现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。

Chapter 5Word meaning and Semantic Features 词义与语义特征⏹ 5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词⏹ 5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类⏹ 5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词The sound and meaning of words relatedTwo ways:1. Conventionality 约定俗成Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbol.Arbitrary: adj. decided by or based on chance or personal opinion rather than facts or reason. Conventional or arbitrary: there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.Eg. △□English –house French –maison Chinese –fángzi Russian –dom Spanish –casa 2. Motivation 有理据词Motivation: refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.⏹Phonetic motivation语音理据Phonetic motivation: pronunciation suggests the meaning, including echoic words or onomatopoeic wordsE.g. woof-woof the woof-woof of a dogmiaow the miaow of a catroar the roar of a lionbang the bang of a door⏹Morphological motivation 形态理据Morphological motivation: there is a direct connection between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.E.g. anticancer 抗癌的kilogram 公斤，千克good-looking 好看的，美貌的daydream 白日梦，做白日梦⏹Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation: The figurative meaning can be understood by those who know the literal meaning.E.g. a stony heart 铁石心肠，冷酷无情the leg of a table 桌子的腿5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类Types of Word Meaning: A. Grammatical meaning语法意义B. Lexical meaning 词汇意义⏹ A. Grammatical meaning1. word-class词类:The word-class determines the position that a word normally occupies in a sentenceEg. Being a child, he can’t understand what he just said.He never dreams of being a superstar.2. inflectional paradigm词形变化:Eg. seasons of a year 一年四季the poles 南北两极cat –cats mouse –mice walk –walks –walked write –wrote –written⏹ B. Lexical meaning1.Denotative meaning外延意义(conceptual meaning概念意义)Denotative meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit (esp. a lexical item )and the non-linguistic entities (physical objects, natural phenomena / things, events, processes) to which a word refersThe denotative meaning of a word’s definition given in a dictionaryEg. chairchair: a piece of furniture for one person to sit on, which usually ahs a back, a seat, fourlegs, and sometimes armsthe same meaning for all speakers of a given communityIt is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.the central factor in linguistic communication2.Connotative meaning内涵意义Connotative meaning: the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’smind.E.g. motherdenotative meaning: female parentconnotative meaning: love, care, warmTwo levels of connotation●Connotations pertaining to individualsbased on personal experiencee.g. father●Connotations pertaining to a groupe.g. communist, road, Uncle Sam3.Social or stylistic meaning 社会或文体意义●Social meaning: a piece of language conveys about the social circumstance of its use.One adjusted one’s language so as to make it appropriate in various situation in terms of :(1)the social relationship between the speakers or correspondents (friend tofriend ,professor to student )(2)the occasion (a class reunion or an official reception )(3)subject matter(about serious political issues or about films ,swimming or food )(4)the mode of discourse (spoken or written )●Stylistic meaningConsultative style is a polite and fairy neutral style ;it’s used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well ,or to someone who is senior to ourselves in terms ofage or social position .Casual style is used in conversion between friends or in personal letter when the language is informal ,familiar ,relaxed ,warm and friendly .●the criterion of formality: formal, neutral and informal4. Affective meaning情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of speaker or writer.snarl words –show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker . derogatory (derog.)E.g. gang, niggardlypurr words—express the speaker 's approval of the person or thing he is talking about .appreciatory (apprec.)E.g. scholar, masterpiece, generous5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征●Componential analysis on the basis of semantic contrastComponential analysis: A process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components (semantic features).⏹ManMan: [+Hunan +Adult +Male]⏹ChildChild: [+Human -Adult +Male]⏹CowCow: [+Bovine +Adult -Male]⏹LambLamb: [+Ovine -Adult +Male]⏹BoarBoar: [+Porcine +Adult -Male]现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter5●Advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis➢Advantages:1)Enable us to have an exact knowledge of the conceptual meaning of aword2)Help us to choose the right word or collocation➢Disadvantages:1)The impossibility of making a list of the infinite number of semanticfeatures.2)The analysis of word meaning into its sense components is not enough.3)Many words are often used figuratively without observing the normal“usage rules”。

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter10Chapter10 English Idioms10.1 Introductory Remarks10.2 Sources of English Idioms10.3 Classification of Idioms10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idioms10.1 Introductory RemarksIdiom: is a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning.Englishidiom: is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meanings of its constituent words.eg.a feather in sb.’s cap –an honour ,success ,of which one can be prouddraw a blank–to fail to discover or find out about sth. after searching hard and asking many questions .*Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.An idiom functions as a unit of meaning.Features: a. semantic opaqueness; b. structural invariability.English idioms form an essential part of the general vocabulary.Idioms reflect the environment, life, history and culture of the native speakers, and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feeling.10.2 Sources of English IdiomsMany idiomatic expressions come from:1)Everyday life of the English people;eg. to keep one’s shirt on要有耐心; 别紧张; 指不要紧张t ogive sb. the cold shoulder冷落某人2)Agricultural life;eg. to go to seed花谢结子; 走下坡路; 花谢结籽to lead sb. up the garden path迷惑某人,使某人产生错觉,花言巧语3)Nautical and military life;eg. be in the same boat with同舟共济to be in deep waters陷入困境4)Business life;eg. to come under the hammer将要落锤to talk shop三句不离本行5)Student life;eg. to speak by the book引经据典to turn over a new leaf重新开始(改过自新,过新生活)6)Food and cooking;eg. to keep the pot boiling仅足糊口;苟延残喘to be in the soup陷入困境7)Sports and cad-playing;eg. to keep the ball rolling不使中断to reach first base取得初步成就8)The Bible;eg. a thorn in the flesh肉中刺,眼中钉,烦恼的根源to turn the other cheek忍气吞声t he apple of one’s eyes掌上明珠9)Shakespeare’s plays;eg. to flutter the dovecotes扰乱鸽棚to give the Devil his due 勿掩恶人善，平心而论10)fables, myths or legends.eg. sour grapes（指某人因得不到某物而称该事物不好）酸葡萄the lion’s share（最大份额或最大的一份）狮子的份额10.3 Classification of IdiomsThere are several criteria of classification of idioms. Weclassify them by structural criterion.A.Phrase idioms短语成语According to the central word , they may subdivided into:1. Verb phrase idiom*a) All common English verbs, most of which are of native Anglo-Saxon origin, can combine with adverbs and prepositions to form phrasal verbs.b) Most of the verb phrase idioms are often nearly synonymous with loan words of Roman origin.c) Verb phrase idioms can form noun compounds.d) Phrasal verbs usually more lively and expressive than single verbs.eg. fall flat大失所望; 残败bite the hand that feeds one以怨报德2. Noun phrase idiomThe commonest functions of noun phrase idioms:a) As the direct object of a clause;b) As the complement of a clause;c) As the object of a preposition.eg. a baker’s dozen 十三个Jack of all trades 万事通; 万金油3. Adjective phrase idiomThe commonest function of adjective phrase idioms is as complement of a clause. eg. high and mighty盛气凌人;趾高气扬wide of the mark毫不沾边4. Prepositional phrase idiomFunctions of prepositional phrase idioms are:a) As an adjunct modifying a verb; 附属修饰语b) As a complement;补语c) As a complement or adjunct;d) As a disjunct; 分离判断语，附加语e) As a connecting phrase.B. Clause idioms无主语从句成语Most of these idioms are terse, colloquial, vivid and changed with life.1. Verb + complement pattern2. Verb + direct object pattern3. Verb + direct object + complement pattern4. Verb + indirect object + direct object pattern5. Verb + direct object + adjunct patternC. Sentence idioms句子成语1. Proverbs;2. Typical conversational expressionseg. Upon my word! 我敢担保!Well begun is half done.半途而废Kill the goose that laid the golden egg.毁掉财路; 杀鸡取卵10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idiomsA. syntactic function句法的功能1. The syntactic function of most phrase idioms usually corresponds with the central word or components.2. The syntactic function of some phrase idioms can vary.3. Prepositional phrase idioms have very diverse functions.4. noun + noun phrases have diverse functions.eg. He has a gift of the gab.(the ability to talk readily and easily )B. transformational restrictions 结构转换的限制性Transformation is a matter of structural change, and the change may be of various kinds.1. Some verb phrases may change word order.2. Some cannot change their word order.3. Some verb phrases may be passivized, but some can not.4. Most of the clause idioms cannot be put into the passive voice, while some of them can be used either way.5. The direct object usually does not undergo passive transformation; only the indirect object can be passivized.6. Some clause idioms may be made passive with a meaning quite different from what it had in the active form.C. Collocative restrictions 搭配限制1. Words collocate with idioms as the subjects, objects, predicates etc. of different types of phrase and clause idioms.2. Some idioms have a wide range of collocates while some have a limited choice.3. For some idioms, one has to consider which collocates will serve as adjuncts.D. Structural variability结构变化Idioms are structurally fixed, and as a rule one are not supposed to change any element in an idiomatic expression. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making slight changes for rhetorical effect.Some ways of alteration in idioms:1. The replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole.2. Insertion of one or more words into an idiomatic expression without changing its basic meaning.3. Deletion of one or more words, especially articles.E. Stylistic features文体特征1. Most idioms are stylistically neutral;2. But some of them belong to informal spoken English;3. Some idiom phrases are slangy.。

Word: a minimum free form of a language. With a unity of sound and meaning （both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning), performing syntactic meaningCriteria of words: by origin (native—old English）（and loan language-borrowed English）, by level of usage(common words, literary ，colloquial, slang and technical words)；by notions(function and content words）Morpheme：smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller form。

A morpheme is also two—facet language unit which possesses sound and meaning.Classification of morphemes:Free morpheme：utter alone with meaning（a free morpheme is a word in traditional sense）man, read, writeBound morpheme: must appear with one other morpheme，u nkind，happily ，receiveRoot：the basic unchangeable part of the word; convey the main lexical meaning of the word; Either free or bound(1)free roots: many roots are free morphemes，such asboy ，moon, walk(2)bound roots：derived from foreign sources. such as tain inwords like contain，detain or retain.Affixes:Inflectional affixes (have only particular grammatical meaning,does not form a new word）such as s in chairs ，pens；es in words boxes ,tomatoesderivational affixes(added morpheme to create new words。

现代英语词汇学概论复习资料1~7现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 2 Morphological Structure of English Words英语词汇的形态结构⏹ 2.1 Morphemes词素/语素/ 形位⏹ 2.2 Classification of Morphemes词素分类2.1.1 The Definition of “Morphemes” 词素的概念Morpheme: The smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language，not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.➢smallest: not divisible into smaller forms➢meaningful: carry meaning (lexical and grammatical)e.g. denationalizationdenationalization= de + nation + al + iz + ation➢ A morpheme is a two-facet language unit: sound and meaning➢ A morpheme is not identical with a syllable，either，since the latter has nothing to do with meaning.Allomorphs语素变体、词素变体:➢various shapes or forms of a morpheme➢do not differ in meaning or function➢conditioned by position or adjoining sounds➢Eg. -sbook→books /-s/pig→pigs /-z/horse → horses /-iz/➢Eg. im-，in-，i- perfect, responsible, logical, flexible perfect → imperfectresponsible→ irresponsiblelogical → illogicalflexible → inflexible➢Eg. –tion，-sioninvent →inventiondescribe →descriptionjustify →justificationmodernize→modernizationexpand →expansiondecide →decisionomit →omission2.2 Classification of Morphemes词素分类●Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes自由词素与粘着词素Free morpheme:➢one that can be uttered alone with meaning➢ A free morpheme is a word.E.g. green, red, write, faithBound morpheme:➢cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance➢appear with at least one other morpheme, free or boundE.g. receive re-ceiveQ：自由词素与粘着词素如何组词？E.g. green, greenhouse, greenness, disagreeable, receive, encyclopedia➢green (free)➢green-house (free + free)➢green-ness (free + bound)➢re-ceive (bound + bound)➢en-cyclo-pedia (bound + bound + bound)* A free morpheme is a word.●Roots and Affixes词根与词缀Root 词根: The basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.➢ 1. Free root (自由词根):A word consist of one free root (or one morpheme)is a simple word.Free roots provide the English language with a basis for the formation of new words.➢ 2. Bound root（粘着词根）:roots derived from foreign sources ,esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tian and cieveEg.1)work, workable, worker, worked, working (free)2) contain, detain, retaintain= tenere (L) = to hold (bound)3) conceive, deceive, receiveceive= capere (L) = to take (bound)4) revive, vitamin, vital, vivacious, vividvit, viv = life / to live (bound)➢Vital:necessary in order to stay alive-al: pertaining to = have a connection withvital = having a connection with life Vivacious:adj. apprec. full of life and high spirits; lively-ous: full ofvivacous = full of life (energy)Vivid:producing sharp clear pictures in the mind; lifelike-id: having a certain qualityvivid = having a certain quality of lifeAffixes缀: a collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme.➢ 1. Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀): serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.特点：1.not to form a new word with new lexical meaning2. having only particular grammatical meaning3. only to be affixed to words of the same word-class (not to change the word-class)➢ E.g. Plural marker: pens, oxen, feetGenitive case: Jame’sVerbal endings: works, working, worked, bought, saidComparative and superlative degree: slower, slowest➢ 2. Derivational affixes（派生词缀）:to be added to another morpheme to derive a new word 特点：1. to derive a new word2. having a specific lexical meaning (some also affective meaning)3. some to be attached to words of different word classes➢Eg. Having pejorative or derogatory meaning-ism means“doctrine or point of view ”==socialismPro-means“on the side of ”==pro-com-munist⏹Mini-carmean-nessModern-izeSocial-ism Pro-communist De-codeDe-valueWash-able⏹mis-mal-absorptionpseudo-democratic hire-ling weak-ling child-ish派生词缀分类（derivational morphemes）: Prefixes and suffixes1) By linguistic origin:➢Native affixes➢Foreign affixes2) By productivity:➢Productive/living affixes➢Unproductive/dead affixes➢Summary➢ 2.Morphological Structure of English Words英语词汇的形态➢ 2.1 Morphemes词素➢ 1.The Definition of “Morphemes”词素的概念➢ 2. Allomorphs 词素变体➢ 2.2 Classification of Morphemes 词素分类➢ 1. Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes➢自由词素与粘着词素➢ 2. Roots and Affixes 词根与词缀➢free root and bound root自由词根与粘着词根➢inflectional affixes and derivational affixes屈折词缀与派生词缀➢➢。

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English Vocabulary词的定义1.0 The Definition of the term “word”　1.1 The Development of English V ocabulary英语词汇的发展史1.2 Classification of English Words词的分类1.0The Definition of the term “word”Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.? a minimum free form?sound?lexical and grammatical meaning?syntactic functionBound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences.Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms.，is a word.It’s not a phrase1.1 The Development of English Vocabulary?Native: Celtic?1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS)Celtic →　Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin?2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME)French (the Norman Conquest in 1066)Latin?3rd period (1500-present): Modern English PeriodEarly stages of Modern English (1500-1700)Latin (Renaissance)Greek (Renaissance)Contemporary English (1700-present):Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, ItalianOther European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch …Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade) The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.?Marked progress of science and technology.?Socio-economic，political and cultural changes.?The influence of other cultures and languages.1.2 Classification of English WordsThree main criteria:By origin: 1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词By level of usage: 1. common words 普通词2. literary words 书面词3. colloquial words 口头词4. slang words 俚语5. technical words 术语By notion: 1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词By origin:1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词Native words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old EnglishFeatures of native words:?Most are monosyllabic?forming the great majority of the basic word stockLoan / borrowed words: those borrowed from other languagesBasic word stock:?auxiliary, modal verbs, numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, the most frequently used words (essential to life)?National character?Stability?Word-forming ability?Ability to form collocationsBy level of usage:1. Common words 普通词2. Literary words 书面词3. Colloquial words 口头词4. Slang words 俚语5. Technical words 术语*There are no clear-cut boundaries between the various classes of words.Common words普通词:?connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life?The core of the common words is the basic word stock.?Stylistically neutralLiterary words书面词:?chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.?Most are of French, Latin or Greek origin.?Among the literary word, two categories are noteworthy:?archaic words (c.f. obsolete words)?poetical wordsSlang俚语:?Language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventionaluse of the standard vocabulary?Not generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms?Embracing those daring and new expression that have not been accepted as standard EnglishThe chief reason for use of slang: secure freshness and noveltyTechnical words术语:?used in various fields: science, profession or trade, art, sport?increasing precision in nomenclature?one specific meaning?Latin or Greek in originBy notion:1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词Function words:?determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries?not having much lexical meaning?serving grammatically:Behaving like grammatical signals or functional markers,Expressing the kinds of connection between content wordsConstructing acceptable English sentences?small in number and stable:In relatively closed listsBelonging to a relatively small and permanent set of words)?high frequency。

Chapter 7 Sense Relations Between Words■7」Synonymy同义关系■7.2 Antonymy反义关系■7.3 Hyponymy上下义关系■7.4 Semantic Field 语义场7.1 SynonymySynonyms: words differing in sound fonn but identical or similar in meaning.* Synonymy: a relationship of 'sameness of meaning5 that may hold between two words. Synonym: a wordthat means the same as anothe匚*Or exactly one of two or more words which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.•Kinds of synonymsThere are two kinds of synonyms1)Complete synonyms: are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.*They're rare.Two words are totally synonyms only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable inany context without the slightest alteration in connotative ,affective and stylistic meanings . Eg.spirants fricative (phonetics ) caecitis -typhlitis (medicine ) vvord-formation - word-building (lexicology )2)Relative synonyms : also called quasi-synonyms.Differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:a)In degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning;Eg. small .tiny .diminutive .minute .microscopic .infinitesimal -一they denote different degrees ofsmallnessanger .rage 9fuiy .indignation .wrath -they denote the emotional excitement induced by intense displeasure .b)In affective meaning, and stylistic meaning;i.affective meaning(emotive meaning )Eg. little -smalllittle -emotion is associate with the designationsmall -has no affective meaningthrifty /frugal -niggardly /miserly black -niggerii.stylistic meaning: words which refers to the same thing but belong to different stylistic layers :neutral (common ),colloquial,literary ,slang ,vulgar ,scientific and technical ,ect・ Eg.chide (literary )berate(neutral ) scold(neutral) blame(neutral) carpet(colloquial ,esp. BrE) tell^(colloquial) bawl out (AmE.,slang )c)In collocation and distribution:Eg. pretty -girl /child /flower /garden /colour /village/cottagehandsome -boy /masterpiece /car /table /overcoat /airliner /housed)Some sets of synonyms belong to different dialects of the language•Synonymous patternsa)The double scale patternEg・b)The triple scale patternEg・• The choice and appropriate use of synonyms1)Difference in denotationSynonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning・ Some words have a wider range ofmeaning than others.comprehend / understandextend / increase / expandlau^h: chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, snicker/sniper, titter2)Difference in connotation.By connotation, we mean the stylistic and emotive coloring of words. Some words share the samedenotation but differ in their stylistic (emotional) appropriateness.unlike / dissimilar homely / domesticLook at that lovely little boy.Look at that small boy.Look at that tiny boy.3)Difference in application.Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple4)Difference in applicationMany words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form differentcollocations and fit into different sentence patterns (distribution: pre- or post- modifier).empty (box, street, room), vacant (seat, chair, apartment), blank (check, a blank sheet of paper)accuse....of, charge...with, rebuke・.・for, reproach...with/for水synonyms also includes three other aspects:(1)synonyms of different word-class (jealous -jealousy)(2)words synonymous with phrases (to tolerate -to put up with )(3)different sentence patterns expressing roughly the same ideaeg. He was the sole provider of the family •He alone had to support the family .He was the only person to provide for the family .7-2 Antonymy反义关系Antonyms: words which are opposite in meaning.(opDOsiteness of meaning )• Types of antonymsA. antonyms classified on the basis of semantic contrasta) Contraries相对反义词Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles orextremes. The two opposites are gradable.-hot, warm, cool, cold-beautiful, pretty, good-looking, plain, ugly- old-young, open-close, big-small, poor-richb) Complementaries绝对反义词/互补反义词These antonyms truly represent oppositeness. They are so opposed to each other that theyare mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them (non-gradable).The assertion of one is the denial of the other.-dead-alive,approval-disapprovalpresent-absent, male-female, true-false,capable-incapable一Prefixes: dis-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, un-c)Coversives换位反义词/关系反义词This third type consists of relational opposites, one member of the antonyms pairpresupposes the other member.一Husband-wife, fiance-fiancee, employer-employee, debtor-creditor- Above-below, in front of-behind, up-down一Buy-sell, give-receive, go-come, gain-loseB. antonyms classified on the basis of the morphological structurea) Marked and unmarked members (有标记项和无标记项)E.g.： tiger(unmarked), tigress(marked)•The unmarked member is used much more widely than merely as a contrast with the marked one,which is more specific in denotation.•Old/young; “How old/young are you?"•big/small; "How big …?"•wide/naiTow; “How wide ...?M•Heavy/light*The cover teim is called "unmarked,\ i.e. usual; and the covered "marked", or unusual.b) Some words without antonyms*Not all words have antonyms:Eg. House, window, forest, hook, coal...d)Different antonyms under different circumstancee)Lexical antonyms vs syntactic negationLexical antonyms is often stronger than syntactic negation.(using not)Eg. impossible -not possibleunfair -not fair disloyal-not loyal to disobey -not to obeyf)Word order of antonymous pairs Eg.Eg. an old man -a young man athin slice -a thick slice a tallbuilding -a low buildingan old house -a modern /new housea thin man -a fat mana tall man -a short manheaven and earth 天地man and wife 夫妻cause and effect 因果come and go 来去far and near /wide 远近black and white 黑白thick and thin 厚薄fire and water 水火heat and cold 寒暑eat and drink 饮食right and left 左右rich and poor 聘夫old and new 新旧heavy and light 轻重sooner or later 迟早• Use of antonymsAntonyms are often used for the sake of contrast to impress one ' s listeners or readers. Eg. in proverbial sayingsSweet as honey .bitter as gall .Art is long Jife is shortMore haste .less speed •Light come ,light go .7.3 Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy: is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items Eg. cat is a hyponymy of animal flute of instrument .chair of furnitureThis sense relation may be shown by thefollowing diagram ：foodFood is a superordinate （•上 义i 司），meat, vegetable and fruit arehyponyms （卜 义词）or subordinates of food, and they are co-hyponyms （共下 义词）.But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms.7.4 Semantic Field 语义场Semantic Field Theory 语义场理论…•德国Jost Trier 20世纪30年代> The set of terms which are hyponyms of the same superordinate terms are called co-hyponyms, which are also knows as semantic fields.> The words of language can be classified into sets which are related to conceptual fields and divide up the semantic space or the semantic domain in certain ways. For example, apple, pear, date and etc. make up the semantic field of u fruits ,\ > The German linguist Jost Trier saw vocabulary as 'an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sensei Therefore, the 'words of language can be classified into semantically related sets of fields.Eg. -Semantic field of colours: red, orange...-Semantic field of kinship: son,fat her...-The semantic field of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister... ■联系性 I like lemon. orange, apple, grapered, black, green■层次性 鸟、鱼、昆虫、哺乳动物Imeat vegetable Beef pork mutton celery spinach cabbage apple orange禽兽猪、牛、马…• Characteristics1)Words in the same field are joined by a common semantic feature, such asthe concept of color or of the kinship.2)Word frequency in the same field varies,e.g. in the field of color:The words with the highest frequency: white, black, green, blue, red, yellowThe ones with the second highest frequency: pink, orange, scarlet, crimson, violet The ones with the least frequency: lemon, emerald, sandy, coral3)Words of the same field are semantically interdependent: the meaning ofone word in a semantic field is limited by the meaning of its neighbors, or is determined by the position the word occupies in the field. Only theneighbouring words can identify the semantic fieldLemon: orange, apple, bananaLemon: red, orange, blueI like lemon.4)Words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number ofcollocations in common.(raw / taste /fiy)pork, beef, mutton。

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change⏹9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsDefinition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words.9.1 Causes of Changes in Word MeaningA.Historical cause 历史原因It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science.Eg.pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”.atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.B.Social cause 社会原因Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change.Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.Eg.feedback (Electr.) =means “response” in common use ,as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students”;allergic (Med.)=means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use .Eg.energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do workdecline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms ofC.Foreign influences 外来文化影响A particularly important cause .eg.-pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.-dream meant “joy” in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.D.Linguistic cause 语言上的原因*Two tendencies: towards ellipsis省略and towards analogy类推.-Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n.,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .eg.a general –a general officer 一位将军an editorial–an editorial article一篇社论bugle–bugle horn 号角gold–gold medal ,as in the Olympic Games金牌uniform–uniform dress 制服transistor–transistor radio 收音机daily–daily newspaper 日报duplicate –duplicate copy 副本-Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.eg.diplomatic (外交的，外交上的)which had earlier meant only “skillful in managing international relations,”had by 1826 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others.” By 1848，this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy. （外交；外交手腕；交际手段）E.Psychological cause 心理学上的原因*Three formsa)Euphemism委婉People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.eg. hence death and things related to death-to pass away-to breathe one’s last -to cease to think-to fall asleep -to go west-to kick the bucket -to be no moreb)Grandiloquence 夸张Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.eg.janitor看门人；守卫；门警–custodian管理人；监护人；保管人gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家–landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家reform school教养院；少年犯管教所–community home少年感化院；c)Cynicism 嘲讽Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.eg .pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的--hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良fanatic狂热的；盲信的—unreasonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madnessgrandiloquent夸张的；夸大的；大言不惭的—pompous in language ;given to beautiful talk sanctimonious假装虔诚的；假装圣洁的；假装诚实的–devout ,holy or sacre d9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic ChangeA.Restriction of meaning (specialization) 词义的缩小/具体化♦Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.B.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大/普遍化♦Extension of meaning: means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.*Two main reasons for this tendency :1. The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of differentiation rather than ofsynthesis;2. Related to the first ,is that the formation of general concepts from specific terms is of lesserimportance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor .C. Degeneration of meaning (pejoration) 词义的降格/语义转贬 ♦ Two main forms:1. The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another . eg. silly1) Originated from the ASs œlig meaning “blessing and happy ”2) Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word came to mean “innocent ” inthe 17th century3) As innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later came to mean “simple ” and“simple-minded ”, which is often associated with “lack of intelligence ” 4) hence the modern meaning of the word silly :“foolish ”.2. This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost.*This form refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.D. Elevation of meaning (amelioration) 词义的升格/语义改良♦ Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and haseither risen from a “snarl ” word to a “purr ” word ,or from a slang term to a common word.9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsA. Metaphor隐喻，暗喻♦Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.eg. food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applausea cunning person –foxa beautiful woman –vision美景♦Two types:a)The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form or appearance; on aresemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.eg. eye of a needlethe teeth of a combthe bridge of a pair of eyeglassesthe crest of a mountainb)There is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results similar to those ofmetaphor:eg. synaesthesia. 联觉“which is based on transportation from one sense to another”*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people’s minds. They are called faded metaphors and appear as one of the word’s meanings listed in any standard dictionaries.B. Metonymy 借喻，转喻，借代♦Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.eg. the white house –the president or for the presidential staff of the US♦Categories of metonymy:a)Sign for the person or thing signified;eg. from the cradle to the grave (for “from infancy until death”)b)Container for its contents; the place for the people occupying it;eg. the bottle (for alcoholic drink ) wardrobe (for a person’s collection of clothes)c)The abstract for the concrete;eg. the pride (of our university ) the management (for governing body ,board of directors ect.)d)The concrete for the abstract;eg. tongue(for language ) the floor(the right of one member to speak, as in “to have the floor )e) A part for the whole and vice versa;eg. a sail for a ship (as in “a fleet of fifty sail )f)The material for the ting made.eg. silver for coins made of silver (as in “£20 in notes and £3 in burglars)。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。

Word :a minimum free form of a language. With a unity of s ound and meaning(both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning),performing syntactic meaningCriteria of words: by origin(native—old English )( and loan language—borrowed English),by level of usage(common words, literary ,colloquial, slang and technical words);by notions(function and content words)Morpheme: smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller form. A morpheme is also two-facet language unit which possesses sound and meaning.Classification of morphemes: free morpheme-utter alone with meaning(a free morpheme is a word in traditional sense); bound morpheme—must appear with one other morpheme, free or bound)Root: the basic unchangeable part of the word, convey the main lexical meaning of the word. Either free or bound.(free roots and bound roots)Affixes: ----inflectional affixes(have only particular grammatical meaning)and derivational affixes.(added morpheme to create new words.）---prefixes and suffixesWord-formationThree major processes : compounding(joining tow or more bases to form a new unit of compound words)Derivation(forming a new word by addition of a word element)Conversion(a word of certain word-class is shifted into another word-class without any affixes)Eight minor processes :Acronymy (Initialisms –using the first letter from proper name ,phrase, technical words)Ainitialism is pronounced letter by letter) and acronyms—from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term)==are pronounced as words.Clipping(deletion of one or more syllables from a word—usually a noun, which is also available in its full form)Classification—back clipping, front clipping ,front and back clipping and phrase clipping.)Blending---formed by combining the meanings and sound of tow words.one of which is not full form or both of which are not full form. ）不完整拼缀Back-formation（coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.）Words from proper names(including names of scientists, names of politicians and statesman, names of places, trademark, literature)Reduplication(a compound word is created by the repetition(1)of one word like go-go(2)almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong.(3)of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants ,as in teenyweeny.Neoclassical(new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek)The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.MiscellaneousWord meaning and sense relations1,conventionality—no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol and its sense.2,motivation—phonetic ,morphological, sematic3,main types of word meaning(interrelated andinterdependent)---class and inflectionalparadigm)andmeaning; connotative meaning—emotional association; social or stylistic meaning and affective meaning)Binary opposites.二相对立Polysemy—a term used in sematic analysis to refer to lexical item which has a range of meanings.)T wo approaches—diachronic and synchronic.---primary meaning and derived meaning, central meaning and secondary meaning(in some cases, the primary meaning and the central meaning coincide.)Two processes leading to polysemy---radiation(each of the secondary meanings may become a center of further radiation),concatenation(linking together, like the links of a chain.Homonymy(---pronounced alike, spell alike, or both.)---types of homonyms(perfect homonyms—word identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning)(Homophones---identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.)(Homographs—identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.)Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect. Synonymy(—identical in meaning but different in sound and spelling.)--- Complete synonyms(absolute),Relative synonyms.Antonymy (--opppsiteness of meaning)---contrary, complementary and conversives ….Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure: root antonyms and derivational antonyms.Marked and unmarked words---subsume.(Marked members can not be used to include unmarked member.) Hyponymy—(relationship which obtains specific and general lexical items)Superordinate term(an upper term),Subordinate terms(a lower term)===hierarchical system Sematic field---is not simply a listing of independent items, organized into areas or field.Charateristic of the same sematic field.1),word frequency in the same semantic varies 2)these words are semantically interdepent.3) words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number of collocation on common. Changes in word meaning---1,causes:historical,social,foreign influence, linguistic and psychological .2, Four tendencies in sematic change---restriction, extension, degeneration, elevation (of meaning)具体化，普遍化，语义转贬，语义改良。

Chapter 11 AmericanEnglish⏹11.1 Growth of American English⏹11.2 Characteristics of American English⏹11.3 Differences between BritishandAmericanEnglish11.1 Growth of American EnglishA.Before Independence (before 1783)(1)Spellingeg. cleare–clear dutei–duty goodnes—goodness(2)Pronunciationeg. tea /te:/(3)Grammar(4)V ocabulary*the greatest differenceB.From independence to the early 19th century1)The common strife of braving the hardships of life ,fighting against British tariffs andultimately political control led to the emergence a sense of nationally .2)In 1816，A V ocabulary ,or Collection of Words and Phrases, which have been supposed tobe peculiar to be the USA, was published.3)Thus it might be near the truth to say that American English had taken root and begun toinfluence British English by the early 19th century .C.From the early 19th century to the present time1)The US played an important role in World War I, and had become one of the leadingpowers on the eve of the World War II.2)Scientific and technical inventions ,improved means of production and transportation ,newinstitution and new life all needed new expressions.3)Since the World War II, the US has become literally the leader of the western world andone of the superpowers contending for world hegemony.4)Thus in a little than four hundred years American English has developed under its peculiarhistorical ,political ,economic and social condition to its present position .D.The impact of American English on British English♦Two factors have strengthened this tendency :1)The two varieties of English are basically the same in phonetic and morphemic structure .2)American movies ,popular songs ,newspapers, magazines, novels ,and radio and televisionprograms are so popular in England that they serve as effective media though which the British people accept American expressions almost unconsciously.11.2 Characteristics of American EnglishA.Creativeness in enriching the language 丰富的语言创造性1)Facing the urgent requirement of naming new things and expressing new concepts ,theearly settlers formed great numbers of expressive compounds .eg. jimson-weed (Jamestown weed )（美）蔓陀罗（茄科）skyscraper摩天楼bell-hop旅馆侍者，旅馆服务员（等于bellboy）noun to verb .eg. to lumber (to cut lumber ) 采伐to holiday (to spend holiday )3)Some affixes are preferred by Americans and used rather freely .eg. super –super-films ,super-perfect ,super-starde—dehire ,deescalate ,debug-teria –cafeteria ,sodateria-nik—protestnik ,popnik4)American readiness for making neologisms also finds expression in blends andback-formation .eg. blend :Amerind-American Indian trainasium –training gymnasiumback-formation :commute ,enthuse ,emote5)Clippings and acronymseg. clipping :deli –delicatessen narc –narcotic agentacronym :NASA6)New meanings for existing wordseg. sucker—dupe squeeze –boy or girl friend to fire –dismiss7)Phrases originating in Americaeg. in the doghouse –be temporarily unpopularB.Conservativeness or retention of archaic features 对古英语的保留C.Heterogeneity1)American Indian2)French3)Spanish4)Dutch5)German6)Italian7)African elements8)Yiddish犹太意第绪语D.Relative uniformity in speechE.Popularity of slange of big wordseg. gobbledygook –talk or writing that is pompous ,wordy官样文章braggadocio–vain ,noisy ,boasting自夸，吹牛；吹牛大王G.Verbose and plain style in writing11.3 Differences between BritishandAmericanEnglishA.Differences in pronunciation*different phonemes may be used in the same word ,this found only withB.Differences in spellingC.Differences in grammarD.Differences in vocabulary。

Chapter 12 English Dictionaries and How to Use Them⏹12.1 Introductory Remarks⏹12.2 Types of Dictionaries⏹12.3 The Choice of a Dictionary⏹12.4 How to Use a Dictionary12.1 Introductory RemarksA.Lexicology and dictionaries1.Lexicology is closely related to dictionaries .2.The principles of modern dictionary –making and the contents of each entryare based on the findings of lexicology, while the materials provided indictionaries are widely used by lexicologists in their research .B.Trends of English dictionaries –prescriptive and descriptive dictionaries12.2 Types of DictionariesA.Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries♦Linguistic dictionaries1.Linguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining their usages in thelanguage.2.They usually cover such areas as spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammaticalfunction, usage and etymology, etc.3.These dictionaries can be monolingual and bilingual.♦Encyclopedic dictionaries1.Encyclopedic dictionaries can be further divided into encyclopedia andencyclopedic dictionaries.2.An encyclopedia is not concerned with language but provides encyclopedicinformation concerning each headword.3.The reader cannot find pronunciation or meanings or usages of words.4.Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both linguistic dictionariesand encyclopedia.eg. The Encyclopedia Britannica (20 volumes)《大英百科全书》（20卷）The Encyclopedia Americana (30 volumes)《美国百科全书》（30卷）Chamber‘s Encyclo­pedic English Dictionary (1994; 200,000 words)《钱伯斯百科词典》B.General and special dictionaries♦General dictionaries1. A generic dictionary is one which attempts to cover the whole lexicon of thelanguage.2.General dictionaries mainly provide linguistic information of words3.Dictionaries compiled for general use—to look for spelling, meaning,pronunciation, usage, etc.1♦Special dictionaries1. A special dictionary deals with one sector of the lexicon.2.Special dictionaries usually provide the meanings and contents3.Such special dictionaries meet the multifarious needs of people who learn or usethe Englishlanguage, such as dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, idioms, slang, dialect ,pronunciation ,usage ,collections ,etymology , proverbs ,quotation , acronyms and abbreviations ,neologisms ,foreign words ,etc.C.Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries♦Monolingual dictionaries1.Monolingual dictionaries are few in number and are usually limited to scientificand technical words .2.Monolingual dictionaries are generally compiled by native speakers of eitherlanguage .♦Bilingual dictionaries1.Bilingual dictionaries involve two languages.2.Words and expressions are defined in another language.D.Synchronic and diachronic dictionaries 共时和历时字典E.Unabridged ,medium –sized ,and pocket dictionarieseg. 1) Unabridged Dictionaries（大型词典150000 words+）2) Desk Dictionaries (50000 + words)Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,《朗文当代英语词典》Collins COBUILD English Dictionary, 《柯林斯COBUILD英语词典》3) Pocket Dictionaries (50000- words)Oxford Pocket English Chinese 《牛津袖珍英汉双解词典》Collins New English Dictionary《柯林斯最新英语词典》4) Electronic Dictionaries (E-dictionary)This kind of dictionary, monolingual or bilingual, takes the form of a calculator but works like a computer (《文曲星》《快译通》) .F.Ideological dictionaries意识形态的字典G.Monolingual dictionaries for non-native learners12.3 The Choice of a DictionaryA.SuitabilityB.ContentsC.AuthorityD.Up-to-date-ness212.4 How to Use a DictionaryA.Read the introduction and guide to the use of the dictionaryB.Make full use of the entry contentsC.Choose the right meaningD.Know the inadequacies of the dictionary3。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。

Chapter 6 Polysemy and Homonymy⏹6.1 Polysemy 一词多义⏹6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义⏹6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy 一词多义与同音异义的文体价值6.1 Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy: A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.*means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.●Two approaches to polysemy :diachronic 历时的and synchronic 一时的，同步的●Two processes leading to polysemy1)Radiation辐射型：It is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at thecenter while secondary meaning radiates from it in every direction like ray .*Though all the secondary meanings are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.2)Concatenation连锁型: It is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts ,like the links of a chain ,until thereis no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning .*use relations between senses to master the different meanings of a polysemic word●Sense relations of polysemy1)original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义2)universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义3)abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义4)literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义Homonymy: words which though different in meaning ,are pronounced alike ,or spelled alike ,or both .Eg.light（光）light（轻的）；bark（吠）bark（树皮）；flower（花）flour（面粉）●Three types of homonyms:1)Perfect homonyms完全同形同音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in meaning .E.g.1)．poppop ／p p/ n．流行歌曲pop／p p／n．爸爸pop／p p／n．砰的一声2)．lastlast ／la:st／a．最后的last／la:st／v．持续last／la:st／n．鞋楦头现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter62)Homophones同音异义词:Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Eg. air空气–heir继承人，后嗣bear忍受，熊–bare空的，赤裸的dear 亲爱的–deer鹿3)Homograph同形异音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning .Eg. lead sow tear prayerSources of homonyms1.Phonetic convergenceUnder the influence of phonetic convergence ,two or more words whichonce were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation thespoken language .E.g. melo –meal bean –been beat –beet flea –flee heal –heel2.Semantic divergenceWhen two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them ,polysemy will giveplace to homonymy .E.g. flour –flower metal –mettle3.Foreign influenceE.g. host –one who entertains guest [L hospitis ]host –a large number ,an army [L hostis ,army ,hostile force ]4.ShorteningThis source is of decidedly subsidiary importance in formal writing but haswidespread influence in everyday speech.E.g. pop –popular (music )-to thrust ,to push (up ) 推6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy一词多义与同音异义的文体价值Context plays a very important role in the hearer 's interpretation of words of two special types: different words of like form(homonymy)and words of several meanings (polysemy ).*Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achievehumour or irony ,or to heighten dramatic effect .。