980s） (7)2.1.1 数据隐私法的起源 (8)2.1.2 《电子通讯隐私法案》(ECPA)的出台 (10)2.2 成熟发展阶段（1990s-2000s） (11)2.2.1 《健康保险可移植性和责任法案》(HIPAA)的颁布 (12)2.2.2 《儿童在线隐私保护法》(COPPA)的制定 (14)2.3 最新进展阶段（2010s至今） (15)2.3.1 《加州消费者隐私法案》(CCPA)的实施 (16)2.3.2 《通用数据保护条例》(GDPR)的影响 (17)三、美国个人数据保护法律制度的特点与优势 (19)3.1 法律框架的完整性 (20)3.2 权力平衡的机制 (21)3.3 对科技发展的促进作用 (23)3.4 国际合作的典范 (24)四、对中国的启示与借鉴 (25)4.1 完善数据保护法律的必要性 (26)4.2 立法技术的发展与应用 (27)4.3 公众参与与教育的重要性 (28)4.4 国际合作与交流的策略 (30)五、结论 (31)5.1 美国个人数据保护法律制度的总结 (32)5.2 对未来发展的展望 (34)一、内容描述随着数字化时代的迅猛发展，个人数据保护已成为全球关注的焦点问题。

美国作为世界上最大的经济体之一，其个人数据保护法律制度的演进不仅反映了该国在隐私保护方面的理念与实践，也为其他国家提供了宝贵的经验和启示。

美国个人数据保护法律制度的历史可以追溯到20世纪70年代。

随着计算机技术的普及和互联网的发展，个人数据泄露事件日益增多，公众对数据隐私的关注度也随之提高。

在此背景下，美国于1974年通过了《电子通讯隐私法案》（ECPA），该法案旨在保护电子通讯中的个人隐私，规定了电子邮件和其他通讯方式的加密和隐私保护要求。

美国 CISA 网络安全美国国土安全部的网络安全与基础设施安全局（CISA）是负责协调联邦政府与私营部门之间的网络安全工作的机构。

CISA的使命是确保美国的网络与基础设施的安全，以保护国家安全与经济繁荣。

CISA的主要职责包括：提供及时的网络威胁情报，协调联邦政府与私营部门之间的信息共享，支持网络安全的技术与操作能力，推进基础设施的安全性，以及提供相关的培训与技术援助。

CISA负责监测网络威胁，并向政府机构和企业提供警报和建议。

他们通过网络情报中心收集、分析和分享关于网络威胁的信息。

CISA还与其他国家的网络安全机构合作，共同应对跨国网络威胁。

CISA还负责协调政府和私营部门之间的信息共享。

他们与各个部门合作，建立网络安全合作机制，促进信息共享和合作。

这有助于及时识别和应对网络威胁，并减少威胁对国家与经济的风险。

为了提高网络安全的技术与操作能力，CISA提供技术援助和培训。

他们通过举办研讨会、培训课程和工作坊，帮助政府机构和企业提升网络安全意识和技能。

此外，CISA还开发和推广网络安全最佳实践，提供安全工具和指南，帮助组织加强网络安全措施。

CISA还致力于提高基础设施的安全性。

他们与关键基础设施的所有者和运营商合作，帮助他们加强网络安全措施，防止网络威胁对基础设施的破坏。

此外，CISA还通过评估和测试基础设施的安全性，帮助发现和修复潜在的漏洞和弱点。

总结起来，CISA在美国的网络安全工作中发挥着非常重要的作用。

他们通过提供及时的情报、协调信息共享、支持技术与操作能力、促进基础设施安全以及提供培训与技术援助，帮助保护美国的网络与基础设施免受威胁，确保国家的安全与经济繁荣。

China's Social Security Systemby Wu Jievice minister, State Commission for Restructuring the Economic SystemSocial security is an economic and social system relating to the vital interests of members of the entire society for safeguarding social stability, promoting economic development. The social security system originated in the social salvage system designed to provide material compensation or aid to help citizens overcome difficulties in their livelihood and unexpected disaster. The Decision on Some Questions Concerning the Establishment of a Socialist Market Economic Structure adopted by theThird Plenary Session of the 14th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China points out that China's social security system includes social relief, social welfare, special care to and emplacement of disabled servicemen, and family members of revolutionary martyrs and servicemen, and community service, pension, unemployment and other social insurances; and commercial insurances. The Decision clearly defines the goal and principles for reform of the social security system. I wish to discuss four questions in the following.I. The Historical Evolution of the Social Security System1. The social security system evolution of various countriesThe social security system, originated in social salvage, is a product of the industrial revolution and large scale socialized production, and the inevitable requirement of productive forces developing to a definite level. After Britain embarked on the road of industrialization, numerous farmers flowed into cities and the number of the urban poor drastically increased, at the same time, the ranks of the working class expanded rapidly, worker movement developed day by day. Under this background, in 1830's, Britain promulgated the Law on Assisting the Poor, under which, part of the money was drawn from the surplus value created by the working class to assist the poor. A new economic and social system that brought the role of social security to full play began to emerge.In the late 19th century, German working class waged long term struggle against capitalism in order to win their own economic benefits, labour rights and interests. In an attempt to ease class contradiction and disintegrate the workers' self help organizations, Germany successively promulgated compulsory social insurance regulations between 1883 89.Later many European countries followed suit. The birth of social insurance marked the entry of the social security system into a new stage of development.During the 1929 33 economic crisis period, in an effort to alleviate class contradictions and heal its economic wounds, Sweden's ruling Social Democratic Party introduced a series of welfare measures, so as to readjust the redistribution of national income and narrow the income gap. These measures later became the theoretical foundation for the ``welfare country'' practised in Sweden.In 1933, as part of his effort to shake off economic crisis and alleviate labour capital contradiction, US President F. Roosvelt proposed that the state introduce the practice of social relief, social insurance and social welfare. US Congress adopted the Social Security Law in 1935, and the Federal government set up the Social Security Administration. This was the first national social security law undertaken by the Federal government and put into practice in coordination with Roosevelt's New Deal, it was a means employed to introduce Keynesianism, impose government interference, stimulate and expand social demand, and alleviate and eliminate economic crisis resulting from overproduction. This marked the birth of a comparatively complete modern social security system.After World War II, Western countries, driven by the existence of the socialist camp and under the pressure of domestic class struggles, instituted a social security system featuring exclusive stress on material benefits.Britain was the first to declare establishment of a ``welfare state', wherein all citizens ``from cradle to grave'' were ensured social security, followed by developed countries in Western Europe, Northern Europe, North America, Oceania and Asia which successively declared implementation of a ``universal welfare'' policy. At the same time, socialist countries in Eastern Europe and Asia, following the model of the former Soviet Union, adopted the state insurance model which provided the greatest social security for the working class. Thus far, more than 160 countries and regions have established a social security system of different types.After the beginning of the 70s and 80s, social security standards in developed countries remained high, resulting in the dependence of members of society on the state and heavy financial burdens on the government, the ``universal welfare'' policy suffered setbacks: the prolongation of people's average life expectancy; the aging population bracket; improvement in modern medical means, the update and replacement of medicines and the higher charges for medicine than the rate of GDP growthled to the continued growth of insurance expenses and therefore adversely affected society's reproduction and weakened enterprises' competitiveness; inappropriate management means led to the waste of resources and egalitarianism in consumption. Given this situation, various countries have begun different forms of reform. The main contents include:(I) Reducing benefit(1) Putting off the retirement age;(2) Reemployment after retirement;(3) Reducing or freezing pension.(II) Increasing social investment(1) Raising contribution proportion;(2) Raising the upper and lower limits of payment of wages;(3) Government allocations;(4) Initiating the collection of new tax items.(III) Privatization of social insurance fundIn short, various countries are actively trying to design a set of mechanisms which coordinate insurance systems with economic development, price index and personal contribution. They affirm that the pension is the continuation of ``labour wage'', not ``citizen wage'' which any person can receive when reaching a definite age.2. Past and present of China's social security systemChina's social security system, founded during the war years on the basis of the supply system, has roughly gone through four stages.The first stage, which began in the early period after the founding of New China to 1966, was the initial stage. In 1951, the state promulgated the Regulations (Draft) of the People's Republic of China Concerning Labour Insurance, its contents include items such as disease, injury, birth, medical care, retirement and death treatment and job waiting reliefs. Later on a series of policies and regulations were promulgated. At that time, the All China Federation of Trade Unions was the highest leading body for national insurance service, and the Ministry of Labourwas the highest supervisory institution for the national labour insurance work. Part of labour insurance fund was paid directly by enterprises, another part was raised by the All China Federation of Trade Union. The social security system has played an important role in rehabilitating and developing the national economy, guaranteeing the essential life of the people and consolidating people's democratic dictatorship.The second stage ranged between 1966 and 1976. During the 10 chaotic years, social insurance work suffered serious setbacks and destruction, management organs were dissolved, trade union organizations were compelled to suspend activities, social pooling from society for retirement expenses was cancelled, and social insurance was turned into enterprise insurance.The third stage ranged from the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee in 1978 to the 14th National Congress of the Party. Along with the in depth development of reform and opening up, we have engaged in the research and promotion of the establishment and advancement of the socialist security system as an important aspect of the economic system reform. In 1984, some regions began exploration of methods for reform of the old age pension insurance system, the method of raising funds from society for retirement pension was introduced to state owned enterprises and most urban collective-owned enterprises, and it was decided to institute employee's contribution system. Some regions even boldly explored ways for the establishment of a system which integrates social pooling with personal account. Government institutions and some villages have also conducted trial reform of the pension system.In his Government Work Report to the First Session of the Seventh National People's Congress in 1988, Premier Li Peng pointed to the need of accelerating reform of the social security system, establishing and perfecting various social insurance systems and gradually forming a social security system with Chinese characteristics. In 1990, in many of his written instructions and speeches, Premier Li Peng noted that reforms of the housing system, the insurance system and the medical system should be placed in an important position in the next 10 years, these three reforms directly concern the vital interests of the people.The fourth stage ranged from the 14th National Congress of the Party to the present. While proposal for the establishment of a socialist market economic system was put forward for the first time, deepening reform of the social security system was also clearly defined for the first time as one of the important links in the reform of the economic system. The Decision on Some issues Concerning the Establishment of a Socialist Market Economic System adopted at the Third Plenary Session of the 14th PartyCentral Committee further clearly defined the goal and principle for the establishment of a new social security system. The pace of the social security system reform has notably accelerated.Some problems currently existing in China's social security system are in urgent need of solutions through deepening relevant supportive reforms.First, chaotic management system. There are two major problems: one is making no distinction between the government and the institution, and confusing supervision and management have both adversely affected management efficiency and increased management cost; second, policies coming from many sources and multiple management. For example, the fact that the Ministries of Labour, Personnel, Civil Affairs, and Public Health, the State Family Planning Commission, the People's Insurance Company of China respectively participated in the management of social security, plus the trade insurance introduced to 11 local pension insurance trades, has aggravated the chaos in the social security management system.Second, imperfection of laws and systems. As a system guaranteeing the basic interest of life of all labourers, social security needs to be standardized by law and to guarantee its implementation. China's current social security system, although having gone through many years of revisions and supplements, is still very incomplete and cannot meet the needs of the development of multiple economic forms, multiple operational methods and multiple employment systems in the market economy. For example, many difficult problems related to social insurance in foreign funded enterprises have been encountered, regarding which there are no laws to go by, and there exists the problem whereby foreign funded enterprises take advantage of loopholes in China's laws and evade employees' social insurance.Third, limited coverage of social insurance and its uneven development between regions. Most employees with China's private enterprises have not as yet participated in social insurance; the urban unemployed can only enjoy a low level social security; the development of social security in rural areas is slow and its level is low, the current coverage of rural social security is less than 5 percent of the rural population. There is a wide gap in the average social insurance expenses for labourers in various provinces and cities. The level of social insurance expenses is high in Shanghai, Guangdong, Hainan and other provinces and cities, with the highest reaching 1,326 yuan per month, and the lowest being only 100 yuan.Fourth, a low degree of socialization. China's social security system, which is based mainly on enterprise security, limits the universality of security, and weakens enterprises' competitiveness. In addition, there are many covert but few overt security projects, therefore labourers have only shallow impression on them, although the state and enterprise have spent huge amounts of expenses, social effect is not notable.Fifth, heavy burden on the state and enterprise, personal right being dissociated from personal duty.China's current security system features the high integration of employment and welfare, with social security funds either coming completely from the financial department, or being borne mainly by the enterprise. As a result, the enterprise become a ``welfare enterprise'' which provides all directional service for the employees, leading the enterprise welfare funds to get out of control, involving enterprises into trouble and putting burdens on the government. This system, which lacks a guaranteeing mechanism for the labourers themselves, lacks efficiency and is devoid of vigor.II. The Attribute and Function of Social SecurityDifference of views, which is of far reaching significance as approached from today's perspective, occurred during the 1930s. Debate on these problems was begun late for 50 full years in China. The idea advanced by Keynes of Britain that the state interferes in the economy through macro control includes the establishment of a social security mechanism, which is considered to be a means used by capitalist countries for self improvement and economic readjustment, and therefore it is essentially ``capitalist''. Myrdal, a Swedish economist, and some Frenchmen proposed that social security be used to regulate income redistribution, reduce polarization and realize social justice, thinking that this is essentially ``socialist''; in his New Deal, US President F. Roosvelt adopted a neutral attitude, holding that state macro control and social security are both means used by the state to interfere in and regulate economic development, they are neither ``socialist'', nor``capitalist''.In fact, to know the nature of social security, it is necessary to notice: First, the establishment and development of the social security system primarily source from the significant scientific and technological progress, as well as the resultant substantial rise in labour productivity and the rapid increase in social wealth. Therefore, we can say that it is the natural outcome of social development and cultural progress. Second, it is the result of the prolonged struggles waged by the working classand other labouring masses, and is the need for the bourgeoisie to promptly readjust the relationship of social production in order to suit the high level of socialized production and the new development of productive forces, and use this as a means to alleviate social class contradiction, and promote the steady development of society and the economy. This is also the necessity of social development and is no exception for capitalism and socialism for the sake of economic development and social stability, it is a subject socialism must face in regard to readjustment of the relationship of production. Third, it is a component part of the state's interference in economic operation and development, used to regulate income distribution, increase demand and alleviate periodic economic crisis resulting from overproduction. This is not unique to capitalism and therefore cannot be considered as completely``capitalist''. Fourth, it cannot fundamentally eliminate, but can only alleviate, polarization. This shows that it is not purely ``socialist''.In brief, like macro control, social security is a means the state uses to interfere in economic life, and does not involve the question of``socialism'' or ``capitalism''. Regarding this, we should agree to F. Roosevelt's viewpoint.Then its attribute and functions can be summed up as the following points:1. The social security system is one of the basic aspects of China's socialist market economic systemA healthily operating market economy is an economy which allocates social resources on the basis of a market mechanism. It not only requires a qualified market mainstay, that is, enterprises engaging in independent management and assuming the responsibility for profits and losses, but also needs a sound, multi level social security system. These four aspects constitute an organic whole which complements one another, and none of them can be dispensed with. Western countries' market economy cannot work without social security, as a socialist country, China should establish a more sound social security system. The establishment and perfection of China's social security system directly affect whether the framework for the socialist market economic structure can be basically set up by the end of this century.2. Establishing and perfecting a multi level social security system is one of the basic supporting measures for invigorating state owned enterprisesSocial security is required by the transformation of the operational mechanisms of state owned enterprises and by the establishment of a modernenterprise system and the readjustment of the economic structure, as well as by state owned enterprises' equal participation in market competition. First, for a long time in the past, state owned enterprises have formed a system that integrates employment, welfare and security, centered on employment. As long as a person is employed to work in a unit owned by the whole people, he or she will enjoy old age pension, medical and housing insurance and various other kinds of security and welfare. Many contradictions and difficulties state owned enterprises currently encountered in the transformation of operational mechanisms, such as difficulties encountered in the course of the readjustment of the economic structure, the rational flow of assets, the enhancement of enterprise competitiveness and technological progress, are closely related to the imperfection of the social security system. Second, generally there exists the problem of redundant personnel in China's state owned enterprises, standing at an estimated 20 30 percent, the problem also exists in government organizations and institutions. Economic circles once called this phenomenon as ``hidden unemployment''. With the existence of large numbers of redundant personnel and ``the work for three persons to be done by five persons'', how can enterprise efficiency be improved? And how can enterprise operational mechanisms be transformed? Third, compared with enterprises of other forms of ownership, one difficulty currently facing state owned enterprises is the large numbers of retired personnel and heavy social burdens, thus obviously landing them in a disadvantageous position of competition. Reducing many social burdens on state owned enterprises, and enabling them to lay down burdens and go forward without any loads are an indispensable move to invigorate state owned enterprises. In short, a sound social security system is a necessary social condition for enterprises to really become the mainstay in market competition.3. Establishing a social security system is one of the basic conditions for maintaining China's social stabilityFirst, the social security system is the ``safety valve'' of society. Under this system, the elderly are supported, diseases are treated, workers suffering from industrial injury are given insurance, disasters given compensation, the unemployed given reliefs, the disabled are properly placed and the poor are provided with aid. From various aspects, social security guarantees people's essential life, ensures industrial and agricultural production, therefore naturally guarantees social stability. At the same time, it helps make up for the defects of the market economy which cannot guarantee the interests of the weak, playing the role as a safety net of society. Second, social security is an economic``stabilizer''. Through readjusting the proportion of burdens onenterprises and the flexible use of social security funds, it can promote the ``cooling down'' of an ``overheated'' economy and boost economic growth when the economy is sliding downhill. Accumulated social security funds are the important source of funds for national economic construction.A rational control on the use of funds is conducive to readjusting the industrial structure in accordance with the state's industrial policy. In the meantime, a perfect social security system can bring about a rise in labour productivity, therefore it serves as a ``stimulator'' for economic development. Third, the social security system, also a distribution system, serves as a ``device'' to regulate the income distribution of different groups of the masses in society. It gives due consideration to both efficiency and fairness, thereby encouraging those becoming wealthy first to bring along those getting rich later, eliminating vicious polarization, and finally reaching common prosperity.4. The social security system is an effective method for accumulating social wealthThe collection and operation of social security funds have amassed a huge amount of wealth for the state, constituting an important pillar of the state's monetary market. At present, foreign social insurance funds generally account for 6 10 percent of GDP, with per capita share standing at US$1,000 2,000. While in China, the 1994 social security funds only accounted for 1.4 percent of GDP, with per capita share standing at only US$6.3. The proportion of the assets of US insurance companies to the total value of the financial assets of banks reached 33.3 percent, that of Japan was 28.6 percent, while that of China was only 1.9 percent. In comparison, China's ability to amass social security funds is apparently inadequate. Approached from a worldwide perspective, social security funds are the ``second finance'' of a country. It is predicted that by the year 2010 China's accumulated social security funds will surpass national financial revenues. As an effective means for the accumulation of social wealth, the social security system plays an extremely important role in economic and social development. Its development has a direct bearing on the improvement of the financial market and the formation of a sound circle of the capital market.Briefly stated, social security degree is a comprehensive reflection of a country's economic and social development, and constitutes an important component part of its overall national strength. From a long term point of view, the social security system will directly affect the development process of a country or a nation.III. Methods and Principles for the Establishment of a Social Security SystemSocial security is a complicated social systematic project involving the interests of every citizen and the relations of various quarters, therefore, it calls for a systematic idea to engage in overall design and make overall arrangement.First, as a systematic whole, the establishment of a social security system should have its entirety. Therefore, it is highly necessary to have unified policies and regulations, unified decisions and management and unified implementation and operation. At the same time, it should have the most extensive possible coverage, so as to enable each citizen in society as a whole to have the opportunity to get benefits.Second, as a systematic structure, the establishment of a social security system should have its levels and differences. Here, firstly, the authority of the central and local governments should be clearly divided, primarily the following relationships should be properly handled: 1. the relationship between the central government's unified and centralized policy decision management and the management of relevant departmental division of labour; 2. the relationship between the central government's unified and centralized policy decision management and management at different levels of local governments; 3. the relationship between the administrative management of governmental departments and the business management of special organizations; 4. the relationship between socialized management and the management of grass roots units; and 5. the relationship between central level management of special organizations and local level management of communities. Secondly, different guarantee levels should be established in accordance with regional difference and difference between urban and rural areas (the standards for payment and provision), the scale of overall planning (the overall planning at the provincial, prefectural or national level), so as to bring out a certain degree of difference in the internal structure of the entire social security system. Thirdly, due consideration is given to the balance of its internal structure, this means permitting the existence of difference within the social security system, the difference, however, should not be too large, so as to maintain the overall stability of the structure, this requires maintaining a definite planning and regulatory ability for the central government.Thirdly, as an element of the entire economic system, the social security system must maintain correlation with the macro policy, the entire system and market management, this is also a question of systematic coordination.The social security system is a product of large scale socialized production. The century old social security system has accumulated rich experiences and lessons for mankind. The social security systems established in different countries have their respective theoretical principles as the basis. While studying the trends of the development and change in the social security system of various countries, we should learn from the useful experiences and absorb all outstanding achievements of the cultural progress of mankind and, based on China's specific national condition, creatively establish a social security system suited to the socialist market economic structure and having Chinese characteristics. Specifically, there are the following points:1. The social security level should conform with China's national conditions and the developmental level of productive forcesSocial security must suit the need of the development of productive forces, must be able to stimulate the raise of labour productivity and promote the development of productive forces. A given development level of productive forces determines a given social security level. A successful social security system can promote the development of productive forces, conversely, an unsuccessful social security system will hamper the development of productive forces.Judging from foreign experiences and lessons, high level welfare and egalitarianism have led to a blind alley. The welfare country system practised in the West has stabilized society and developed the economy in a definite period. The social security system characterized by high standard and extensive welfare practised in Western ``welfare countries'', however, has brought about many negative effects, the great amount social security expenses have led to heavy financial burdens on the government and to continually increased deficits and have thus hindered economic development and exerted negative influence on the nationals' concept of value, the ``universal welfare'' policy preached in the past now finds it hard to continue. Statistics indicate that between 1960 90, among the member states of the OECD, the proportion of social security expenditures to the GDP rose from 7 percent to 15.4 percent; the proportion of medical and health care expenditures also doubled, climbing from 3.9 percent to 7.8 percent; around 25 percent of government public expenditures were spent on old age pensions. Excessive burdens of social security expenses resulted in huge budget deficits.Now, Western countries have come to realize that the social security welfare tendency not only cannot raise labour productivity, but has developed inertia of human beings and fostered lazy bones. The mounting amount redistributed by ``welfare countries'' inevitably leads to a。

美国 CISA 网络安全
网络安全在美国CISA的关注下持续升级
美国国土安全部（Department of Homeland Security）的网络安
全与基础设施安全局（Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency，简称CISA）是负责保护美国联邦网络的重要机构。

作为国家级网络安全主管机构，CISA通过推动各项安全措施
和政策，致力于保障美国网络体系的安全性和弹性。

近年来，随着网络攻击频率和复杂程度的不断增加，CISA不
断加强其网络安全工作的力度。

该机构通过不断推进先进的网络防御措施，以及加强与公共部门、私营部门和国际伙伴的合作，提高了美国国内和国际网络的整体安全性。

CISA努力提高网络安全意识，并通过相关的培训和教育活动
向政府机构、企业和公众传递最新的网络威胁信息与防御策略。

此外，CISA还积极参与全球网络安全合作与信息交流，与其
他国家的类似机构分享经验和智慧，共同应对日益严峻的网络安全威胁。

为了更好地应对网络威胁，CISA不仅高度重视事件响应和恢
复工作，而且积极推动网络安全技术的研发与创新。

该机构致力于开发并改进持久性威胁检测系统和安全信息共享平台，以提前发现和缓解网络攻击对国家关键基础设施造成的潜在危害。

总的来说，CISA通过不懈努力和持续改进，成为美国网络安
全的中坚力量。

随着科技的不断发展和网络空间的日益复杂化，
CISA将继续在网络安全领域发挥引领作用，为保障美国的网络安全作出更加卓越的贡献。

美国国家安全局组织构架分析美国国家安全局（英文：National Security Agency，简称NSA）是美国保密等级最高、经费开支最大、雇员总数最多的超级情报机构，也是美国所有情报部门的中枢。

该部门专门负责收集和分析外国通讯资料，隶属于美国国防部，是根据美国总统的命令成立的部门。

美国国家安全局（NSA）并没有像美国其他情报组织——国家侦查办公室、国家地理空间情报局等机构那样解密，其组织结构一直非常神秘。

斯诺登事件后，人们对美国电子情报机构的组织机构运行模式更加感兴趣。

美国国家安全局拥有三重使命：保障数据安全、采集信号情报、破解系统代码。

操控使用大约500左右相互分离的信号情报软硬件平台，雇佣了约3万名军人和文职人员，年度预算超过100亿美元。

杰夫•里切尔森，詹姆斯•班福德，比尔•阿金，马修•埃德等研究人员曾经试图收集关于该机构的开源信息数据碎片，为还原该组织的本来面貌做了很多有益探索。

但对于没有参与国家安全局工作人来说，即使是资深情报官，对该机构也只有个模糊的印象，对该机构的组织架构也是知之甚少。

事实上，国家安全局的真实情况只掌握在国会及其相关参谋人员之中的少数几个人手中。

对美国国家安全局的研究超过十年的马克•艾姆宾得也试图通过数据拼图，整理出该机构的组织构架。

尽管不一定完整，但现在看，至少还算是相当全面的总结了该局在“作战、分析、研究与技术”四大部门。

相关信息碎片大部分来自公开来源，包括前述几名研究者的成果。

马克•艾姆宾得主要将大量时间花费在对政府多个部门相关文档的相互验证上，花费在对LinkedIn等社会网络上的档案、招聘广告、及一些政府部门公开声明的分析上。

美国国家安全局/中央安全局（国家安全局/ CSS）是一个美国政府的情报机构，作为美国国防部的一部分进行管理。

1952年11月4日由杜鲁门总统秘密指挥创建，它负责收集和对外通讯和情报的外国信号，其中涉及密码分析分析。

他们也有责任保护其他地方的类似机构，其中涉及美国政府密码通信和信息系统。