词汇学第一章汇总

重点、难点讲解在我们做具体讨论之前，有必要弄清楚有关词和词汇的一些基本概念。

词是一个很模糊的概念，所以在讨论前要先仔细思考一番。

声音和意义的关系，声音与形式的关系，词与词汇的关系，也都需要讨论。

此外，本章我们还将对词汇分类的常用标准进行考察，并对个别词类作一些说明。

1．词的定义(What Is a Word)什么是词?这一问题长期受到语言学家的关注，虽然人们提出了很多的定义，但似乎没有一个看起来完美无缺，迄今为止，学者们也未能在词的定义这个问题上达成一致。

当我们谈论词时，我们往往从词的视觉角度来考虑。

按照这一思路词可以定义为横向书写或印刷在纸上的一组有意义的字母。

从口语的角度下定义，词是用人类发音器官有意识地发出来的一个或一个声音组合。

语义学家认为，词是一个意义单位。

语法学家则认为，词是一个自由形式可以在句子中起作用。

总的来说，词的定义包括下列几点：①是语言最小的自由形式；②是声音统一体；③是意义单位；④在句子中能独立起作用的形式。

由此，我们可以下这样一个定义：词是二门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式。

无论是简单词，还是复杂词，都必须符合以上的定义标准。

Man和fine是两个简单词，但都有声音、意义和句法功能，都可以在句子中单独起作用，所以它们是词。

有些词结构复杂，如mis·for·tune和man·age·ment。

两个都是多音节词，在句子中能起“主语”、“宾语”和“表语”的作用。

虽然misfortune能再分成mis-和fortune，前缀mis-并不能独立成词。

同样，management也可以分为manage和-ment，-ment也不能自由使用。

Blackmail可以分为black和mail，这两个部分在句子中都可以单独使用，但汇合后的词义绝对不是两个词意义的叠加。

Black是一种颜色，与“白”相对，而mail的含义则是“邮件”。

Chapter 1Word-Structure1. The definition of morpheme1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morphemeWhat are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).Task:(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.(2) What is your definition of root?A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?2.2.1 Two types of roots- Free rootIn English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.- Bound rootHowever, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.these roots cannot be used to form new words.2.2.2 Two types of affixesAffix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to expressthe following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third personsingular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the presentparticiple or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or pastparticiple.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,hardest.- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.•(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich- be- as in words like befriend, belittle- a- as in words like asleep, aside • (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker. By the addition of the suffix,the word is usually changed from one part ofspeech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemesMorphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.a) Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words .What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。

Chapter 11.1 What Is a Word词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters.（一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母）词包含以下几点：① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式② a sound unity.一个声音统一体③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntacticfunction.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的1.2 Sound and Meaning声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。

他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。

1.3 Sound and Form读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个声音。

词汇elusive adj. 难懂的notion n. 见解，概念outset n.开端criteria n.标准，条件（criterion的复数linguist n. 语言学家horizontally adv. 水平地；地平地semanticists n. 语义学者vocal adj. 歌唱的；声音的，有声的comprise vt. 包含；由…组成syntactic adj. 句法的polysyllabic adj. 多音节的compel vt. 强迫compulsion n. 强制；强迫；强制力concealment n. 隐藏，隐蔽；隐匿处discreditable adj. 丢脸的；不名誉的；有损信用的；败坏名声的hence adv. 因此；今后symbolic adj. 象征的；符号的；使用符号的arbitrary adj. [数] 任意的；武断的；专制的conventional adj. 符合习俗的，传统的；常见的；惯例的cluster n. 群；簇；丛；串scribe n. 抄写员；作家deliberately adv. 故意地；谨慎地；慎重地haste n. 匆忙vertical adj. 垂直的alike adj.相似的sacred adj. 神的；神圣的assimilated 吸收dialect n. 方言accumulated adj. 累积的constitute vt. 组成，构成monosyllabic 单音节的undergoing vt. 经历suffice vt. 使满足illustration n. 说明endure vt. 忍耐instance n. 实例monosemous adj. 单义的mere adj. 仅仅的blunt adj. 钝的justify V 证明stylistically adv. 在文体上heterogeneity n. [生物] 异质性；[化学] 不均匀性；[化学] 多相性cosmopolitan adj. 世界性的reveal vt. 显示；透露；揭露；泄露n. 揭露；暴露；门侧，窗侧第一章一：1.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.词汇学算哪一门学科的分支（语言学）2.Lexicology:morphology（词法，词态学）,semantics,stylistics,etymology（语源学）,lexicography （词典学）词汇学和哪些重要学科建立了联系3.Diachronic approach(历时语言学),Synchronic approach(共时语言学)研究词汇的两大方法二：1.词的特点：1）a minimal free form of a language.2)a sound unity. 3) a unit of meaning . 4)a form that can function alone in a sentence什么是词：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.词的分类（按发音）：simple words(man),complex words(balckmail)3.sound and meaning:1) There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning2)The relationship between them is conventional and arbitrary (e.g.dog,girl)3)In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.(e.g.woman means ‗Frau‘ in German, ‗Femme‘ in French and ‗Funv‗in Chinese. ) .4) The same sound can denote different things.(knight,night)4.sound and formrelation:1)the written form is the written record of the oral form,so it should agree with the oral form. 2)with the development of the languages,more and more differences occur between the two.The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.(At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns)a). the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each s ound in the language. (more phonemes than letters)b). Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc). Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d). Borrowing of foreign language (e.g.stimulus(L),eureka(Gr)influenced by Romans,Pronunciation changed,early scribes,borrowing三.vocabulary:all the words四.分类：frequency:1.the basic word stock:1).all national character( national phenomena;names of plants,andanimals;action,size,stage,domain;human body andrelations;numerals, pronouns, preposition,conjection)2).productivity(root words,monosyllabic words e.g. foot)3).stability4).collocability (heart)5).polysemy(take)2.non-basic word stock:1.) terminology-technical terms2).jargon-specialized vocabulary in certain professions.3).slang -- substandard words often used in informal occasions4).argot –words used by sub-cultured groups5).dialectal words –only by speakers of the dialect6).archaisms –words no longer in common use or restricted in use7).neologism –newly created words with new meaningnotion:1.Content word (notional word) – denote clear notions. (numerous,growing)2.Functional word(empty/form word)-express the relationbetween words and sentences.(small,stable,do far more work of expression than content words. )origin:1.native words-are words brought to Britain in the 15thcentury by the German tribes特点1.) neutral in style (not stylistical specific )2.)frequent in use (in academic fields and science French, Latin or Greek are used)(usage 70-90%)2.Borrowed words (loan words, borrowing)- words taken over from foreign language. 80 %分四种（按同化程度和取得方式）1).Denizens –words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. (port from portus(L) shift, change, shirt, pork)2).Aliens –retained their original pronunciation and spelling(décor(F) emir, intermez, rowtow, bazaar, rajar, status quo)3).translation loans –formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on thepatterns taken from another language.a). Word translated according to the meaningb). Words translated according to the sound4). Semantic loans –their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpdream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent, sassy, cheeky。

现代英语词汇学单词听写资料Chapter 11. bishop ['biʃəp] n. 主教2. creed [kri:d] n. 信条，教义3. font [fɔnt] n. 洗礼盘，圣水器4. monk [mʌŋk] n. 僧侣，修道士；和尚5. priest [pri:st] n. 牧师；神父；教士6. pardon ['pɑ:dn] n. 原谅；赦免；宽恕7. conquer ['kɔŋkə] vt. 战胜，征服；攻克，攻取8. archer ['ɑ:tʃə] n.弓箭手9. repent [ri'pent] vi.忏悔10. ransom ['rænsəm] vt. 赎回，赎11. baron ['bærən] n. 男爵12. mantle ['mæntl] n. 斗篷13. vestment ['vestmənt] n. （作礼拜时教士的）法衣；官服14. feast [fi:st] n. 筵席，宴会15. sauce [sɔ:s] n.沙司；调味汁16. rhapsody ['ræpsədi] n. [音]狂想曲；狂诗17. tonic ['tɔnik] n. 主调音或基音18. dogma ['dɔɡmə] n. 教条，教理19. trophy ['trəufi] n. 奖品；战利品；纪念品20. attic ['ætik] n. 阁楼；顶楼21. sonnet ['sɔnit] n. 十四行诗22. vista ['vistə] n. 远景，展望23. soprano [sə'prɑ:nəu, -'præ-] n. [音]女高音24. quartet [kwɔ:'tet] n. 四重奏25. dock [dɔk] n. 码头；船坞；26. carouse [kə'rauz] vi. 畅饮；欢宴27. plunder ['plʌndə] n. 战利品；掠夺品28. cobra ['kəubrə] n. 眼镜蛇29. booze [bu:z] n. 酒；酒宴vi. 豪饮；痛饮30. tackle ['tækl] n. 滑车；装备；用具31. roc [rɔk] n. 大鹏，巨鸟32. dingo ['diŋɡəu] n. 澳洲野狗33. sampan ['sæmpæn] n. 舢板；小船34. ketchup ['ketʃəp] n. 蕃茄酱35. yoghourt ['jɔɡət, 'jəu-] n. 酸奶36. safari [sə'fɑ:ri, -'fæ-] n. 旅行；狩猎远征37. tycoon [tai'ku:n] n. 太君38. judo ['dʒu:dəu] n. （日）柔道39. sushi ['su:ʃi] n. 寿司（生鱼片冷饭团）40. favela [fæ'velə] n. 贫民区41. autopista [,ɔːtə(ʊ)'piːstə] n. 高速公路（西班牙语）42. hamam ['hæ'mɑːm] n. 大众浴室，公共澡堂（伊朗的）43. astronaut ['æstrənɔ:t] n. 宇航员44. cartology [kɑː'tɒlədʒɪ] n. 地图学；海图学；图志学45. cryotron ['kraiətrɔn] n. [电子] 冷子管；[电子] 低温管46. aqualung ['ækwəlʌŋ] n. 水中呼吸器；水肺47. montage [mɔn'tɑ:ʒ] n. 蒙太奇（电影的基本结构手段和叙事方式）48. angst [ɑ:ŋst] n. 焦虑；担心49. denotation [,di:nəu'teiʃən] n.外延50. connotation [,kɔnəu'teiʃən] n. 内涵考试形式：老师读英文单词，学生默写单词及汉语意思。

Chapter 1 A general survey of English vocabularyLexicology: the study of words/ to study the science of words.a word is the smallest significant unit of a speech.词是语言的最小的有意义结构单位。

the smallest significant unit of a speech is morpheme(词素/语素/形位)Word defined: a fundamental（基本的）unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic function.Sound the naturalists 自然派Meaning the conventionalists 习惯派Three periods of EV1.Old English/Anglo-Saxon Period(449-1100AD)2.Middle English Period (1150-1500)3.Modern English Period (1500-present)Some characteristics of Old English1、The vocabulary is of Germanic characteristic, an exclusively Germanic vocabulary (few borrowings from non-Germanic languages), distinguished by compounding.（复合词）2、An ability to develop new words out of the existing Germanic word-stock instead of borrowing foreign words.3、Old English was an inflected language. It had a complete system of declension with five cases and conjugations.Middle English periodSome features of this period:1)Much borrowed French words;2)The inflectional system of OE decayed rapidly during the ME period and hadvanished almost entirely by the end of this period.3)The appearance of natural gender.Some characteristics of Modern English1、It was divided into two parts: early modern English(1500-1700) and latemodern English(1700--present)2、Expansion3、New words*Newest Development of EV（the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes）1、Marked progress of science and technology;cybernetics, bionics, chain reaction, radioactivity, neutron bomb, medium-range ballistic missile, cosmonaut中程导弹, countdown倒数, space shuttle, launching pad, maglev train…2、Socio-Economic, political and cultural changes;Credit card; fringe benefit 额外福利pension 退休金Teach-in 宣讲游说roller-hockey 曲棍球surf-riding 冲浪3. The influence of other cultures and languagesombudsman: 调查官员舞弊情况的官员apartheid: 种族隔离制sputnik: 人造地球卫星autostrada: 高速公路(Italian）autopista: 高速公路（Spanish）Classification of EV1.By origin2.By level of usage:3.By notion4.By time1、By origin:native and loan words 本族语和外来语Fundamental features of basic word stock:1.National character;2.Stability3.Word-forming ability;4.Ability to form collocations.2. By level of usage 使用的程度来分类Common words (standard word) 普通词汇literary words Archaic words 古体语书面语Obsolete wordsPoetical words: traditionally used in poetry. E.g. the deep (the sea), steed (horse), thou, thee (you, sing.), ye (you, plur.), thy (your), thine (yours), yon (over there), aught (anything), naught (nothing).Colloquial words 口语词汇are described as everyday words which have been around for a long time and are often used in informal speeches.Slang words 俚语are ever-changing set of colloquial words generally considered distinct from and socially lower than the standard to describe language that is new and fresh, including argot/cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups). Technical words 术语include formal specialized language (terminologies) and informal specialized language (jargon) to a trade, job, or group.3. By notionFunction words功能词：determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries（助词），and so forthContent words 实意词: diagnosis 诊断prescription 处方injection 注射space walk ; space opera 太空剧apartheid 种族隔离Chapter 2 Morphological structure of English wordsMorpheme(语素，词素): the morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.one morpheme：nationtwo morphemes: nationalthree: morphemes: nation +al +izeAllomorphemes :语素变体，形位变体：Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality (-s) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context, e.g. in cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/.有些词素根据其在词中的特殊位置而产生的变体叫词素变体。

Chapter 3 Morphology structure of English words3.1 MorphemesThe definition of a morpheme : The morpheme(词素) is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into smaller meaningful units. Words are composed of morphemes. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemesWords can have an internal structure, i.e. they are decomposable into smaller meaningful parts. These smallest meaningful units we call morphemes.One morpheme: nationTwo morphemes: nation-alThree morphemes: nation-al-izeFour morphemes: de-nation-al-ize确定语素必须满足两个标准, 一是含义相近, 二是发音相近.-ly 在 manly, princely, friendly 中属于同一个语素.-er 在 worker, teacher, speaker, swimmer 等词中意为"做…的人", 属于同一语素,但在 manner 一词并不是 man 和 -er 合起来的意思, 所以 manner 不能看作是由 man 和 -er 两个语素构成, 其中的 -er 也不能看作是与 worker 中的 -er 相同的语素.3.2 Classification of MorphemesMorphemes can be classified in various ways.Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes (自由词素), also called content morphemes(实义词素）, may constitute words by themselves. Bound morphemes （粘着词素）, known as grammatical morphemes （语法词素）, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound.3.2.1 Types of Morphemes —free vs. bound● Free morphemes(自由词素)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Therefore, we might as well say that free morphemes are content morphemes （实义词素）or free roots(自由词根).man, earth, wind, faith, red, write ….● Bound Morphemes(粘着词素)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning (un-kind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed). They are also called grammatical morphemes.3.2.2 types of morphemes —root vs. affixesMorphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). definition of root :A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word which conveys the fundamental meaning of the word.Two types of roots – Free roots: Morphemes are said to be free if they can stand alone as words (In English,many roots are free roots) black in black, blackboard, blacksmith, blackmail.Bound roots: They are so called because they are always bound to something else. Theycannot exist on their own ceive in receive, perceive, conceive, deceive. Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.(However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes.For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive. these roots cannot be used to form new words.) A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.therefore, that a knowledge of roots can help one to analyze and understand many words almost on sight. Although the Latin and Greek roots are usually bound morphemes and cannot stand alone, it is helpful to free boundroot affix inflectional derivationalrecognize some of the common ones, since thousands of English words are built on them. Knowing the meaning of these roots can help clarify the meaning of many English words.3.2.3 Two types of affixesAffixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional (曲折词缀）and derivational （派生词缀）affixes.Affixes can be divided into inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. This reflects two major morphological (word building) processes:Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.●Inflectional affixes: does not form a new meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change thepart of the word to which it is affixed.●Derivational affixes: when they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word.Many have a specific lexical meaning. Quite a number of them have more than one meaning. They have affective meaning3.2.3 affixes●Inflectional affixes(曲折词缀)Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. For example: cats, walked, walking, John’s book…●Derivational affixes(派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes Prefixes(前缀) ; Suffixes(后缀)Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest.●Derivational Morphemes-- either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached; or by changing the grammatical category (part of speech) of the baseDerivational Affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g. unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech. - en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g. darkness, worker.By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernizeBoth prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:1. Their linguistic origin: Native/foreign affixes1). Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-,be-,out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and –er.2). Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples:ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and –ize(F).A hybrid混合词is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.2. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words.Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand,and –ant or –ent as in servant, different, etc.Sum: Inflection and DerivationDerivational morphemes are used to create new lexical items (lexemes （词位）).Inflectional morphemes only contribute to the inflectional paradigm 词形变化 of the lexemes, which lists all the word-forms of the lexeme.3.2 Types of MorphemesDiagram of morphemesclassification of words on a morphemic levelOn this level, words, according to the number and type of morphemes they contain, can be classified into:(1) simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme, such as man, work, kind;(2) derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one (or more than one) bound morpheme, such as fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful, unfruitfulness;(3) compound words: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes, e.g. deep structure, spacesuit, forget-me-not, stick-in-the-mud, and jack of all trades.3.3 Morph and allomorphThe definition of morph(语素形式/词素形式)- phonological （音韵的）and orthographical （拼写的）forms used to represent morphemes. Morphemes can be represented in braces. For example, {big} is pronounced as /big/ and spelled as big, thus /big/ and big are respectively the phonological and orthographical morphs of {big} .Morpheme, Morph, AllomorphA morph is a physical form representing a certain morpheme in a language.Sometimes different morphs may represent the same morpheme; i.e., a morpheme may take different forms. If so, they are called allomorphs of that morpheme.An allomorph(词素变体) is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.区别：语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位、语素等)。

葛本仪：《现代汉语词汇学》读书笔记第一章对词汇的再认识第一节词汇的内容一、词汇的界定及其性质1.“词汇”是一个指称词的集体的概念，是表示词的总和的意义的。

我们在一些著述中能够经常见到一些解释，如:“语言中所有的词构成所谓语言的词汇”(斯大林语)，“一部书中所用的词的总和就叫做词汇”，或者说不论在什么情况下，“词的总称就叫做词汇”等等。

在日常交际中，在某种语境下，这样的解释是完全正确的。

但是从语言研究的角度来考虑，用词汇学的科学术语的含义来要求，这种解释显然就不够严格和正确了。

要给词汇作出正确的界定，还必须从词汇的性质谈起。

2.词汇的性质：早在50年代，斯大林就已经指出：“拿词汇本身来说，它还不是语言，——它好比是语言的建筑材料。

建筑业中的建筑材料并不就是房屋，虽然没有建筑材料就不可能建成房屋。

同样，语言的词汇也不就是语言，虽然没有词汇，任何语言都是不可想象的。

但是当语言的词汇受着语言语法的支配的时候就会获得极大的意义。

”斯大林这段话今天看来，尽管有许多不完善的地方，但是它总也提出了词汇的基本性质和作用。

在语言中，应该说，作为语言的建筑材料的成分很多，这就要看是在什么范围内，什么条件下，充当什么样的建筑材料等问题。

例如形成为音位的音素只能是音节的建筑材料，词素只能是词的建筑材料等。

对于词汇来说，它作为建筑材料，其作用是为了构成句子，也就是说词汇作为建筑材料，就是用来组成言语以进行交际的，因此，作为造句的材料就是词汇的功能和性质。

根据词汇的这一特点，应该承认，凡是具有这种功能和性质的语言成分，都应该属于词汇的范围之内，例如成语、惯用语等等，因为它们虽然都是由词组成的词组形式，但是它们却都是一种组句的备用单位，都具有和词一样的建筑材料的性质和作用，语言词汇当然不应该而且也不能够把这类成分排斥在词汇之外。

因此我们认为，词汇应当是一种语言中所有的词和所有的相当于词的作用的固定结构的总汇。

所以，任何种语言的词汇都包括着两个基本的内容：①该语言中所有的词的总汇②所有的相当于词的作用的固定结构的总汇。

英语词汇学各个章节的内容Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和-ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ?不一致。

第一章词汇学概论第一节词汇学定义及其他一、词汇学的定义和范围词汇又称语汇，是语言的建筑材料，也是一种语言里所有的或特定范围的词和固定短语的总和①。

词汇是语言的建筑材料，这就是说语言是用一个个的词按照一定的语法规则组合起来造出各种句子进行交际的，就好比用建筑材料造房子一样。

词汇是所有词和词语的总和，例如汉语词汇、英语词汇或一般词汇、基本词汇、文言词汇、方言词汇等；词汇还可以指某一个人或某一作品所用的词和固定短语的总和。

如“老舍的词汇”、“张爱玲的词汇”等等。

词汇是词和固定短语的集合体，词汇和词的关系是集体和个体的关系。

词汇反映着社会发展和语言发展的状况，也标志着人们对客观世界认识的广度和深度。

研究词汇的学科叫“词汇学”，是语言学的一个分支，它研究现代汉语词的性质，词的构成，词义的性质，词义之间的关系，词汇的构成和词典编纂等等。

一种语言的词汇越丰富发达，其表现力也就越强。

关于“词汇学(lcxicology)”，专家们从各自的角度对此作出了定义。

张永言在他的《词汇学简论》中曾经这样定义：“任何语言都有自己的语音系统、词汇和语法构造。

词汇学就是其中以词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。

所谓词汇就是语言里的词和词的等价物(如固定词组)的总和。

词汇中包括实词和虚词，词汇学的研究重点是实词，虚词主要是语法学研究的对象。

”(张永言1982：1)Michael McCarthy 也曾这样论述：“词汇研究是对语言词汇的全方位研究：词和词义；词的相互关系；词的相互结合以及词与语言其他领域描述(语音学、形态学、句法)的相互关系。

”(转引自汪榕培2000：8 )竺家宁认为词汇研究的内容应包含四个方面：词形、词义、词变、词用。

“词形”就是词的形态，也就是构词学。

“词义”谈词的共时意义系统、同义词和反义词的分析技术、义素分析法和词义场理论。

“词变”论词的历时演化，叙述演化规律。

“词用”阐明具体使用特性、它和别的词的搭配关系，词典的编纂也是词用学的危围。

以下是我整理的英语词汇学的资料。

我在考的时候主要就是靠这个东东。

希望对还没有过的⼈有所帮助。

⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。

第⼀章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German， ’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right， rite and write， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect， a given book， a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency， by notion， by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action， size， domain， state numerals， pronouns， prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life， they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow， bow， chariot， knight – past electricity， machine， car， plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words， they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football， footage， footpath， footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions， idiomatic usages， proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning， hepatitis， indigestion， penicillin， algebra， trigonometry， calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line， ballpark figures， bargaining chips， hold him back， hold him in， paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread， grass and pot， beaver， smoky， bear， catch， holler， Roger， X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener， dip， persuader cant， jargon ， argot are associated with， or most available to， specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty， chook， cocky， station， auld， build， coo， hame， lough， bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems， legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics， futurology， AIDS， internet， E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse， monitor 2）. Content word （notional word） – denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word， form word） – do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number. b. Content words are growing. Functional words remain stable. c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. 3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words， 50，000-60，000 What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are 1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ） 2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%） Borrowed words （loan words， borrowing） – words taken over from foreign language. 80% According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes. 1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. e.g. port from portus（L） shift， change， shirt， pork cup from cuppa（L） 2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spelling e.g. décor（F） blitzkreeg（G） emir， intermez， rowtow， bazaar， rajar， status quo 3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken fromanother language. 1）. Word translated according to the meaning e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L） black humor from humor noir long time no see， surplus value， master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sound e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ） lama from lama（Tib） ketchup tea 4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another language e.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent， sassy， cheeky。