二手汽车 外文文献翻译

附录SensorsPerformance of any control system is，first of all，related to the accuracy with which information about the operating variables or parameters is relayed to the controlling process. The sensors used to monitor the variables do so by converting the variables’ physical quantities into related electrical signals. Common measures in automobiles are flow，temperature，position，position/speed，knock and oxygen concentration.Air Flow SensorMass Air Flow sensors convert the amount of air drawn into the engine into a voltage signal. The ECM needs to know intake air volume to calculate engine load. This is necessary to determine how much fuel to inject，when to ignite the cylinder，and when to shift the transmission. The air flow sensor is located directly in the intake air stream，between the air cleaner and body where it can measure incoming air.Mass Air Flow Sensor: Hot Wire TypeThe primary components of the MAF sensor are a thermistor，a platinum hot wire，and an electronic control circuit.The thermistor measures the temperature of incoming air. The hot wire is maintained at a constant temperature in relation to the thermistor by the electronic control circuit. An increase in air flow will cause the hot wire to lose heat faster and the electronic control circuitry will compensate by sending more current through the wire. The electronic control circuit simultaneously measures the current flow and puts out a voltage signal (VG) in proportion to current flow.Vane Air Flow MeterThe vane air flow meter provides the ECM with an accurate measure of the load placed on the engine. The ECM uses it to calculate basic injection duration and basic ignition advance angle.Temperature sensorThe ECM needs to adjust a variety of system based on temperature. It is critical for proper operation of these systems that the engine reaching operating temperature and temperature is accurately signed to the ECM. Temperature sensor measure Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT)，Intake Air Temperature (IAT)，and Exhaust Recirculation Gases (EGR)，etc.Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) SensorThe ECT responds to change in Engine Coolant Temperature. By measuring enginecoolant temperature，the ECT knows the average temperature of the engine. The ECT is usually located in a coolant passage just before the thermostat.Intake Air Temperature (IAT) SensorThe IAT detects the temperature of the incoming air stream. On vehicles equipped with a MAP sensor，the IAT is part of the MAP sensor. The IAT is used for detecting ambient temperature on a cold start and intake air temperature as the engine heats up the incoming air.Exhaust Gas Recirculation Temperature (EGR) SensorThe EGR Temperature Sensor is located in the EGR passage and measures the temperature of the exhaust gases. When the EGR vavle opens，temperature increases. Form the increase in temperature，the ECM knows the EGR vavle is open and that exhaust gases are flowing.ECT，IAT，&EGR Temperature Sensor OperationThough these sensors are measuring different things，they all operate in the same way. From the voltage signal of the temperature sensor，the ECM knows the temperature. As the temperature of the sensor heats up，the voltage signal decreases. The decrease in the voltage signal is caused by the decrease in resistance. The change in resistant causes the voltage signal to drop. From the voltage signal，the ECM can determine the temperature of the coolant，intake air，or exhaust gas temperature. Position SensorIn many applications，the ECM needs to know the position of mechanical components. The throttle position sensor (TPS) indicates position of the throttle vavle. Accelerator pedal position sensor indicates position of the accelerator pedal. Exhaust gas (EGR) vavle position sensor indicate position of the EGR vavle，these sensors operate the same way.Throttle position sensorThe TPS is mounted on the throttle body and converts the throttle vavle angle into an electronic signal. As the throttle opens，the signal voltage increases. The ECM uses throttle vavle position information to know:Engine mode: idle，part throttle，wide open throttle.Switch off AC and emission controls at Wide Open Throttle (WOT).Air-fuel ratio correction.Fuel cut control.EGR Vavle Position SensorThe EGR vavle position sensor is mounted on the EGR vavle and detects theheight of the EGR vavle. The ECM uses this signal to control EGR vavle height. The EGR vavle position sensor converts the movement and position of the EGR vavle into an electrical signal. Operation is identical to the TPS except that the signal arm is moved by the EGR vavle.Position /Speed SensorPosition/Speed sensors provide information to the ECM about the position of a component，the speed of a component，and the change in speed of a component. The following sensors provide this data:Camshaft position sensor (also called G sensor).Crankshaft position sensor (also called NE sensor).Vehicle speed sensor.The camshaft position sensor，crankshaft position sensor and one type of vehicle speed sensor are of the pick-up coil type sensor.Pick-up coil (variable reluctance) type sensorThis type of sensor consists of a permanent magnet，yoke，and coil. This sensor is mounted close to toothed gear. As each tooth moves by the sensor，an AC voltage pulses is induced in the coil. Each tooth produces a pulse. As the gear rotates faster there more pulses are produced. The ECM determines the speed the component is revolving based on the number of pulse. Sensors of other types are magnetic resistance element (MRG) type and reed switch type.Camshaft position sensor (G sensor)This sensor is located near one of the camshafts. An AC signal is generated that is directly proportional to camshaft speed. That is，as the camshaft revolves faster the frequency increases. By knowing the position of the camshaft，the ECM determines when cylinder NO.1 is on the compression strike.Crankshaft position sensor (NE sensor)The ECM uses crankshaft position signal to determine engine RPM，crankshaft position，and engine misfire. This signal is referred to as the NE signal. The NE signal combined with the G signal indicates the cylinder that is on compression and ECM can determine from its programming the engine firing order.Vehicle speed sensor (VSS)The ECM uses the vehicle speed sensor (VSS) signal to modify engine function and initiate diagnostic routines. The VSS signal originates from a sensor measuring transmission/transaxle output speed or wheel speed. Different types of sensors have been used depending on models and applications.Knock sensorsThe knock sensor detects engine knock and sends a voltage signal to the ECM. The ECM uses the knock sensor signal to control timing.Engine knock occurs within a specific frequency range. The knock sensor，located in the engine block，cylinder head，or intake manifold is tuned to detect that frequency. Inside the block sensor is a piezoelectric element. Piezoelectric elements generate a voltage when pressure or a vibration is applied to them. The piezoelectric element in the knock sensor is tuned to the engine knock frequency. The vibrations from engine knocking vibrate piezoelectric element generating a voltage. The voltage output from the knock sensor is highest at this time.Oxygen/Air Fuel SensorsThe ECM uses an oxygen sensor to ensure the air/fuel ratio is correct for the catalytic converter. Based on the oxygen sensor signal，the ECM will adjust the amount of fuel injected into the intake air stream.There are different types of oxygen sensors，but two of the more common types are:The narrow range oxygen，the oldest style，simply called the oxygen sensor.Wide range oxygen sensor，the newest style，called the air/fuel ratio (A/F) sensor.Oxygen SensorThis style of oxygen sensor has been in service the longest time. The oxygen sensor generates a voltage signal based on the amount of oxygen in the exhaust compared to the atmospheric oxygen.Air/Fuel Ratio SensorThe air/fuel ratio (A/F) sensor is similar to the narrow range oxygen sensor. It is also referred to as a wide range or wide ratio sensor because of its ability to detect air/fuel ratios over a wide range. The advantage of using the A/F sensor is that the ECM can more accurately meter the fuel reducing emissions. To accomplish this，the A/F sensor:Operates at approximately 650℃，much hotter than oxygen sensor 400℃.Changes its current (amperage) output in relation to the amount of oxygen in the exhaust stream.传感器控制系统的性能，首先是控制精度。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿A New Type Car -- Hybrid Electric VehicleWith skyrocketing fuel prices and changes in weather patterns, many car manufacturers claimed to develop the kind of vehicles that will increase the mileage and reduce the emissions. Hybrid car is a kind of vehicle which can meet above requirements. A hybrid car features a small fuel-efficient gas engine combined with an electric motor that assists the engine.The reasons of building such a complicated machine are twofold: to reduce tailpipe emissions and to improve mileage. Firstly, hybrid cars are good for the environment. They can reduce smog by 90 percent and they use far less gasoline than conventional cars. Meanwhile, hybrid cars burn less gasoline per mile, so they release fewer greenhouse gases. Secondly, hybrid cars are economical. Hybrid cars, which run on gas and electricity, can get up to 55 to 60 miles per gallon in city driving, while a typical SUV might use three times as much gas for the same distance! There are three reasons can mainly account for that: 1) Hybrid engines are much smaller than those on conventional cars. A hybrid car engine is to accommodate the 99% of driving time when a car is not going up hills or accelerating quickly. When extra acceleration power is needed, it relies on the battery to provide additional force. 2) Hybrid gasoline engine can shut off when the car is stopped and run off their electric motor and battery.3) Hybrid cars often recover braking energy. Electric motors could take the lost kinetic energy in braking and use it to charge the battery. Furthermore, hybrids are better than all-electric cars because hybrid car batteries recharge as you drive so there is no need to plug in. Most electric cars need to be recharged every 50-100miles. Also, most electric cars cannot go faster than 50-60 mph, while hybrids can.Hybrid cars bridge the gap between electric and gasoline-powered cars by traveling further and driving faster and hybrid gas-electric cars are proving to be a feasible alternative at a time of high gas prices. So, in my opinion, hybrid cars will have a bright future.How Does Hybrid Electric Vehicle Work？You probably own a gasoline or diesel-engine car. You may have heard ofelectric vehicles too. A hybrid vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a combination of both. Hybrid vehicles utilize two or more sources of energy for propulsion. In the case of HEVs, a combustion engine and an electric motor are used.How it works depends on the type of drive train it has. A hybrid vehicle can either have a parallel or series or parallel-series drive train.Parallel HybridThe parallel hybrid car has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission, electric motor, and batteries.A parallel hybrid is designed to run directly from either the combustion engine or the electric motor. It can run using both the engine and the motor. As a conventional vehicle, the parallel hybrid draws its power from the combustion engine which will then drive the transmission that turns the wheels. If it is using the electric motor, the car draws its power from the batteries. The energy from the batteries will then power the electric motor that drives the transmission and turns the wheel.Both the combustion engine and the electric motor are used at the same time during quick acceleration, on steep ascend, or when either the engine or the motor needs additional boost.Since the engine is directly connected to the wheels in a parallel drive train, it eliminates the inefficiency of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and back. This makes a very effective vehicle to drive on the highway.Series HybridThe series hybrid car also has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission, electric motor, and batteries with the addition of the generator. The generator can be the electric motor or it can be another separate component.The series configuration is the simplest among the 3. The engine is not connected to the transmission rather it is connected to the electric motor. This means that the transmission can be driven only by the electric motor which draws its energy from the battery pack, the engine or the generator.A hybrid car with a series drive train is more suited for city driving conditions since the engine will not be subjected to the varying speed demands (stop, go, and idle) that contributes to fuel consumption.Series-Parallel HybridThe series-parallel configuration solves the individual problems of the parallel and series hybrid. By combining the 2 designs, the transmission can be directly connected to the engine or can be separated for optimum fuel consumption. The Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape Hybrid use this technology.Honda’s hybridFor those of you who have toyed with the idea of buying a hybrid but were discouraged by the price, you are not alone. In fact, despite the growing concern for the environment, not to mention the skyrocketing price of gas, hybrid cars still only represent a small percentage of global car sales, and a major reason for this is the cost.Hybrids are considered the wave of the future because they not only reduce emissions, addressing the issue of climate change, but they get great gas mileage, animportant consideration with the current price of oil. It should be noted that hybrids can also improve the power of the engine, which compromises any advantages in fuel efficiency and emissions. Whatever the application, however, the technology makes the cars more expensive.Because of this, they are the vehicle of choice for only a small niche of people who can afford them, and they currently enjoy a special status amongst the image conscious celebrity-set. For most average consumers, however, they are not an option.That may soon change.Honda Motor Corporation, one of the largest car manufacturers in the world and a leader in fuel efficient technology, has unveiled it’s plan to introduce a low-cost hybrid by 2009. If they can pull it off, they hope to make the hybrid a more mainstream car that will be more appealing to the general public, with the ultimate goal of achieving greater sales and broader appeal than their current incarnation.This, of course, is making Detroit nervous, and may signal a need for American car makers to start making greener and more fuel efficient vehicles, something they could afford to ignore in the past because hybrid cars weren’t worth their attention (due to such a small market share) while gas-guzzling SUVs have such high profit margins.Honda, meanwhile, has had to confront a growing need to compete with Toyota, which has not only grown to be the world’s largest automaker, but makes the car that has become synonymous with the hybrid movement, the Prius. Honda is therefore faced with the seemingly insurmountable task of challenging Toyota’s dominance in the market.Concurrently, Toyota is racing to lower production costs on the Prius, as well, which would hopefully result in a lower cost to the consumer. All eyes are on a potentially favorable car buyers market in 2009.In the meantime, with even adamant global warming naysayers warming up (no pun intended) to the possibilities of an ecological disaster on the horizon, maybe it’s time that we got over our need to drive huge SUVs and start moderating our fuel consumption.Then again, as gas prices hovering around $4.00 and with no ceiling in sight, we may have little choice in the matter.Engine Operating PrinciplesMost automobile dngines are internal combustion, reciprocating 4-stroke gasoline engines, but other types have been used, including the diesel, the rotary ( Wankel ) , the 2-srtoke, and stratified charge.Reciprocating means up and down or banck and forth, It is the up and down action of a piston in the cylinder blick, or engine block. The blick is an iron or aluminum casting that contains engine cylinders and passges called water jackets for coolant circulation. The top of the block is covered with the cylinder head. Which forms the combustion chanber. The bottom of the block is covered with an oil pan or oil sump.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder. However, this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars of trucks. The piston is attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin, called a piston pin or wrist pin. The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft. The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft, which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large beaings called rod bearings. Similar bearings, called main bearings, are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. Shown in Fig. 1-1The diameter of the cylinder is called the engine bore. Displacement and compression ratio are two frequently used engine specifications. Displacement indicates engine size, and compression ratio compares the total cylinder volume to compression chamber volume.The term stroke is used to describe the movement of the iston within the cylinder, as well as the distance of piston travel. Depending on the type of engine the operating cycle may require either two or four strokes to complete. The 4-stroke engine is also called Otto cycle engine, in honor of the German engineer, Dr. Nikolaus Otto, who first applied the principle in 1876. In the 4-stroke engine, four strokes of the piston in the cylinder are required to complete one full operating cycle. Each stroke is named after the action it performs intake, compression, power, and exhaust in that order, shown in Fig1-2.1、Intake strokeAs the piston moves down, the vaporized mixture of fuel and air enters the cylinder through open intake valve. To obtain the maximum filling of the cylinder the intake valve opens about 10°before t.b.c., giving 20°overlap. The inlet valve remains open until some 50°after b.d.c. to take advantage of incoming mixture.2、 Compression strokeThe piston turns up, the intake valve closes, the mixture is compressed within the combustion chamber, while the pressure rise to about 1Mpa, depending on various factors including the compression ratio, throttle opening and engine speed. Near the top of the stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark which bridges the gap of the spark plug.3、 Power strokeThe expanding gases of combustion produces a rise in pressure of the gas to some 3.5Mpa, and the piston is forced down in the cylinder. The exhaust valve opens near the bottom of the stroke.4、Exhust strokeThe piston moves back up with the exhaust valve open some 50°before b.d.d., allowing the pressure within the cylinder to fall and to reduce ‘back’pressure on the piston during the exhaust stroke, and the burned gases are pushed out to prepare for the next intake stroke.The intake valve usually opens just before the exhaust stroke. This 4-stroke cycle is continuously repeared in every as long as the engineremains running.A 2-stroke engine also goes through four actions to complete one operatingcycle.However, the intake and the compression actions are combined in one seroke, and the power and exhaust actions are combined in the other stroke. The term2-stroke cycle or 2-stroke is preferred to the term 2-cycle, which is really not accurate.In automobile engines, all pistons are attached to a single crankshaft. The more cylinders an engine has, the more power strokes produced for cach revolution. This means that an 8-cylinder engine runs more smoothly bdcause the power atrokes are closer together in time and in degrees of engine rotation.The cylinders of multi-cylinder automotive engines arranged in one of three ways. 1、Inline engines use a single block of cylinder.Most 4-cylinder and any 6-cylinder engines are of this design. The cylinders do not have to be vertical. They can be inclined either side.2、V-type engines use two equal bands of cylinders, usually inclined 60degrees or 90degrees from the cach other. Most V-type engines have 6 or 8 cylinders, although V-4 and V-12 engines have been built.3、Horizontally opposed or pancake engines have two equal banks of cylinders 180degreeas apart. These space saving engine designs are often air-cooled, and are found in the Chevrolet Carvair, Porsches, Subaus, and V olkswagens. Subaus design is liquid cooled.Late-model V olkswagen vans use a liquid-cooled version of the air cooled VWhorizontally opposed engine.译文新型汽车----混合动力汽车在油价飞涨的今天，汽车制造商被要求发展一种排放低，行驶里程长的汽车。

文献信息：文献标题：Why Is It So Difficult To Buy a High-Quality Used Car?（为什么买一辆高质量的二手车这么难？）国外作者：Scott A. Wolla文献出处：《Page One Economics Newsletter》 , 2016字数统计：英文1522单词，7636字符；中文2705汉字外文文献：Why Is It So Difficult To Buy a High-Quality Used Car?“I discovered that the informational problems that exist in the used car market were potentially present to some degree in all markets.”—George A. Akerlof, Nobel Prize winner, 2001Are you in the market for a vehicle? During the 2007-09 recession, new vehicle sales plunged to their lowest levels in nearly 30 years. They have since fully recovered as people replace their aging vehicles with shiny new cars, trucks, vans, and sport utility vehicles. Prices of new vehicles, however, are at all-time highs, leading many buyers to look for used vehicles. It can be a challenge, though, for buyers to figure out whether they are getting a good deal. The seller generally knows far more about the vehicle. Even with careful examination, the buyer still likely won’t know everything the seller knows. When one party knows more about the product than the other party, there is “asymmetric information.” In the case of a used car, the seller has more information and the advantage. The opposite can also be true in a transaction—the buyer can have more information and the advantage.The Market for LemonsThe used-car market is often used to discuss the implications of asymmetricinformation. In this market, sellers have greater knowledge about the condition and quality of their cars than buyers. For example, a seller is likely to know about engine or transmission problems, the maintenance history, and any defective equipment. In other words, the seller is likely to know whether the car is a “lemon” (a car with defects). The buyer, however, is at a disadvantage. Even with a careful visual inspection or a test drive, defects can be missed or hidden. The seller is in the driver’s seat (so to speak) in this market.To better understand asymmetric information, consider a buyer looking for a particular car make and model. Let’s call it the Economy car Utility Maximizer. The buyer is willing to pay up to $14,000 for a high-quality used car (a “cherry”) but only $10,000 for a low-quality used car (a lemon). Imagine she visits two sellers advertising 2012 Utility Maximizers. One seller is selling a cherry; the other is selling a lemon. Each seller knows the history of the car for sale—they have good information and know whether it is a cherry or a lemon. The buyer, however, doesn’t see much difference between the two cars. She can’t tell whether either car is a cherry or a lemon. In other words, there is asymmetric information. As such, because she can’t know for sure, the buyer assumes that neither car is of high quality. So, she is willing to only offer a price below that of a highquality car: $12,000.Now consider the larger used-car market. Other buyers behave in similar ways. Because they cannot distinguish between lemons and cherries, they offer prices somewhere in the middle. Some sellers who really do have high-quality used cars aren’t willing to sell them below their true value, so they keep the cars instead. Sellers of low-quality cars, however, gladly sell their lemons. Low prices, then, reduce the overall quality of used cars on the market, leading to a market dominated by lemons. With fewer cherries on the market, buyers offer even less, further reducing the quantity of high-quality cars on the market. This cycle leads to market inefficiency because transactions that would have benefited both buyers and sellers fail to take place. That is, although sellers are willing to sell high-quality used cars to buyers at a fair price, the transactions do not occur because the buyers are unsure about the condition of the cars.Closing the Asymmetric Information GapRegulation has helped buyers receive better information. The 1975 Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act (also known as the Lemon Law) regulates warranties on vehicles (and other consumer goods), and a variety of state laws (also referred to as lemon laws) protect consumers from defective products, including vehicles.To reassure used-car buyers—and to get them to pay a higher price—some sellers provide warranties or “certify” their highest-quality used cars. Generally, a car labeled certified has been inspected and repaired (if necessary) to meet high quality standards and may include a warranty. Buyers can also take several steps to help reduce the asymmetric Information gap. First, research can help steer them to a generally more-reliable car. Third-party sources, such as Consumer Reports and J.D. Power, collect and analyze data to estimate the average reliability and quality of certain car models.Once a buyer finds a car, various sources can provide additional information about that car. For example, auto mechanics can look for defects hidden or overlooked. For a fee, they will look “under the hood” and run diagnostic tests. Additional information (such as maintenance, odometer, and accident history) is available by researching the car’s VIN (vehicle identification number). Various companies will provide a VIN report for a fee.In the future, buyers may be able to easily obtain even more information about a car’s history from the car’s event data recorder (EDR), which is similar to the “black box” on an airplane. Today, nearly all new cars have an EDR. These microcomputers collect data related to safety and accidents, including speed, braking, seatbelt use, and airbag deployment. EDRs are likely to become more powerful and collect more data over time.Consider the CostIn the rush to close the asymmetric information gap, it is important to realize that obtaining information can be costly. Some information may have explicit costs (feesor subscriptions), while others have implicit, or opportunity, costs. Any time you spend researching a product is time you could have spent doing something else. Therefore, the more expensive a transaction is, the more beneficial your research may be. So it’s wise to seek out information before buying a house or car or choosing a college but less important for choosing a frying pan or a stapler.Other Markets with Asymmetric InformationOther markets also have the challenge of asymmetric information. In the insurance market, for example, buyers usually have more information than sellers (insurance companies). The person wanting health insurance has more information about his or her current health than the insurance company. This imbalance can lead to two potential problems in the health insurance market. The first is adverse selection: People with health problems are more likely to buy health insurance than healthy people, who might decide they don’t need health insurance. This imbalance can create a pool of insured people with more health problems than the general population. If this is the case, health insurance companies will likely pay more claims and charge higher premiums. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act has attempted to reduce adverse selection by creating financial incentives to encourage all people (even the young and healthy) to buy insurance.The second potential pitfall is moral hazard: People with insurance tend to take on more risk (knowing insurance will pay some of the cost if anything bad happens) than they would otherwise. This increase in risky behavior could increase the number of claims insurance companies must pay and result in higher premiums. Insurance companies attempt to learn about a potential customer’s health and other habits before granting medical or life insurance to reduce the risk to the company and ensure an appropriate monthly premium is charged.Credit markets also notably feature asymmetric information problems. A potential borrower has better information about his or her own ability and willingness to repay a loan than the lender. Lenders attempt to learn about potential borrowers’ credit and financial history from credit reports. This information improves the abilityof lenders to choose whom they should lend to and what interest rate they should charge.Finally, asymmetric information problems also plague labor markets. Job seekers know more about their own job skills and work ethic than potential employers. Employers generally conduct interviews and check references but may also give assessments and seek additional information online, including on social media. In addition, some employers review credit reports, require drug testing, and/or perform a criminal background check.ConclusionWhen one party to a transaction has more information than the other, the party with more information has the advantage. This circumstance is a problem not only for the party with less information, but also for the market itself as transactions that would have benefited both buyers and sellers fail to occur. For example, even though some people are willing to sell high-quality cars for a suitable price, buyers won’t pay top dollar because they are unable to assess a car’s true condition. So, the car owners won’t sell, and the beneficial transactions never occur. However, the growing availability of information— if you seek it out—may help close the asymmetric information gap.中文译文：为什么买一辆高质量的二手车这么难？我发现二手车市场存在的信息问题在所有的市场都有可能出现。

二手汽车-外文文献翻译学校代码：10128英文参考文献及译文题目：T h e U s e d C a r I n d u s t r y姓名：马威学院：能源与动力工程系别：交通运输系专业：交通运输班级：交通运输09-2指导教师：高志鹰副教授二〇一三年六月The Used Car IndustryWith annual sales of nearly $370 billion, the used vehicle industry represents almost half of the U.S. auto retail market and is the largest retail segment of the economy.In 2005, about 44 million used cars were sold in the U.S., which is more than double that of the nearly 17 million new cars sold. In 1898, the Empire State Motor Wagon Company is one of the very first used car companies. The used vehicle market is substantially larger than other large retail sectors, such as the school and office products market ($206 billion in estimated annual sales) and the home improvement market ($291 billion in Estimated annual sales).The Federal Trade Commission recommends that consumers consider a car retailer’s reputation when deciding where to purchase a used car.In the United States, an estimated 34% of consumers (in 2006) are buying a Vehicle history report for used cars. Vehicle history reports are one way to check the track record of any used vehicle. The report may indicate minor/moderate collision damage or improper vehicle maintenance.These reports will indicate items of public record, such as vehicle title branding, lemon law buybacks, odometer fraud, and product recall vehicle history reports provide customers with a record based on the vehicle's serial number.An attempt to identify vehicles which have been previously owned by hire car rental agencies, police and emergency services or taxi fleets is also made. Consumers should research vehicles carefully, as these reporting services only report the information to which they have access. In some places the government is a provider of vehicle history, but this is usually a limited service providing information on just one aspect of the history. Two vehicle history reporting services used to offer the service for free namely Install VIN and Vin Check. But currently customers need to pay to view vehicle reports through Instating. Vin Check became part of Auto Check and provides very little information for free, and customers need to buy a detailed report.distributor or repairer each operate at different levels of the production or distribution chain.Whether a vertical agreement actually restricts competition and whether in that case the benefits outweigh the anti-competitive effects will often depend on the market structure. The new Regulation 1400/2002, which entered into force on 1 October 2002, introduces a number of substantial changes as regards the exemption of distribution agreements for new motor vehicles and spare parts. It also introduces major changes] as regards the exemption of agreements for the provision of repair and maintenance services by authorized and independent repairers and other independent operators, such as onroad assistance operators, distributors of spare parts and providers of training for repairers.Auto Transport is used to move the vehicle from the factory to the dealerships. This includes country to country shipping as well as state to state shipping. Auto shipping and transport was largely a commercial activity conducted by dealers, manufacturers and brokers until the last ten to fifteen years. The explosion of Internet use has allowed this niche service to grow and reach the general consumer marketplace. This car shipping industry has grown explosively since the advent of the Internet. People are now able to purchase cars from anywhere in the world and have them shipped to their doorstep.Used Car Roadshow is a car programme that was originally aired on the Men & Motors channel, but now it is also shown on ITV4. The show is presented by Penny Mallory and Jason Dawe. The show airs for one hour. Each programme is filmed at car shows throughout the UK, where enthusiasts display their cars and collections, as well as some who want to sell and buy cars. Penny and Jason always attempt to pick the most eye catching and unusual cars at these shows, as well as demonstrating bargains that can be had from the used car market. Every programme has a different scenario, where a viewing member of the public is looking to buy a used car. Scenarios can vary from the budget-conscious student wanting to spend no more than £1500, to the mid 20 year old wanting a sports car for no more than £20,000. There are also in betweens who want something economical, or good for long distance touring, orfor the family. They give Jason the specifications they want, and the things they would like and not like.Throughout the show Jason comes up with different cars to suit the buyer's needs, summarizing the positives and negatives. He often picks three cars, with one mystery car thrown in to interest the buyer. Normally the buyer is given three cars to examine and decide from with the guidance of Penny and Jason throughout, from which one has to be dropped before the other two can be tested. The test drive is normally taken with Penny on board, who gives her opinions on the car to give the buyer a better insight as to what they may want. If the buyer decides that he/she does not like one of the cars, then Jason will throw in his mystery car to liven things up.In the end the buyer usually makes a decision on the car they want, and attempts to negotiate with Jason, who consequently rings the seller on air from a mobile and tries to achieve the best deal possible for the buying member of the public. As of 2009, no new series/episodes had aired.二手车行业随着每年接近3700亿的成交量，二手车行业占据了美国接近半数的汽车零售市场，它也成为了最大的零售业务的经济体。

外文文献翻译附录A（英文原文）Adaptive Clutch Engaging Process Control Automatic Mechanical Transmission LIU Hai’ou(刘海鸥),CHEN HUI’yan(陈慧岩),DING Hua’rong(丁华荣),HE Zhong’bo(何忠波) Abstract: Based on detail analysis of cluch engaging process control targets and adaptive demands,a control strategy which is based on speed signal,different from that of based on main clutch displacement signal,is put forward.It considers both jerk and slipping work which are the most commonly used quality evaluating indexes of vehicle starting phase.The adaptive control system and its reference model are discussed profoundly.Taking the adaptability to different starting gears and different road conditions as examples,some proving field test records are shown to illusrate the main clutch adaptive control strategy at starting phase.Proving field test gives acceptable results. Key words: automatic mechanical transmission(AMT); transmission technology; adaptive control; main clutch engagement The engaging process control strategy of friction main clutch,whether wet or dry,is the focus in vehicle technology field.Some of the control strategies are based on main clutch displacement signal.An adaptive control strategy has been developed, which is based on main clutch out put shaft speed signal grounded on our research work.It is proved to have extensive adaptability. 1 Control Targets and Adaptive Demands The most commonly used quality evaluating indexes of vehicle starting phase are jerk and slipping work. Jerk—As an index evaluating the smoothness in vehicle starting phase, the jerk is the rate of vehicle longitudinal acceleration.According to this definition,the expression of jerk is given as j=da/dt=d2v/dt2 (1) where j is the jerk;v and a are the vehicle running speed and acceleration respectively. According to vehicle dynamics,the vehicle-run-ning speed is determined by the balance between engine traction force and running resistance and can be expressed as t v D e g gd Gd v A C f G T r i i 2 015 . 21 ) sin ( (2) Where e T is the engine out put torque;G is the vehicle total weight; r is the driving wheel radius; f and are the road resistance coefficient and ram p way angle respectively; D C is the air resistance coefficient. The function of a mechanism is to transform motion from one rigid body to another as part of the action of a machine,There are three types of common mechanical device that can be used as basic elements of a mechanism. 1.—Gear system,in which toothed members in contact transmit motion between rotating shafts. 2.Cam system,where a uniform motion of an input member I converted into a nonunifirm motion of the output member. 3.Plane and spatial linkages are also useful in creating mechanical motions for a point or rigid body. Mechanisms form thee basic geometrical element of many mechanical devices including automatic machinery,typewriters,mechanical toys,textile machinery,and others.A mechanism typically is designed to create a desired motion of a rigid body relative to a reference member.Kinematic design,or kinematic syntheses,of mechanisms often is the first step in the design of a complete machine.When forces are considered,the additional problems of dynamics,bearing loads,stresses,lubrication,and the like are introduced,aad the larger problem become one of machine design. Gear are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth,Gears transmit motion from one ratating shaft to another, or to a rack that translates. Numerous applications exist in which a constant angular velocity ratio(or constant torque ratio)must be transmitted between shafts, Based on the variety of gear types available, there is no restriction that the input and the output shafts need be either in-line or parallel.Nonlinear angular velocity tratios are also available by using noncircccuar gear,In order to maintain a constant angular velocity,the individual tooth prifle must obey the fundamental law of gearing:for a pair of gears to transmit a constant angular velocity ratio,the shape of theircontacting profiles must be such that the common normal passes through a fixed point on the line of the centers. There are several standard gear types.For applications with parallel shafts,straight spur gear,parallel helical,or herringbone gears are usually used,In the case of intersecting shafts,straight bevel or spiral bevel gears are employed.For nonintersecting and nonparallel shafts,crossed helical,worm,face,skew bevel or hypoid gears would be acceptable choices.For spur gears,the pirch circles of mating gears are tangent to wach other.They roll on one another without sliding.The addendum is the height by which a tooth projects beyond the pitch circle(also the tadial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle).The clearance is the amount by which the dedendum (tooth height below the pitch circle)in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear,The tooth thickness is the distance across the tooth along the are of the pitch circle while the tooth space is the distance between adjacent teeth along the are of the pitch circle.TRhe backlash is the amount by which the width of the tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth at the pitchi circle. Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.The helix angle I the same on each gear,but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix.The shape of the tooth is the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix.If wo unwind this paper,eachpoint on the angulaaar edge genetares an involute curve,The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoids.in helical gears,the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth,It is this gradual engagement of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another,which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high soeeds,Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads.When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons,it may be desirable to use double helical gears.A doublehelical gear(herringbone)is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand,mounted side by side on he same shaft.They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel at the thrust load.when two or more single helcal gears are mounted on the same shaft,the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load. Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively.As in the case of spur gears,however,they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity.In shese cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear,which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear.As in the case of helicaal gears,spiral bevel bears give a much smoother tooth action than strain bevel gears,and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.It is frequently desirable,as in the case of automotive differential applications,to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset.Such gears are called hyoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution,The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and slidin along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears. A shaft is a rotating or stationary ually of circular cross section,having mounted power-transmission lements.Shafmay subjected to bending,tension,compression,or torsional loads,acting singly or in combination with one another,When they are combined,one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations,since a single shaft may be subjected too static stresses,completely reversed,and repeated stresses,aii acting at the same time. The word “shaft” cover numerous variationgs,such as axles and spindles.An axle is a shaft,either stationary or rotating,not subjected to torsion load.A short rotating shaft is often called a spindle. When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits,the shaft must besized on the basis of deflection,before analyzing the stresses,The reason for this is that,if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large,it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe,But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe;it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits.Whenever possible,the power-transmission elements,such as gears or pulleys ,should be located close to the supporting bearings.This reduces the bending moment,and hence the deflection and bending stress. According to the discussion of vehicle dynamics, the control of jerk and slipping work is related to the change rate of main clutch transmitting torque. However, the torque transducer cannot be installed in the control system,so the transient torque signal cannot be obtained directly.A method that some investigators use is to control the output torque through controlling main clutch engaging displacement.But the displacement can only reflect torque change indirectly. Their corresponding relationship is affected by many factors. And once the installed position changes or the signal drifts,it will be difficult to control the transmitting torque value accurately. The main clutch adaptive control strategy based on the speed signal adjusts the transmitting torque based on the jerk and the slipping work known from the change of rotating speed signal. 2 Conclusions ①The key technique of adaptive control strategy based on speed signal is the reference model. Different from the strategy based on main clutch displacement signal, it can reflect vehicle dynamics during engaging process and so can satisfy the engaging demands well. ②The reference model based on speed signal can be illustrated by the speed change course curve. Set the parameters for each sector correctly according to smooth and fast engaging demands, and the adaptive control target can be realized through adopting PWM/PFM control method. ③A large amount of tests that were conducted for along time show that thecontrol strategy based on speed signal has good adaptability and can adapt to different gears, road conditions, load, main clutch parameters(temperature, attrition wear and friction material) and driving styles. References: [1] Horn J,Bamberger J,Michan P,et al.Flatness-based clutch control for automated manual transmission[J]. Control Engineering Practice,2003(11):1353-1359.[2] Toshimichi Minowa,Tatsuya Ochi,Hiroshi Kuroiwa, et al. Smooth gear shift control technology for clutch-to-clutch shifting[R].SAE199120121054,1991. [3] Xi Jun qiang.Research on brushless electric motor driven automatic main clutch and its control strategy[D].Beijing:School of Vehicular and Transportation, Beijing Institute of Technology, 2001.(inChinese) [4] Lei Yu long, Ge An lin, Li Yong jun. Main clutch control strategy at vehicle starting phase[J]. Automotive Engineering,2000(4):266-269. (inChinese) [5] Andrew Szadkowski. Shiftability and Shift Quality Issues in Clutch Transmission Systems[R]. SAE 912697,1991. 附录B（译文）适应性离合器在机械自动传动中的加工控制刘海鸥，陈慧岩，丁华荣，何忠波（机械和车辆工程学校，北京技术学院，北京100081，中国）摘要：依靠对离合器运行过程的详细分析控制目标和适应的要求，一个主要依靠速度信号而不是那些依靠离合器的移动信号的控制策略被迅速发展。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿A New Type Car -- Hybrid Electric VehicleWith skyrocketing fuel prices and changes in weather patterns, many car manufacturers claimed to develop the kind of vehicles that will increase the mileage and reduce the emissions. Hybrid car is a kind of vehicle which can meet above requirements. A hybrid car features a small fuel-efficient gas engine combined with an electric motor that assists the engine.The reasons of building such a complicated machine are twofold: to reduce tailpipe emissions and to improve mileage. Firstly, hybrid cars are good for the environment. They can reduce smog by 90 percent and they use far less gasoline than conventional cars. Meanwhile, hybrid cars burn less gasoline per mile, so they release fewer greenhouse gases. Secondly, hybrid cars are economical. Hybrid cars, which run on gas and electricity, can get up to 55 to 60 miles per gallon in city driving, while a typical SUV might use three times as much gas for the same distance! There are three reasons can mainly account for that: 1) Hybrid engines are much smaller than those on conventional cars. A hybrid car engine is to accommodate the 99% of driving time when a car is not going up hills or accelerating quickly. When extra acceleration power is needed, it relies on the battery to provide additional force. 2) Hybrid gasoline engine can shut off when the car is stopped and run off their electric motor and battery.3) Hybrid cars often recover braking energy. Electric motors could take the lost kinetic energy in braking and use it to charge the battery. Furthermore, hybrids are better than all-electric cars because hybrid car batteries recharge as you drive so there is no need to plug in. Most electric cars need to be recharged every 50-100miles. Also, most electric cars cannot go faster than 50-60 mph, while hybrids can.Hybrid cars bridge the gap between electric and gasoline-powered cars by traveling further and driving faster and hybrid gas-electric cars are proving to be a feasible alternative at a time of high gas prices. So, in my opinion, hybrid cars will have a bright future.How Does Hybrid Electric Vehicle Work？You probably own a gasoline or diesel-engine car. You may have heard of electric vehicles too. A hybrid vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a combination of both. Hybrid vehicles utilize two or more sources of energy for propulsion. In the case of HEVs, a combustion engine and an electric motor are used.How it works depends on the type of drive train it has. A hybrid vehicle can either have a parallel or series or parallel-series drive train.Parallel HybridThe parallel hybrid car has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission,electric motor, and batteries.A parallel hybrid is designed to run directly from either the combustion engine or the electric motor. It can run using both the engine and the motor. As a conventional vehicle, the parallel hybrid draws its power from the combustion engine which will then drive the transmission that turns the wheels. If it is using the electric motor, the car draws its power from the batteries. The energy from the batteries will then power the electric motor that drives the transmission and turns the wheel.Both the combustion engine and the electric motor are used at the same time during quick acceleration, on steep ascend, or when either the engine or the motor needs additional boost.Since the engine is directly connected to the wheels in a parallel drive train, it eliminates the inefficiency of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and back. This makes a very effective vehicle to drive on the highway.Series HybridThe series hybrid car also has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission, electric motor, and batteries with the addition of the generator. The generator can be the electric motor or it can be another separate component.The series configuration is the simplest among the 3. The engine is not connected to the transmission rather it is connected to the electric motor. This means that the transmission can be driven only by the electric motor which draws its energy from the battery pack, the engine or the generator.A hybrid car with a series drive train is more suited for city driving conditions since the engine will not be subjected to the varying speed demands (stop, go, and idle) that contributes to fuel consumption.Series-Parallel HybridThe series-parallel configuration solves the individual problems of the parallel and series hybrid. By combining the 2 designs, the transmission can be directly connected to the engine or can be separated for optimum fuel consumption. The Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape Hybrid use this technology.Honda’s hybridFor those of you who have toyed with the idea of buying a hybrid but were discouraged by the price, you are not alone. In fact, despite the growing concern for the environment, not to mention the skyrocketing price of gas, hybrid cars still only represent a small percentage of global car sales, and a major reason for this is the cost.Hybrids are considered the wave of the future because they not only reduce emissions, addressing the issue of climate change, but they get great gas mileage, an important consideration with the current price of oil. It should be noted that hybrids can also improve the power of the engine, which compromises any advantages in fuel efficiency and emissions. Whatever the application, however, the technology makes the cars more expensive.Because of this, they are the vehicle of choice for only a small niche of people who can afford them, and they currently enjoy a special status amongst the image conscious celebrity-set. For most average consumers, however, they are not an option.That may soon change.Honda Motor Corporation, one of the largest car manufacturers in the world and a leader in fuel efficient technology, has unveiled it’s plan to introduce a low-cost hybrid by 2009. If they can pull it off, they hope to make the hybrid a more mainstream car that will be more appealing to the general public, with the ultimate goal of achieving greater sales and broader appeal than their current incarnation.This, of course, is making Detroit nervous, and may signal a need for American car makers to start making greener and more fuel efficient vehicles, something they could afford to ignore in the past because hybrid cars weren’t worth their attention (due to such a small market share) while gas-guzzling SUVs have such high profit margins.Honda, meanwhile, has had to confront a growing need to compete with Toyota, which has not only grown to be the world’s largest automaker, but makes the car that has become synonymous with the hybrid movement, the Prius. Honda is therefore faced with the seemingly insurmountable task of challenging Toyota’s dominance in the market.Concurrently, Toyota is racing to lower production costs on the Prius, as well, which would hopefully result in a lower cost to the consumer. All eyes are on a potentially favorable car buyers market in 2009.In the meantime, with even adamant global warming naysayers warming up (no pun intended) to the possibilities of an ecological disaster on the horizon, maybe it’s time that we got over our need to drive huge SUVs and start moderating our fuel consumption.Then again, as gas prices hovering around $4.00 and with no ceiling in sight, we may have little choice in the matter.Engine Operating PrinciplesMost automobile dngines are internal combustion, reciprocating 4-stroke gasoline engines, but other types have been used, including the diesel, the rotary ( Wankel ) , the 2-srtoke, and stratified charge.Reciprocating means up and down or banck and forth, It is the up and down action of a piston in the cylinder blick, or engine block. The blick is an iron or aluminum casting that contains engine cylinders and passges called water jackets for coolant circulation. The top of the block is covered with the cylinder head. Which forms the combustion chanber. The bottom of the block is covered with an oil pan or oil sump.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder. However, this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars of trucks. The piston is attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin, called a piston pin or wrist pin. The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft. The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft, which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large beaings called rodbearings. Similar bearings, called main bearings, are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. Shown in Fig. 1-1The diameter of the cylinder is called the engine bore. Displacement and compression ratio are two frequently used engine specifications. Displacement indicates engine size, and compression ratio compares the total cylinder volume to compression chamber volume.The term stroke is used to describe the movement of the iston within the cylinder, as well as the distance of piston travel. Depending on the type of engine the operating cycle may require either two or four strokes to complete. The 4-stroke engine is also called Otto cycle engine, in honor of the German engineer, Dr. Nikolaus Otto, who first applied the principle in 1876. In the 4-stroke engine, four strokes of the piston in the cylinder are required to complete one full operating cycle. Each stroke is named after the action it performs intake, compression, power, and exhaust in that order, shown in Fig1-2.1、Intake strokeAs the piston moves down, the vaporized mixture of fuel and air enters the cylinder through open intake valve. To obtain the maximum filling of the cylinder the intake valve opens about 10°before t.b.c., giving 20°overlap. The inlet valve remains open until some 50°after b.d.c. to take advantage of incoming mixture.2、 Compression strokeThe piston turns up, the intake valve closes, the mixture is compressed within the combustion chamber, while the pressure rise to about 1Mpa, depending on various factors including the compression ratio, throttle opening and engine speed. Near the top of the stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark which bridges the gap of the spark plug.3、 Power strokeThe expanding gases of combustion produces a rise in pressure of the gas to some 3.5Mpa, and the piston is forced down in the cylinder. The exhaust valve opens near the bottom of the stroke.4、Exhust strokeThe piston moves back up with the exhaust valve open some 50°before b.d.d., allowing the pressure within the cylinder to fall and to reduce ‘back’pressure on the piston during the exhaust stroke, and the burned gases are pushed out to prepare for the next intake stroke.The intake valve usually opens just before the exhaust stroke. This 4-stroke cycle is continuously repeared in every as long as the engineremains running.A 2-stroke engine also goes through four actions to complete one operating cycle.However, the intake and the compression actions are combined in one seroke, and the power and exhaust actions are combined in the other stroke. The term2-stroke cycle or 2-stroke is preferred to the term 2-cycle, which is really not accurate.In automobile engines, all pistons are attached to a single crankshaft. The more cylinders an engine has, the more power strokes produced for cach revolution. This means that an 8-cylinder engine runs more smoothly bdcause the power atrokes arecloser together in time and in degrees of engine rotation.The cylinders of multi-cylinder automotive engines arranged in one of three ways. 1、Inline engines use a single block of cylinder.Most 4-cylinder and any 6-cylinder engines are of this design. The cylinders do not have to be vertical. They can be inclined either side.2、V-type engines use two equal bands of cylinders, usually inclined 60degrees or 90degrees from the cach other. Most V-type engines have 6 or 8 cylinders, although V-4 and V-12 engines have been built.3、Horizontally opposed or pancake engines have two equal banks of cylinders 180degreeas apart. These space saving engine designs are often air-cooled, and are found in the Chevrolet Carvair, Porsches, Subaus, and V olkswagens. Subaus design is liquid cooled.Late-model V olkswagen vans use a liquid-cooled version of the air cooled VWhorizontally opposed engine.译文新型汽车----混合动力汽车在油价飞涨的今天，汽车制造商被要求发展一种排放低，行驶里程长的汽车。

汽车营销类外文文献翻译——汽车行业渠道的转变Changing Channels in the Automotive Industry: The Future of Automotive Marketing and nThe automotive industry is undergoing a n that is radically reshaping how cars are marketed。

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who will come out as winners and losers。

Will the vehicle manufacturers and their franchised dealer orks be able to e years of inertia and complacency to neer and execute new concepts that will strengthen and extend the value of their brands。

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more imaginative retailers or are companies get there first?As the automotive industry continues to evolve。

it's ing increasingly clear that nal marketing and n channels are no longer enough。

With the rise of digital technology and changing consumer preferences。

automakers and dealerships must adapt to new ways of reaching and engaging with customers.One potential n is to leverage the power of data and analytics to better understand consumer r and preferences。

外文文献翻译(含: 英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Jens Clausen, Birgit Blättel-Mink2, Lorenz Erdmann, Christine Henseling .Contribution of Online Trading of Used Goods to Resource Efficiency: An Empirical Study of eBay Users [J].Sustainability, 2010, 2: 10-30.英文原文Contribution of Online Trading of Used Goods to Resource Efficiency:An Empirical Study of eBay UsersJens Clausen, Birgit Blättel-Mink , Lorenz Erdmann and ChristineHenselingAbstractThis paper discusses the sustainability impact (contribution to sustainability, reduction of adverse environmental impacts) of online second-hand trading.A survey of eBay users shows that a relationship between the trading of used goods and the protection of natural resources is hardly realized.Secondly, the environmental motivation and the willingness to act in a sustainable manner differ widely between groups of consumers.Given these results from a user perspective, the paper tries to find some objective hints of online second-hand trading’s environmental impact.The greenhouse gas emissions resulting from theenergy used for the trading transactions seem to be considerably lower than the emissions due to the (avoided) production of new goods.The paper concludes with a set of recommendations for second-hand trade and consumer rmation about the sustainability benefits of purchasing second-hand goods should be included in general consumer information, and arguments for changes in behavior should be targeted to different groups of consumers.Keywords: online marketplaces; online auctions; consumer; electronic commerce; used products; second-hand market; sustainable consumption1.IntroductionOnline auction and trading platforms are increasing the opportunities for sustainable consumption.The potential of online based second-hand trading lies largely in the opportunity to extend the life span of products, thereby avoiding additional environmental stresses due to the purchase of new goods.To date, private households often failed to exploit the potentials for reusing products because of high transaction costs.Trade in second-hand goods remained limited to regional markets.These barriers frequently prevented local and regional used goods markets from attaining critical mass and becoming attractive for both buyers and sellers.In recent years, however, rapidly increasing use of the Internet and trading platforms, such as eBay, have fundamentally transformed the underlying conditions of such markets.Online markets have not only significantly increased the numbers of market participants; they have also changed the roles traditionally assigned to consumers and producers.Exchange sites, auction platforms and other Internet-based trading models where users are not merely buyers, but at the same time, also active sellers of products or services, have shifted the role of consumers.Against this background, this article examines consumption processes using the example of eBay, the world’s largest online trading platform for used goods, by focusing on the following question: Which sustainability potentials are connected with the electronic trading of used goods, and how can these potentials be exploited? This question lies in the center of the research project “From Consumer to Prosumer—Development of new trading mechanisms and auction cultures to promote sustainable consumption.”The project is intentionally linked with various streams of research and insights, especially concerning the intensification of use, lifestyle research, and life-cycle assessment, in the fields of information technology and telecommunications, and integrates them from the perspective of the research guiding question.After giving an overview of the scientific work on environmental attitudes and behavior in the context of internet based used goods trading, and an empirical look on internet usage in Chapter 2, the empirical results of an online survey on online trading and sustainability are presented inChapter 3.Chapter 4 draws conclusions from the empirical study and Chapter 5 focuses on the ecological assessment of used goods trading.The paper concludes with some remarks on the consequences of second-hand trade, online platforms, and consumer policy.2.Internet-Based Used Goods Trading from a Subjective PerspectiveSustainability researchers in the social sciences assume that environmentally-oriented behavior is supported to a non-negligible degree by positive attitudes toward the environment and by knowledge about the environment [1-7].Time and again, however, representative surveys of the population provide evidence for a discrepancy between concern about increasing environmental devastation and its consequences, as well as knowledge about the environment on the one hand, and environmental behavior that is in line with such knowledge on the other.It is possible to identify groups of individuals who display environmentally-friendly behavior, but not the corresponding attitudes toward the environment (e.g., older single women), just as there are groups of individuals who display a high degree of ecological awareness, but whose behavior is nonetheless not consistently environmentally oriented (e.g., families whose environmentally-friendly behavior is organized to the hilt, but who still drive a family car).Three bundles of characteristics that influence the sustainability of styles of consumption have emerged in the research [8]: the household’s social situation(socio-demographic characteristics and time resources), consumer preferences (subjective preferences relating to the selection of products and behaviors), and actual consumption behavior.Socio-demographic characteristics that substantially influence differences in terms of sustainable consumption patterns include age, educational level, gender, marital status, and income, with women, well educated people, and parents striving for consistency of attitudes and behavior.Grunenberg and Kuckartz [1] were able to identify the group they called the “environmentally committed”in their study, which was representative for Germany.“[A group] that takes environmental problems more seriously and is actively committed to solving them.Entirely consistent pro-environment behavior is not demanded of this group; that would require, for example, that these individuals would not just eat exclusively organically-grown food, but would also sell their cars and take bicycling vacations.”(Grunenberg/Kuckartz, p.204 [1]).The following indicators were used to define the group of environmentally-committed individuals: membership in an organization promoting conservation or environmental protection; donation to such an organization in the previous year; familiarity with the term “sustainable development;”high willingness to pay for improved environmental protection; frequenting of information about environmental problems from specialist periodicals; environmental mentality type 1 (motto: “Be arole model when it comes to environmental protection!”); declared shared responsibility for environmental protection (statement: “It isn’t difficult for an individual person to do something for the environment!”) (Grunenberg/Kuckartz, p.204 [1]).Members of this group are often in the familial phase of life, have a relatively high level of education, often live in major cities or small communities, seldom in medium-sized towns or villages, tend to come from West Germany, as a rule have a higher professional position (senior staff, upper-middle-level or upper-level civil servants, the professions), have a medium to high, but not very high income, and tend to live in quiet neighborhoods in single- or two-family houses.Regarding their political preferences, the authors ascertained a more pronounced interest in politics in general, and a clear focus on post-materialist values.As to trading in used goods as a specific area of consumption, a study of West Berlin showed that buying and selling used goods is linked fairly rarely to ecological motives [9].Pragmatic reasons for selling used goods are mentioned more frequently, for instance “making room”or “getting rid of items we no longer need.”In contrast, when purchasing used goods, financial motives are more important.The proportion of men who buy and sell used goods is somewhat higher than that of women.The average age is 36.More than two-thirds of those offering goods on the second-hand market have a job.Housewives and students comprise 10%of sellers each, the unemployed and pensioners about 5% each.The sellers often live in multi-person households, and live less commonly alone.Among the buyers of second-hand goods, 29.4% are in the 19- to 25-year age group and 35.7% are in the 26- to 35-year group.Most people have a job (61%), and students form 15% of the buyers, which is substantially higher than their proportion of the cational levels are above-average among buyers, too, as is the proportion of individuals living in multi-person households.3.Online Trading and Sustainability—Empirical ResultsTaking the example of eBay, the above mentioned relationships were more closely looked at with an online survey that was carried out by the authors in November, 2008.The survey was intended to gain insight into eBay users’consumption patterns, their attitudes, and their ways of dealing with used products on eBay.The survey was directed to private eBay users who use the site, both for buying and selling, and who carried out at least one transaction during the preceding 12 months.In total, 2,511 valid questionnaires were analyzed.In contrast to Germany’s total population, more men (57.1%) than women responded, more persons who live with their partners (73.4%), and more people living in households of three or more (52.4%).The sample also displays a relatively high educational (49.4% level A) and employment status (49.2% working full time), and the respondents tend to live in or near urban areas.The agedistribution of the respondents (biggest cluster 40–49 years old; 29.8%) and their income distribution (40% medium to low income) are comparable with the overall population.More women (45.1%) than men (34.0%) of the sample live in households with children; the proportion of men increases with increasing age.The women who buy or sell on eBay have lower incomes.48.7%, of all female eBay buyers earn less than 2,000 Euros per month compared to 39.8% of all male eBay pared to the group of Internet users mentioned above, the sample analyzed here differs only in relation to income, with Internet users displaying higher incomes.The following subjects will be approached: Attitudes toward the environment and motives for trading on eBay, attitudes of eBay users regarding used products and their handling of used products.Then, a typology of consumer patterns of eBay users that was derived from the data will be presented.4.Conclusions from the Empirical StudyThe results of the survey show that environmental aspects play only a minor role for the majority of the surveyed eBay users when trading used products.When concerning their motivations in particular, other aspects have been more important to date: practical and financial considerations, as well as having fun trading on eBay.Opportunities to make trading on eBay more environmentally friendly lie in providing information about the environmental relevance of used goods trading, e.g.,directly on the eBay platform.In addition, the broad range of motivations that eBay speaks to offers good starting points for creating alliances of motivations that connect ecological aspects with other aspects of use.A concrete strategic point of intervention is the option to provide opportunities for climate-neutral shipping on the eBay platform, and eBay users have indicated a high willingness to use such an option.The survey also made it possible to identify various starting points for intensifying used goods trading.When developing communications strategies in this regard, the value of used goods for others should be emphasized more strongly.This could happen, for example, by pointing more clearly to the quality, as well as the monetary value, of used products in such communications.Interesting approaches that take this direction include quality tests of used products, as well as tools with which users can learn about the prices they can get for used products.The test lab introduced by eBay in mid-2008 is an interesting approach.Certain used products were tested here to show their value in relation to the value of new products.The results highlight the significance of situations of change in life for trading used products.Such phases, for example, the birth of one’s first child or retirement can (under certain circumstances) function as times when people start trading used goods, or they can be situations in which the willingness to buy and to sell second-hand products is especially high.An important aspect for used goods trading is that the effort invested in selling the product must be financially worthwhile.The responses showed, however, that this is not always the case.This aspect must be taken into account when developing measures to intensify used goods trading.Another finding: a central problem of used goods trading lies in the fact that many buyers are unsure of the quality of the products for sale (lack of warranties, doubts about whether the products are in fact in proper working order).In order to address this concern, it is important to develop mechanisms that increase trust in second-hand products and reflect their quality.Initial starting points include initiatives to refurbish used products.One example for this is the initiative which purchases, refurbishes and then resells used cell phones and provides a warranty.Identification of the five consumption patterns in online used goods trading contributed to structuring the various behavior patterns of private eBay users.Above all, the fact that the respondents’differences in socio-demographic characteristics are very small is remarkable.The five types do differ significantly, however, regarding their attitudes and their behavior on eBay.They also differ with respect to their concern for the sustainability-related contexts of eBay trading.The environmentally oriented buyers of used goods and the prosumers, as different as they may be, are those upon whom we pin our hopes for sustainability.Although the former group displays a certain consistency in terms of attitudes andbehavior, which is also characterized by increasing awareness of sustainability, it is the prosumers who treat new and used products with care in order to resell them, thereby contributing to lengthening of the life spans of products, even if they are not aware of this effect.中文译文二手物品网上交易资源效率的贡献:eBay用户的实证研究Jens Clausen , Birgit Blättel-Mink , Lorenz Erdmann ,Christine Henseling 摘要本文探讨了网上二手交易的可持续性的影响(对可持续发展的贡献,减少对环境的不利影响) 。

二手汽车-外文文献翻译————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：学校代码：10128英文参考文献及译文题目：T h e U s e d C a r I n d u s t r y姓名：马威学院：能源与动力工程系别：交通运输系专业：交通运输班级：交通运输09-2指导教师：高志鹰副教授二〇一三年六月The Used Car IndustryWith annual sales of nearly $370 billion, the used vehicle industry represents almost half of the U.S. auto retail market and is the largest retail segment of the economy.In 2005, about 44 million used cars were sold in the U.S., which is more than double that of the nearly 17 million new cars sold. In 1898, the Empire State Motor Wagon Company is one of the very first used car companies. The used vehicle market is substantially larger than other large retail sectors, such as the school and office products market ($206 billion in estimated annual sales) and the home improvement market ($291 billion in Estimated annual sales).The Federal Trade Commission recommends that consumers consider a car retailer’s reputation when deciding where to purchase a used car.In the United States, an estimated 34% of consumers (in 2006) are buying a Vehicle history report for used cars. Vehicle history reports are one way to check the track record of any used vehicle. The report may indicate minor/moderate collision damage or improper vehicle maintenance.These reports will indicate items of public record, such as vehicle title branding, lemon law buybacks, odometer fraud, and product recall vehicle history reports provide customers with a record based on the vehicle's serial number.An attempt to identify vehicles which have been previously owned by hire car rental agencies, police and emergency services or taxi fleets is also made. Consumers should research vehicles carefully, as these reporting services only report the information to which they have access. In some places the government is a provider of vehicle history, but this is usually a limited service providing information on just one aspect of the history. Two vehicle history reporting services used to offer the service for free namely Install VIN and Vin Check. But currently customers need to pay to view vehicle reports through Instating. Vin Check became part of Auto Check and provides very little information for free, and customers need to buy a detailed report.Several of the services, most notably those in the United Kingdom and theUnited States, sell reports to dealers and then encourage the dealers to display the reports on their Internet sites. These reports are paid for by the dealer and then offered for free to potential buyers of the vehicle. Car check service is available online for the public and motor trade.Companies may add to the reports additional information gathered from police, finance and insurance companies.In the UK, the DVLA provides information (Car check) on the registration of vehicles to certain companies for consumer protection and anti-fraud purposes. Used car pricing reports typically produce three forms of pricing information. Dealer or Retail Price is the price you should expect to pay if buying from a licensed new-car or used-car dealer — retail price. Dealer Trade-in Price or wholesale price is the price you should expect to receive from a dealer if you trade in a car. This is also the price that a dealer will typically pay for a car at a dealer wholesale auction. Private-Party Price is the price you should expect to pay if you were buying from an individual. A private-party seller is hoping to get more money than they would with a trade-in to a dealer. A private-party buyer is hoping to pay less than the dealer retail price.The growth of the Internet has fueled the availability of information on the prices of used cars. This information was once only available in trade publications that dealers had access to. There are now numerous sources for used car pricing. Multiple sources of used car pricing means that listed values from different sources may differ. Each pricing guide receiving data from different sources and makes different judgments about that data. Pricing of used cars can be affected by geography. For example, convertibles have a higher demand in warmer climates than in cooler areas. Similarly, pickup trucks may be more in demand in rural than urban settings. The overall condition of the vehicle has a major impact on pricing. Condition is based on appearances, vehicle history, mechanical condition and mileage. There is much subjectivity in how the condition of a car is evaluated.There are various theories as to how the market determines the prices of used cars sold by private parties, especially relative to new cars. One theory suggests that new car dealers are able to put more effort into selling a car, and can therefore stimulate stronger demand. Another theory suggests that owners of problematic cars("lemons") are more likely to want to sell their cars than owners of perfectly functioning vehicles. Therefore, someone buying a used car bears a higher risk of buying a lemon. A car dealership or vehicle local distribution is a business that sells new and/or used cars at the retail level, based on a dealership contract with an automaker or its sales subsidiary. It employs automobile salespeople to do the selling. It may also provide maintenance services for cars, thus employing automobile mechanics, stock and sell spare automobile parts, and process warranty claims.In China, an authorized car dealership is called 4S car shops. The 4S represents Sale, Spare part, Service and Survey .In most cases, brand-name new cars can be purchased only from 4S shops. For new cars in high demand, a premium is sometimes added for instant delivery or just placing an order. Likewise, cars with high supply are often discounted. The profit of car dealers in China is quite high compared to the rest of the world, in most cases 10%. This is due to the non-transparent invoice price as announced by manufacturers and to the premiums they charge for quick delivery. Due to the lack of knowledge for most customers, dealers can sell add-ons at much higher prices than the aftermarket. This field is ruled by Commission Regulation (EC) NO 1400/2002 of 31 July 2002, on the application of article 81(3) of the Treaty to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices in the motor vehicle sector.In the Member States of the European Union, motor vehicle and spare part manufacturers distribute their products through networks of distributors. As far as motor vehicles are concerned, these distributors are commonly known as dealers. Motor vehicle manufacturers and other undertakings also operate networks of authorized repairers. Such a distribution or repair network consists of a bundle of similar agreements between the manufacturer and the individual distributors or body shops. For the purposes of EU competition law, these agreements are referred to as vertical agreements, as the manufacturer and distributor or repairer each operate at different levels of the production or distribution chain.Whether a vertical agreement actually restricts competition and whether in that case the benefits outweigh the anti-competitive effects will often depend on the market structure. The new Regulation 1400/2002, which entered into force on 1 October 2002, introduces a number of substantial changes as regards the exemption ofdistribution agreements for new motor vehicles and spare parts. It also introduces major changes] as regards the exemption of agreements for the provision of repair and maintenance services by authorized and independent repairers and other independent operators, such as onroad assistance operators, distributors of spare parts and providers of training for repairers.Auto Transport is used to move the vehicle from the factory to the dealerships. This includes country to country shipping as well as state to state shipping. Auto shipping and transport was largely a commercial activity conducted by dealers, manufacturers and brokers until the last ten to fifteen years. The explosion of Internet use has allowed this niche service to grow and reach the general consumer marketplace. This car shipping industry has grown explosively since the advent of the Internet. People are now able to purchase cars from anywhere in the world and have them shipped to their doorstep.Used Car Roadshow is a car programme that was originally aired on the Men & Motors channel, but now it is also shown on ITV4. The show is presented by Penny Mallory and Jason Dawe. The show airs for one hour. Each programme is filmed at car shows throughout the UK, where enthusiasts display their cars and collections, as well as some who want to sell and buy cars. Penny and Jason always attempt to pick the most eye catching and unusual cars at these shows, as well as demonstrating bargains that can be had from the used car market. Every programme has a different scenario, where a viewing member of the public is looking to buy a used car. Scenarios can vary from the budget-conscious student wanting to spend no more than £1500, to the mid 20 year old wanting a sports car for no more than £20,000. There are also in betweens who want something economical, or good for long distance touring, or for the family. They give Jason the specifications they want, and the things they would like and not like.Throughout the show Jason comes up with different cars to suit the buyer's needs, summarizing the positives and negatives. He often picks three cars, with one mystery car thrown in to interest the buyer. Normally the buyer is given three cars to examine and decide from with the guidance of Penny and Jason throughout, from which one has to be dropped before the other two can be tested. The test drive isnormally taken with Penny on board, who gives her opinions on the car to give the buyer a better insight as to what they may want. If the buyer decides that he/she does not like one of the cars, then Jason will throw in his mystery car to liven things up.In the end the buyer usually makes a decision on the car they want, and attempts to negotiate with Jason, who consequently rings the seller on air from a mobile and tries to achieve the best deal possible for the buying member of the public. As of 2009, no new series/episodes had aired.二手车行业随着每年接近3700亿的成交量，二手车行业占据了美国接近半数的汽车零售市场，它也成为了最大的零售业务的经济体。

附录A外文文献原文：In recent years, along with the social life of car motorization, increasing quantities, cause the traffic situation intricate, make drivers to offer the operating frequency increases, driving you need to lighten the fatigue, improve ma nipulation portability and flexibility, and thus power steering system requirements for more and more is also high.So far, automotive steering system through the traditional mechanical steering system, hydraulic steering system and electric hydraulic steering system and electric power steering system four stages of development, the future is likely to wire control power steering system development. Now automotive steering system is in hydraulic steering system and electric hydraulic steering system to electric power steering system development stages of transition .1. the traditional mechanical steering systemTraditional mechanical steering system (MS) mainly by steering control agencies, steering gear and steering transmission mechanism 3 parts. Steering control mechanism is the pilot control redirector work institutions, including the steering wheel at the input from components. The steering wheel steering is coming from torque according to certain transmission amplifier and output increases force device, steering the earliest USES is the worm type, later have a screw nut type, rack-and pinion type, circulation ball type and other forms. Steering transmission mechanism is passed to the output torque steering steering wheel agencies, including the steering wheel from pitman arm of components . When the car needs to change directions, the pilot through turned the steering wheel, steering moment, steering, via steering shaft, horizontal bars and straight bars such as the steering trapezoid arm parts, and to make the day deflection change of direction.Traditional mechanical steering system is the advantage of simple structure, reliable operation, the production cost is low. Its defect is also very obvious: (1) with the bus speed improvement and automotive quality increases, steering control, turning to more and more demanding increased the difficulty. (2) is the ratio is fixed, namely Angle transfer characteristics, cause the car can't change the steering response characteristics are unable to control and transmission in the process of steering cannot with speed and lateral acceleration and other parameters of the changes, the pilot must compensate for car before in turn the steering response characteristics of certain operating compensation, such virtually increased the mental and physical burdens driver .2. hydraulic steering systemHydraulic steering system (HPS) is the traditional mechanical steering system basis with a set of additional hydraulic booster, generally by oil pump, v-shaped belt wheel, oil injection equipment, power devices and control valves etc. It with hydraulicoil pump is the power, through the movement to promote produced mechanical redirector work.Because the system through hydraulic works used to promote the traditional mechanical steering mechanism of steering movement so as to reduce the labor intensity, a driver in a certain extent, solve the traditional mechanical steering system caused because of transmission ratio fixed to "light" and "sensitive" the contradiction between. But, this kind of power steering system is driven by the steering wheel rotates the hydraulic system directly change torsion bar is the channel area to provide oiling the instrumentality of variable. Namely the discretion of size and speed boost have no relation with steering Angle, only concerned. Steering dish of greater perspective, turn the instrumentality of hydraulic systems provide is bigger also. Meanwhile, this system has the following weakness: (1) no matter car turn not to, as long as the engine and hydraulic motor drive ZhuLiBeng will work under the energy, the extra consumption engine. (2) the steering characteristics not adjusted, high-speed and same speed dynamical characteristics. In low-speed steering need bigger boost, often for engine speed and low power poor effect, while in high-speed steering need smaller, will boost for engine speed high and power function big, bring about steering too sensitive, that the car manipulation stability becomes poor. (3) the inherent hydraulic system of the hydraulic oil leakage problems and steering noise makes steering comfort, meantime, dramatically reduced environmental pollution.Because of hydraulic steering system reliable work, mature technology, can provide the big steering and has been widely used.3. electrohydraulic power steering systemElectrohydraulic power steering system at work steering characteristics can be changed. It basically has two kinds: electric hydraulic steering system (ECHPS) and electric hydraulic steering system (EHPS). Now automotive applications is the largest electric hydraulic booster turn from system.3.1 electronic control hydraulic power steering systemElectric hydraulic steering system (ECHPS) in hydraulic steering system is based on the liquid flow rate increased control solenoid valves, torque sensor, the wheel speed sensors and steering control unit etc components. Ideally, car in spin to try to deft, request when in cars to different speed operation, which can real-time provide corresponding steering to overcome the running speed to make drivers to resistance to manipulate the steering wheel can both lightweight, and have enough way feeling.In steering process, through the torque sensor, speed sensor etc sensing device will shift to rate, speed transfer to parameters such as steering control unit. After decoding, control by electromagnetic valve with liquid flow speed changing, and change the size of the moment, make grants to individual driver according to speed and driving conditions, changes to manipulate portability and stability to harmony. But at the same time, ECHPS also exist because of oil pump continuous work caused by excess energy consumption, the hydraulic system occupies a large space, easy to leak, noise big shortcomings, and increased its speed detection control device. Andthe control valve of structure than HPS complex and cost is higher, which are mainly applied in limousines and sports by using the car.3.2 electric hydraulic steering systemElectric hydraulic steering system (EHPS) is in hydraulic steering system developed on the basis of. Its characteristic is driven by the engine turns ZhuLiBeng shifted the hydraulic motor drive, and increased its speed sensor, steering angular velocity sensor and steering control unit etc electricals. The system of hydraulic oil tank, oil pump, motors and steering control unit has integrated in motor oil pump in the group. Work steering control unit according to car of the speed and steering Angle calculated as the input signal output signal, control ideal appropriate power, motor output ZhuLiBeng driven hydraulic work. Through the hydraulic oil for steering gear provide power.Electrohydraulic power steering system although in hydraulic steering system basis of technology has greatly improved, but the existence of hydraulic equipment are still made the system, such as the hard to overcome shortcomings existing oil leakage, not easy installation and maintenance, etc. Although realized the change, but the dynamical characteristics in hydraulic booster system based on electronic control device increased again, making the system structure is complex, cost increases. Because electro-hydraulic steering system technology, may realize the mature electronic-controlled system integration, vehicle as traditional hydraulic steering system to electric power steering system of intermediate technology of transition, in certain time will continue to receive applications and development.4. electric power steering system (EPAS or EPS)Electric power steering system is the traditional mechanical steering system foundation, increased sensor device, electronic control devices and steering mechanism, etc. Its characteristic is to use electric actuators in different driving conditions for pilot provide appropriate support. System mainly consists of the electronic control unit ECU, torque sensor, the wheel speed sensors, motor, clutch and the steering assembly etc.Electric power steering system working principle is: the pilot control steering, the sensor will pilot role in steering wheel torque signal, speed signal, engine speed signal input ECU, ECU of the input signal calculations, inquires the booster form, determine the size and direction target current, so as to control motor current and the direction, by slowing institutions and clutch motor torque transfer to steering mechanism will be, so as to provide the proper power; driver When steering system malfunction, EPS system does not support. Don't turn circumstances, motor doesn't work. Electric power steering system can real-time in different speed for car turned to provide different under the instrumentality of guarantee in low-speed driving car deft and agile, high speed is stable and reliable. Electric power steering system generally consists of mechanical parts and controlling part. Mechanical parts mainly include transmission unit (the clutch, the steering assembly) and execution unit (electrical), etc. Control part mainly according to sensors to speed and torque signal for computing,drive motor control instructions issued to provide power for steering.EPS compared with HPS, except to save energy outside, due to the elimination of the hydraulic system and improve the environmental performance, solves the malpractices of hydraulic drive brings. The system is made of manufacturers to provide to the vehicle manufacturer, can be directly mounted. Under different conditions of different models, and different for different drivers steering properties, through software modification, convenient and quick. Complete EPS system also includes fault diagnosis and safety protection system. When malfunction happened, could stop booster, automatic recovery to manually control mode and warning signal, and show the memory of abnormal content such as torque sensor itself anomalies, and motor speed sensor abnormal work abnormal, battery abnormal etc.Electric power steering system has become the vehicle steering system technology development, but the system of mainstream has its limitations, because motor power steering and provide power is limited, if the body is heavier, steering system needs to have larger drive power, electric power steering system is ragged. So the system more for small cars, has lots of equipment to senior cars, and gradually to regular cars and small commercial vehicle development.5. wire control power steering systemWith power Steering technology development, the Wire control power Steering system (Steering By Wire, abbreviation SBW) is as automobile electronic technology development and grows the latest achievements of a brand-new Steering system. It through the wire transfer signals, control actuator action to replace traditional steering system of mechanical transmission and mechanical connection from the main controller, help torque in corresponding parameters, after decoding to turn his orders, by executive motor steering motor provides.SBW cancelled and steering wheel steering plate between mechanical connection device, now the steering wheel module, steering executive module and the main controller ECU, three main parts and automatic protection fault systems, power auxiliary module. It is made up of a real-time bus structure (for example, FlexRay HTTP or CAN) connected to the equipment. Can easily and other system integration, unified coordination control. System work, sensor test driver's steering data, then through the data bus would signals to the ECU, and getting feedback from steering control system command. Steering control system is also obtained from steering control agencies, and the steering instructions drivers from steering system obtain wheel situation, thus command the steering system of sports. Steering system KongZhiChe cycle to need Angle, and will wheel corner and rotationa l torque feedback to the rest of the system, such as steering control agencies, in order to make drivers get way feeling, the size of the road are according to different conditions can be controlled by steering control system. The steering system has many advantages: (1) the intervene problem to eliminate steering; (2) removed originally steering system modules of mechanical connection between rigid, has greatly facilitated the system's total decorate; (3) comfort enhancement; (4) can be personalized land suitable for specific driver and driving environment, and steering behavior could beabout driving through software to realize; (5) the crash to eliminate the possibility of hacking, don't hurt the driver set to prevent injury institutions; 6 the driver went leg activity space increases, more convenient.Ship-turning plate and the steering without mechanical connection between, generating let pilot able to perceive cars driving condition and actual road conditions "lk feeling" is more difficult, so current power steering system wire used only for some concept car. Has not conducted batch production and installation, its reliability and cost is the main cause of blocking its development. Mainly displays in if micro controller appears problem, steering system will completely failure, it is not like electric power steering system and electric hydraulic steering system and hydraulic steering system, in motor or hydraulic system problems, still can take the human to control the car. The system of micro controller if malfunction, because no mechanical system is connected the steering wheel and steering gear, so it could not control cars to turn around.6. for wire control power steering system outlookAlthough wire control power steering system now not satisfactory, but SBW still clear is car development direction. SBW system eliminates mechanical connection between the design of steering wheel, tyre will be greatly simplified. Not only improve the design efficiency, but also improve the economy, and car improve overall safety. SBW system work mainly by the electronic components to assume. The application of electronic components marks a considerable amount of mechanical parts reductions, and steering system the size and weight of ease. The whole process of steering by electronic device to achieve, which greatly improved vehicle fuel efficiency. Because only in need to, we have energy consumption. Based on instantaneous driver condition, the control unit of data from receiving other systems, actuator force needed only supply tires. Steering performance improvement is dependent on sensor receives speed, traction control system and other related variables. When the accident happened to the driver, the most dangerous is the steering wheel collisions. In the car with SBW system, many injuries and deaths due to the steering wheel can be eliminated.Due to the elimination of the mechanical connection, so to high reliability is absolutely necessary. In Europe, have related standards, such as IEC 61508 and EN 61511. Pure electronic system cannot guarantee failure conditional probability of less than 10 times failure/hour. Because of this and designed the system structure of the fault tolerance, and accurate processing strategy method is necessary. In the control strategies to avoid the failure data errors, and from, active detection, self diagnosis and protection will be used to achieve safety and reliability. For the foreseeable SWB system design and analysis of tolerance, it will become one of the important before SWB popular topic.附录B译文：近年来，随着社会生活的汽车化，汽车的数量不断增加，由此造成交通情况错综复杂，使得驾驶员转向盘的操作频率增大，这就需要减轻驾驶疲劳，提高操纵的轻便性和灵活性，因此对动力转向系统的要求也越来越高。

When it comes to purchasing a vehicle,many people find themselves in a dilemma: should they buy a brand new car or opt for a secondhand one?The decision can be influenced by various factors such as budget constraints,the desire to own a specific model,or concerns about depreciation.In this essay,we will explore the pros and cons of buying a secondhand car and provide some tips for those considering this option.Advantages of Buying a SecondHand Car1.CostEffectiveness:One of the most significant advantages of purchasing a used car is the cost savings.New cars depreciate rapidly,often losing a substantial percentage of their value within the first few years.Buying a secondhand car allows you to avoid this initial depreciation,which can be a significant saving.2.Availability of Older Models:Sometimes,its not about the newest features but the nostalgia or the specific design of an older model.Secondhand cars offer the opportunity to own a classic or a discontinued model that is no longer available in the new car market.3.Lower Insurance Costs:Insurance premiums for older cars are generally lower than those for new cars.This can be an important consideration for those on a tight budget or for young drivers who are often subject to higher insurance rates.4.Environmentally Friendly:Buying a used car can be a more sustainable choice as it reduces the demand for new vehicles,which in turn reduces the environmental impact of manufacturing new cars.Disadvantages of Buying a SecondHand Car1.Reliability Concerns:One of the main concerns with used cars is their reliability.The vehicles history,maintenance records,and the potential for hidden issues can be a source of worry for buyers.2.Limited Warranty:Most new cars come with a manufacturers warranty,which provides peace of mind.However,secondhand cars often have expired warranties, leaving the buyer to cover any repair costs that may arise.3.Depreciation:While a used car may have already experienced significant depreciation, it will still continue to lose value over time.This can be a disadvantage if you plan to sell the car in the future.4.Financing Challenges:Securing a loan for a used car can be more difficult than for anew one,especially if the car is older or has a history of repairs.Tips for Buying a SecondHand Car1.Research:Before buying,research the make and model you are interested in.Look for common issues and check reliability ratings.2.Vehicle History Check:Always get a vehicle history report.This will provide information on previous accidents,service history,and any outstanding finance that may affect your purchase.3.Professional Inspection:Have the car inspected by a professional mechanic.They can identify potential issues that you might not notice.4.Test Drive:A test drive is crucial.Pay attention to how the car handles,the condition of the brakes,and any unusual noises.5.Negotiate:Dont be afraid to negotiate the e the information youve gathered to your advantage.6.Consider the Total Cost of Ownership:Factor in the costs of insurance,maintenance, and potential repairs when deciding on a budget.In conclusion,while buying a secondhand car can be a costeffective option,it requires careful consideration and thorough research.By being wellinformed and taking the necessary precautions,you can find a used car that meets your needs and provides a reliable mode of transportation.。

买二手车的优缺点英文作文英文：Buying a used car has its advantages and disadvantages. On one hand, it can save you a lot of money compared to buying a brand new car. However, there are also some risks involved in buying a used car.One of the biggest advantages of buying a used car is the cost. Used cars are generally much cheaper than new cars, which means you can save a lot of money. Additionally, used cars often have lower insurance rates and registration fees, which can also save you money in the long run.Another advantage of buying a used car is that you can often get a better deal on a higher-end model. For example, if you want a luxury car but can't afford a brand new one, you may be able to find a used one within your budget. This can allow you to enjoy the benefits of a higher-end car without breaking the bank.However, there are also some disadvantages to buying a used car. One of the biggest risks is that you may end up with a lemon. A lemon is a car that has a lot of problems and requires a lot of repairs. If you're not careful, you could end up spending more money on repairs than you saved by buying a used car in the first place.Another risk is that you may not know the full history of the car. For example, the car may have been in an accident or may have had major repairs in the past. Without knowing the full history of the car, you may be taking a risk by buying it.Overall, buying a used car can be a great way to save money and get a good deal on a higher-end model. However, it's important to be careful and do your research to avoid ending up with a lemon.中文：买二手车有其优点和缺点。

文献信息：文献标题：Why Is It So Difficult To Buy a High-Quality Used Car?（为什么买一辆高质量的二手车这么难？）国外作者：Scott A. Wolla文献出处：《Page One Economics Newsletter》 , 2016字数统计：英文1522单词，7636字符；中文2705汉字外文文献：Why Is It So Difficult To Buy a High-Quality Used Car?“I discovered that the informational problems that exist in the used car market were potentially present to some degree in all markets.”—George A. Akerlof, Nobel Prize winner, 2001Are you in the market for a vehicle? During the 2007-09 recession, new vehicle sales plunged to their lowest levels in nearly 30 years. They have since fully recovered as people replace their aging vehicles with shiny new cars, trucks, vans, and sport utility vehicles. Prices of new vehicles, however, are at all-time highs, leading many buyers to look for used vehicles. It can be a challenge, though, for buyers to figure out whether they are getting a good deal. The seller generally knows far more about the vehicle. Even with careful examination, the buyer still likely won’t know everything the seller knows. When one party knows more about the product than the other party, there is “asymmetric information.” In the case of a used car, the seller has more information and the advantage. The opposite can also be true in a transaction—the buyer can have more information and the advantage.The Market for LemonsThe used-car market is often used to discuss the implications of asymmetricinformation. In this market, sellers have greater knowledge about the condition and quality of their cars than buyers. For example, a seller is likely to know about engine or transmission problems, the maintenance history, and any defective equipment. In other words, the seller is likely to know whether the car is a “lemon” (a car with defects). The buyer, however, is at a disadvantage. Even with a careful visual inspection or a test drive, defects can be missed or hidden. The seller is in the driver’s seat (so to speak) in this market.To better understand asymmetric information, consider a buyer looking for a particular car make and model. Let’s call it the Economy car Utility Maximizer. The buyer is willing to pay up to $14,000 for a high-quality used car (a “cherry”) but only $10,000 for a low-quality used car (a lemon). Imagine she visits two sellers advertising 2012 Utility Maximizers. One seller is selling a cherry; the other is selling a lemon. Each seller knows the history of the car for sale—they have good information and know whether it is a cherry or a lemon. The buyer, however, doesn’t see much difference between the two cars. She can’t tell whether either car is a cherry or a lemon. In other words, there is asymmetric information. As such, because she can’t know for sure, the buyer assumes that neither car is of high quality. So, she is willing to only offer a price below that of a highquality car: $12,000.Now consider the larger used-car market. Other buyers behave in similar ways. Because they cannot distinguish between lemons and cherries, they offer prices somewhere in the middle. Some sellers who really do have high-quality used cars aren’t willing to sell them below their true value, so they keep the cars instead. Sellers of low-quality cars, however, gladly sell their lemons. Low prices, then, reduce the overall quality of used cars on the market, leading to a market dominated by lemons. With fewer cherries on the market, buyers offer even less, further reducing the quantity of high-quality cars on the market. This cycle leads to market inefficiency because transactions that would have benefited both buyers and sellers fail to take place. That is, although sellers are willing to sell high-quality used cars to buyers at a fair price, the transactions do not occur because the buyers are unsure about the condition of the cars.Closing the Asymmetric Information GapRegulation has helped buyers receive better information. The 1975 Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act (also known as the Lemon Law) regulates warranties on vehicles (and other consumer goods), and a variety of state laws (also referred to as lemon laws) protect consumers from defective products, including vehicles.To reassure used-car buyers—and to get them to pay a higher price—some sellers provide warranties or “certify” their highest-quality used cars. Generally, a car labeled certified has been inspected and repaired (if necessary) to meet high quality standards and may include a warranty. Buyers can also take several steps to help reduce the asymmetric Information gap. First, research can help steer them to a generally more-reliable car. Third-party sources, such as Consumer Reports and J.D. Power, collect and analyze data to estimate the average reliability and quality of certain car models.Once a buyer finds a car, various sources can provide additional information about that car. For example, auto mechanics can look for defects hidden or overlooked. For a fee, they will look “under the hood” and run diagnostic tests. Additional information (such as maintenance, odometer, and accident history) is available by researching the car’s VIN (vehicle identification number). Various companies will provide a VIN report for a fee.In the future, buyers may be able to easily obtain even more information about a car’s history from the car’s event data recorder (EDR), which is similar to the “black box” on an airplane. Today, nearly all new cars have an EDR. These microcomputers collect data related to safety and accidents, including speed, braking, seatbelt use, and airbag deployment. EDRs are likely to become more powerful and collect more data over time.Consider the CostIn the rush to close the asymmetric information gap, it is important to realize that obtaining information can be costly. Some information may have explicit costs (feesor subscriptions), while others have implicit, or opportunity, costs. Any time you spend researching a product is time you could have spent doing something else. Therefore, the more expensive a transaction is, the more beneficial your research may be. So it’s wise to seek out information before buying a house or car or choosing a college but less important for choosing a frying pan or a stapler.Other Markets with Asymmetric InformationOther markets also have the challenge of asymmetric information. In the insurance market, for example, buyers usually have more information than sellers (insurance companies). The person wanting health insurance has more information about his or her current health than the insurance company. This imbalance can lead to two potential problems in the health insurance market. The first is adverse selection: People with health problems are more likely to buy health insurance than healthy people, who might decide they don’t need health insurance. This imbalance can create a pool of insured people with more health problems than the general population. If this is the case, health insurance companies will likely pay more claims and charge higher premiums. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act has attempted to reduce adverse selection by creating financial incentives to encourage all people (even the young and healthy) to buy insurance.The second potential pitfall is moral hazard: People with insurance tend to take on more risk (knowing insurance will pay some of the cost if anything bad happens) than they would otherwise. This increase in risky behavior could increase the number of claims insurance companies must pay and result in higher premiums. Insurance companies attempt to learn about a potential customer’s health and other habits before granting medical or life insurance to reduce the risk to the company and ensure an appropriate monthly premium is charged.Credit markets also notably feature asymmetric information problems. A potential borrower has better information about his or her own ability and willingness to repay a loan than the lender. Lenders attempt to learn about potential borrowers’ credit and financial history from credit reports. This information improves the abilityof lenders to choose whom they should lend to and what interest rate they should charge.Finally, asymmetric information problems also plague labor markets. Job seekers know more about their own job skills and work ethic than potential employers. Employers generally conduct interviews and check references but may also give assessments and seek additional information online, including on social media. In addition, some employers review credit reports, require drug testing, and/or perform a criminal background check.ConclusionWhen one party to a transaction has more information than the other, the party with more information has the advantage. This circumstance is a problem not only for the party with less information, but also for the market itself as transactions that would have benefited both buyers and sellers fail to occur. For example, even though some people are willing to sell high-quality cars for a suitable price, buyers won’t pay top dollar because they are unable to assess a car’s true condition. So, the car owners won’t sell, and the beneficial transactions never occur. However, the growing availability of information— if you seek it out—may help close the asymmetric information gap.中文译文：为什么买一辆高质量的二手车这么难？我发现二手车市场存在的信息问题在所有的市场都有可能出现。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿Development of Used Car Market in ChinaABSTRACTAlthough still in its early development phase, rapid growth of auto ownership has also injected new vitality for used car market in China. Under the support of series policy, the used car market reveals leaping development character with qualified changes. It is essential to understand the new changes in the used car market. This paper conducted research on the new features of used car market in China to promote its development. Environment analysis showed that used car market will be strongly enhanced by the blooming of auto market, rapid GDP growth and policy support, which ex- perienced steady trade scale increase and structure optimization. The used car trade experienced steady trade scale in- crease and structure optimization. Along with the purchasing pattern changing, significant expansion of the second- hand car market is imminent, even with hinder issues such as lack of integrity, evaluation criteria and after-service sys-tem, and incomplete policy and regulation. Several new features were identified, strong policy support, enlarging mar-ket scale and irradiation loop, remarkable concentration increase, increased status of brand used car, and enhanced trading service platform establishment. It is indicated that China’s used car market is making the shift from subordinate position to one of the dominant positions in auto industry, which is expected into a high speed,up-going development passage in the future.Keywords: Used Car Market; Development; New Features; China1. IntroductionWith the rapid social and economical development, China has become one of the most important markets in the world for the automotive industry. In recent years, the scale of China’s automotive after-sales service market continues to increase [1]. Analyzing from thepolicy, market, development potential and other aspects, the Annual Report on Automotive Industry in China (2010) found that, in the “Twelfth Five-Year” period, China’s automotive after-sales service market will maintain an annual growth rate of about 8 percent by a conservative estimate, and reach up to about RMB252.3 billion Yuan in 2015 [2]. Contemporarily, the rapid growth of auto ownership has also injected new vitality for second-hand car market. The trading volume of the used car market rose from 370 thousand to 4.33 million from 2001 to 2011, with an an- nual increase beyond 30%. The average trading ration between used car and new car is 0.24, which indicates the growing proportion of used car in auto industry [3]. In recent years, such operating models as used car brokers, used car auction and used car replacement have emerged in the market successively. The alteration of trading models provides new engines for the develop- ment of the used car market in China. It is estimated that the trade volume ratio between used and new car would reach 1:1 in the next ten years.However, China’s used car trade market is still in low proportion in the auto industry, even with its rapid growth. According to the experience of western ad- vanced countries, taking USA as an example, the bene- fits from used car sector accounts for 45% of the whole auto industry, and the average profit from one used car is around 20% [4].Under the support of series policy, the used car market reveals leaping development character with qualified changes. From 2000, China’s used car market experience high growth, and gradually became the major part of the auto industry. The used car market already made the shift from the subordinate position to one of the dominant po- sitions in the auto industry. It is vital to understand the new changes in the used car market. Thus this paper conducted research on the new environment of the used car market, probed into its new features, thus to further promote the development of the used car market in China. 2. Environment Analysis2.1. Auto Market Status AnalysisDue to the rapid development in auto industry, China’s auto market is becoming the most important area for auto trade and man ufacture. Fast expands was observed in China’s auto industry. From 2002 to 2011, auto trade volume rose from 3.25 million to 18.51 billion, increase- ing almost 6 times, with 23.5% annual increment, shown in Figure 1.Note(s): Red section represents passenger car, yellow section represents commercial car, blue line represents increment for total car trade volume.Along with the growth in auto trade volume, car is popularized in ordinary family. According to the data from China Automotive Industry Association, civil car population increased from 18.02 million to 93.5 million, with averagely 17.4% increment per year, shown in Fig- ure 2.Consequently, the car volume per thousand people grew steadily in China, from 3.7 to 46.8 in 2001 to 2011, increased 12.7 times, shown in Figure 3. According to the auto market development, China’s auto market is in the massive popularization stage. In the stage, car vol- ume will keep fast increase until the car volume per thousand people exceeds 250. Usually, it will last 10 years. Due to the regional difference in income, popula- tion, economy, this stage may last longer in China. Ex- perts from State Information Center estimated that this stage may last until 2013, with 12% - 14% increment an- nually. Therefore, the ever growing car volume due to the popularization stage of auto market, will provide more room and solid foundation for used car market develop- ment in China. Therefore, the ever growing car volume due to the popularization stage of auto market, will provide more room and solid foundation for used car market develop- ment in China.2.2. Economy Environment AnalysisDevelopment of Auto market is positively related to economy development and people’s income [5]. As the biggest population in the world, the market potential is enormous. Recently, China economy keeps steady and fast increase. Real GDP Per Capital increased from 1041$ in 2001 to 5432$ in 2011, with 17.4% annual increment, shown in Figure 4. As resident’s income level is the key factor for auto po pulation, the fast growth in income will transfer into higher demand increase in China auto market, which willFigure 1.Auto trade volume from 2002 to 2011.Figure 2. Civil car population inCh ina in2001-2011.Figure 3. Car volume per thousand people in 2001-2011.Figure 4. Real GDP per capital in 2001-2011.enhance the development of used car market in China. In a relatively long period, the auto and used car demand will keep a vigorous stage. The State Development Center and Auto Engineering Association estimated that the total vehicle demand in 2030 will be 32.43 million, with 8.8% annual increment [6], and the car volume per thousand people will exceed 100. This increase will stand for a relative long period (Table 1).2.3. Policy AnalysisApart from consumer demand, several government poli- cies and regulations have boosted the used-car market.The Administrative Measures on Used Cars, released in 2005, are the primary regulation governing the used-car market. The measures introduced a compe- tition mechanism that allows OEM-authorized auto dealerships to run used-car businesses. The measures also regulate different parties—including trading mar- kets, agents and operators—and strengthen the ad- ministration of organizations that appraise the value of used cars.The Notice on Upgrading the Used-Car Trade Market was announced by the ministries ofCommerce and Finance in July 2009. The circular aimed to improve the used-car industry. Initially, the PRC government selected 10 provinces and municipalities—Beijing, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Shandong, Shang- hai, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Zhejiang—to receive fis- cal funding to conduct pilot programs that focused on the management and information on used-car transac-tions to improve transparency.The Auto Industry Revitalization Plan, released in 2009 by the State Council, calls for the establishment of a national appraisal and evaluation standards sys- tem and a temporary ownership registration system. The plan also calls for adjusting the value-added tax rate on used car transactions and encourages dealer- ships to participate in vehicle replacement programs.The Twelfth Five-Year Plan encouraged consumer to purchase energy saving and environment vehicle. Se- ries vehicle subsidy and tax reduction on low emis- sion and new energy vehicle were implemented, which have direct influence on the future used car market. There would be increase in low emission and new energy used car in the future [7].3. Current Status of Used Car Market3.1. Trade Scale Kept Steady GrowthUsed car market increased dramatically in China from 2001. The trade volume rose from 0.37 million to 4.79 million in 2012, increased by 13 times. The average in- crement from 2001 to 2012 was 29.9% (Figure 5).The ratio for used car and new car increased from 0.16 to 0.23, averagely 0.24 from 2001 to 2011, nationwide (Figure 6). In some advanced area, like Beijing, the ratio already reached 1:1 in 2011. Along with the expansion of new car market, used car market was enhanced, cones- quently. It is estimated that the trade of used car and new car will come to 1:1 in 10 to 15 years in China.Consequently, the transaction money for used car trade increased steadily, which rose from 13.2 Billion Yuan in 2001 to 263.6 Billion Yuan in 2012. The annual incre- ment was 33.7% (Figure 7). The proportion of used carFigure 5. Used car trade volume from 2001 to 2012.Figure 6. Ratio of used car and new car.market in auto industry increased steadily, with the av- erage proportion of 5.5% from 2004 to 2010 (Figure 8) [7].The growing used car market is becoming the most important part of auto industry, which provide the foun- dation for leaping development.3.2. Used Car Trade Kept OptimizedAfter years of rapid development, the trade structure is optimizing. Along with the trade volume increase, saloon car gradually took major proportion in used car trade. After 2008, saloon car account for more than 50% of used car market share (Table 2).In the used car market, domestic brand car had the ab- solute dominant position, which accounts more than 95%. On the car age, even with decrease, used car in 3 - 10 years still took the leading position, which still had 75% share in 2011. Trade of used car below 3-year increased over the last few year, with 18.74% share in 2011 (Fig- ure 9).Obvious regional difference was observed in China’s used car market. According to the statistics from China Automobile Dealers Association, used car trade concen- trated in the developed area, is shown in Table 3. The first fifth regions account for 55.14% for used car trade in China, while the first tenth regions account for 77.02%. However, slight decrease was observed in those developed regions. This was probably due to the high level of used car trade in previous years already reduced the market demand.For the less developed area, rapid development was observed. Even with low market share, auto market was driven by the fast economy growth. The huge market potential was released, thus the used car trade increased very fast.Besides that, used car trade was mainly in local area. In 2010, local registered used car account for 88.27% of the total volume. This was due to the complex ownership transfer and registration procedure for cross regional transaction, and high cost. This had significant effect on rational circulation of used car.Figure 7. Used car transaction money from 2001 to 2012.Figure 8. Used car transaction money from 2001 to 2012.Figure 9. Brand and year feature for used car market.3.3. Purchasing Pattern ChangedAs a matter of fact, growth in the second-hand car market surpassed the sales growth of new cars. Used car grew by ear 20% in volume terms in 2011, reaching over4.3million. Indeed, as this trend intensifies, the used car segment will outstrip the new car segment in absolute terms as well. More specifically, given the current trend, almost 19 million used cars are expected to change hands in 2017. That translates into an impressive compounded annual growth rate of over 30%.One important reason for this change is the purchasing pattern of Chinese consumers. On average, 60% of Chi- nese car owners replace their cars every three years – much more frequent than other national car markets. This disposition is more apparent in the high-end segment. Here, automobile turnover is particularly strong due to fast-changing demands from wealthy individuals and a purchase pattern that closely correlates with their busi- nesses’ profitability. Cars that have barely been used enter the second-hand auto market, attracting new buyers in the process.Moreover, consumer attitudes are changing. From be- ing viewed as mere status symbols, cars are now in- creasingly being bought for reasons of functionality and transportation. Additionally, as most people currently buy cars for their first time, they willnot be as willing to spend a fortune on a new car. Especially as government policies are now helping car penetration deepen and spread to rural areas and lower-tier cities in China, where an estimated 700 million people live and purchasing power is much weaker. So, second-hand cars are becom- ing viable and desirable options for an increasing number of Chinese.With the increased supply of used cars to the auto market and the Chinese becoming more comfortable with the idea of second-hand car purchases, this segment is set to grow substantially in the coming years. Although there are some concerns, such as absence of trust between buyer and seller, as the market becomes more established and formalized through authorized dealerships, this problem will likely diminish in the future. And despite governmental policies that largely block second-hand cars from first-tier city markets, they are more attractive options for Chinese living in other areas, especially in poorer, rural areas and lower-tier cities. So, significant expansion of the second-hand car market is imminent and this creates many opportunities for used car trade and related companies [8].4. New Features of Used Car Market4.1. Issues of Used Car MarketAs one of the important parts of auto market, used car market kept 20% - 30% increase annually. However, the used car market is still in the preliminary stage, com- pared to the advanced market in western countries. Sev- eral dominant issues were as follows.First, lack of integrity in used car market. The lack of trust between buyer and seller currently remains a huge problem impeding the used car market in China. Chinese consumers, have few resources to help them understand the value of older vehicles. Used car broker often makes traps for consumer for high profit. There are quality, price and legal risk for consumers. And few mechanics are experienced enough to value cars independently. Due to the lack of trust, many potential used car demands cannot transfer into real market demand. Some foreign automakers are hoping to address this problem by setting up programs to sell certified pre-owned cars with war- rantee protection. As the used car market continues to evolve, this issue would be solved.Second, lack of used car evaluation criteria. Currently, there was no systematic used car value assessment crite- ria and residual value releasing system. On the national side, norule proclaimed for used car evaluation and value assessment. In practical used car trade, car evalua- tion is mostly subjective evaluation, only few companies have specialized equipment. Thus the evaluation result depends on the experience and responsibility of estimator, which weaken the fairness and rationality. When residual value assessment, simple average life span depreciation were used, without rational basis and reference, which reduce the fairness of value measurement.Third, lack of after-sell service systems. The used car market only had the function for industry and commer- cial bureau verification, and registration, did not have essential service function, facility and service method. One package service has been provided in new car mar- ket, but not in used car market. This is far more behind advanced countries. Due to the lack of proper service system, the confidence of consumer was affected, and the expansion of used car market was restricted.Fourth, incomplete policies and regulations for used car market. Access restriction is quite low in China, which result in low technical ability, poor management and irregular transaction, and weaken consumer’s confi- dence. The tax difference for different trade bodies for broker (0%), company (2%), auction (4%), and trade market (0%), result in chaos and unfairness in used car market [8,9]. There is no systematic used car evaluation and assessment criteria. The irrational and subject evalu- ation and assessment result from different personnel re- duced the real indication on car real value, which restrict the market development. A rational evaluation system should be established nation-wide. 4.2. New Feature of Used Car Market in China1) Strong policy support for upper developmentIn recent years, policy support is the most important booster for used car market. Series direct or indirect pol- icy has been released, and facilitate an favorable envi- ronment for used car market. Encouraging used car mar- ket development has been placed in government work report and plan, which confirmed the basic macro-policy direction.The policy support has been directly put into practice on the used car trade market, which already makes the shift from outside environment support to direct fostering on used car trade market. The most important one is the Demonstration Project of Used Car Trade Market Up- grading and Reconstruction. The project was executed by the Ministry ofCommerce and Finance. 40 used car trade markets were included in ten provinces. The emphasis was on the market environment and service facility, and management system. Series technical and operational supports were provide by the government. Information technology was widely used to promote national infor- mation interconnection and interaction, thus to build the foundation on national market and circulation.The application of these policies, were not only the support from government, but also the concept education for the whole used car trade and circulation industry. The aim was to reform and upgrade the mode of used car trade, enforce scale operation, and promote cross-re- gional used car transaction [8,10].2) Expansion of market scale and irradiation loopAfter several years of development, the used car mar- ket in the key cities as the core is becoming the basictrend direction for the nationwide integrated market. Due to the regional discrepancy in China used car market throughout the provinces, the gradient difference in used car consumer can be achieved for the market develop- ment. This was confirmed by the experience in devel- oped countries.The first priority is to taking advantage of radiation and leading role of core cities, to form regional used car market. With the market development, the seamless connection between regional market can be achieved. Then, the used car transfer gradient can be established from developed area to less developed area, thus to form the unified national market.The used car in the developed area is transferring to the less developed area, along with the demand changing from newly-increased to renew. This will be one of the most important features for China’s used car market.3) Remarkable concentration increase in used car tradeAccording to the experience in used car market in de- veloped countries, large-scale used car trade is always accompany with the arising and developing of wholesale. For China’s market, the used car wholesale mainly to auction is gradually arising, which will be one of the important symbol of large-scale market development. The advanced wholesale business provides strong sup- port for the large-scale used car trade. It is the foundation for cross regional used car transaction, and operation efficiency improvement. Thus theoperational transfer cost can be reduced, and improve the comparative ad- vantage in used car price, to promote used car consump- tion. It is essential to have gradient distribution of new car and used car, to enhance the maturity of China’s auto market.Fundamental changes will take place in the traditional small workshop operation mode. Used car broker com- pany with certain scale and with ability for cross regional transaction will arise in the market, and large-scale used car trade group will also grow. The small scale broker will be forced to quit the market. Thus, the obsessed is- sue characterized in small, scattered and disordered used car trade will be solved.Along with the change, professional division will be enhanced for the used car service companies. Integrated used car company will be replaced by specialized pur- chasing company, wholesale company and retail com- pany. More specialized service and trade company will arise, such as auction company, third-party detection service company, evaluation and assessment company and so on [11].4) Important role of brand used carBrand used car from car manufacture started from 2004. And great development has taken place in the re- cent years. Most of the car manufactures initiated their strategy and used car trademark in the brand used car, such as Chengxin, Anji from SAIC Motor, Certified used car from FAW-Volkswagen, Anxin from FAW TOY- OTA Motor, AAA from FAW Audi, and Xiyue used car from GAC HONDA, and so on.Replacement of used car is becoming the main mode for brand used car. Competition among different used car brands went deep. There are around 1000 auto dealer involved in the used car replacement. As 4S shop is gradually becoming the main brand used car source and trading place, the advantage of dealership is more and more obvious. On the basis of advantage in brand influ- ence and, maintenance and service, brand used car will be the major proportion of used car market [12].5) Trading service platform establishment will be the main content of used car marketUnder current circumstance, trading service platform establishment is quite essential for the used car market in China. Used car trade related testing, evaluation, assess- ment and other service can be provided in the platform for both individual trader and dealer. Thisplatform in- cludes replace platform between new and used cars, ser- vice platform amongmanufactures, and alliance platform among trade market nationwide [10].Service platform is required to joint new car and used car trade service, due to the replace business majored used car trade in China. Brand used car rely on the plat- form to achieve replacement business and internal re- source interchange among 4s shops. Dealership can use the platform to enforce used car source integration and cross-regional transaction. For professional, large-scale and regional demand, traditional trade market and broker also need this platform. Derived services like finance and insurance also rely on the platform to business develop- ment. 5. ConclusionsEnvironment analysis showed that used car market will be strongly enhanced by the blooming of auto market, rapid GDP growth and policy support. The used car trade experienced a steady trade scale increase and structure optimization. Along with the purchasing pattern chang- ing, significant expansion of the second-hand car market is imminent, even with hinder issues such as lack of in- tegrity, evaluation criteria andafter-service system, and incomplete policy and regulation.The new features of China’s used car market were identified. First, strong policy support will promote its upper development. Second, both market scale and mar- ket irradiation loop will enlarge. Third, there will be re- markable concentration increase in used car trade. Four, brand used car will gradually take an important role. Fi- nally, trading service platform establishment will be the main content of the used car market. The market feature indicated that a major turning point was taking place, which showed that China’s used car market is making the shift from the subordinate position to one of the domi-nant positions in the auto industry. Chi na’s used car market is expected into a high speed,up-going develop-ment passage.6. AcknowledgementsThis work is sponsored by the 12nd Five-year Support Program in Shanghai University of Engineering Science (2012-09-nhky) and Shanghai Automotive EducationalFoundation Project “Used car business mode research under new market circumstance”.REFERENCES【1】A. D. Little, “China’s Automotive Market,” Automotive Viewpoint, 2011.【2】China Automobile Dealers Association, “2010 China Auto Market Yearbook,”China Commercial Publishing House, Beijing, 2010.【3】China Automobile Dealers Association, “2012 China Auto Market Yearbook,” China Commercial Publishing House, Beijing, 2012.【4】X. B. Sun, “Contribution of Used-Car Business for OEM and Implement Strategy,” MBA Thesis, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 2011.【5】X. C. Li, “Effect of Real GDP per Capital on Private Car Demand,” Special Zone Economy, Vol. 1, 2010, pp. 284-285.【6】State Information Center and National Development and Reform Commission, “Forecast of China’s Auto Market in 2012,” China Machine Press, Beijing, 2012.【7】China Automobile Dealers Association, “2011 China Used Car Industry Development Report,” Beijing, 2011.【8】IPSOS in China, “Related Policy Analysis on Used Car Market Sta ndardization and Promotion Development,” China Motor, No. 2, 2011, pp. 32-35.【9】China Automobile Dealers Association, “2011 China Auto Market Yearbook,” China Commercial Publishing House, Beijing, 2011.【10】Z. Y. Luan, “Research on the Current China Us ed Car Brand Marketing Model,” Master Thesis, Jilin University, Changchun, 2011.【11】H. Zhang and A. W. Zheng, “Current Situation Analysis and Development Strategy of China’s Used Car Market,” Auto Industry Research, No. 7, 2012, pp. 10-13.【12】Industry Economy Division in Development Research Center of the State Council, China Association of Auto- mobile Manufactures, Shanghai VW, “2012 Development Report on China’s Auto Industry,” Social Science Aca demic Press, Beijing, 2012.From：Yali Yang, Hao Chen*, Ruoping ZhangCollege of Automotive Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai, China Received April 25, 2013; revised May 25, 2013; accepted June 15, 2013译文中国二手车市场的发展摘要尽管目前仍处于早期发展阶段,在中国迅速增长的汽车所有权数量也为二手车市场注入了新的市场活力。

买二手车的优缺点英文作文Buying a used car, like any major decision, comes with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. In this essay, we will explore both the pros and cons of purchasing a second-hand vehicle.Firstly, let's delve into the advantages of buying a used car. One of the most significant benefits is cost savings. Used cars generally come with a lower price tag compared to new ones, allowing buyers to acquire a vehicle within their budget. Additionally, used cars often have lower insurance premiums and registration fees, further reducing the overall cost of ownership.Another advantage of buying a used car is depreciation. Unlike new cars, which typically experience rapid depreciation in value during the first few years, used cars have already undergone this initial depreciation. This means that the rate of depreciation is slower, potentially saving buyers from significant financial loss in the longrun.Furthermore, the used car market offers a wide variety of options. Buyers have the opportunity to choose from a diverse selection of makes, models, and years, allowing them to find a vehicle that best suits their preferences and needs. Whether it's a specific feature, brand, or price range, the used car market caters to a broad spectrum of requirements.However, along with the advantages, there are also several disadvantages associated with buying a used car. One of the primary concerns is the vehicle's condition and reliability. Unlike new cars, which come with warranties and assurances of quality, used cars may have hidden defects or mechanical issues that are not immediately apparent. This can lead to unexpected repair costs and maintenance expenses, potentially offsetting the initial savings gained from purchasing a used car.Moreover, the history of a used car may be unclear. Without a comprehensive maintenance record or vehiclehistory report, buyers may be unaware of past accidents, repairs, or other issues that could affect the car's performance and safety. This lack of transparency can pose risks to buyers and compromise their peace of mind.Additionally, financing options for used cars may be less favorable compared to new ones. Interest rates and loan terms may be less favorable, resulting in higher monthly payments and overall costs. Furthermore, lenders may require a larger down payment or impose stricter eligibility criteria for used car loans, making it more challenging for some buyers to secure financing.In conclusion, buying a used car offers several advantages, including cost savings, slower depreciation, and a diverse selection of options. However, it also comes with disadvantages such as potential reliability issues, unclear vehicle history, and less favorable financing options. Ultimately, the decision to purchase a used car should be carefully considered, weighing the pros and cons to determine the best course of action based on individual circumstances and preferences.。

二手汽车广告英文作文Looking for a reliable and affordable option for your next vehicle? Consider buying a used car. Used cars offer a range of benefits, from cost savings to a wider selection of models. In this article, we'll explore the advantages of purchasing a pre-owned vehicle and provide tips for making a smart buying decision.First and foremost, one of the most significant advantages of buying a used car is cost savings. Used cars are typically much cheaper than their new counterparts, allowing you to get more value for your money. With the depreciation of new cars happening most dramatically in the first few years, buying used means you can avoid absorbing that initial loss in value.Additionally, when you buy a used car, you have a wider selection of models to choose from. While new car buyers are limited to the latest year's offerings, used car buyers can explore a variety of makes, models, and model years. This expanded selection increases the likelihood of finding a vehicle that meets your specific needs and preferences.Moreover, used cars often come with lower insurance premiums and registration fees compared to new cars. Since the value of a used car is typically lower than that of a new car, insurance companies often charge lower premiums to insure them. Additionally, registration fees are often based on the vehicle's value, meaning you'll pay less to register a used car.Another benefit of buying a used car is that you can avoid the initial depreciation hit that new cars experience. New cars lose a significant portion of their value within the first few years of ownership, but used cars have already experienced this depreciation, allowing you to preserve more of your investment.Furthermore, many used cars come with certified pre-owned (CPO) programs, offering additional peace of mind to buyers. CPO programs typically include extendedwarranties, thorough vehicle inspections, and other benefits, giving buyers confidence in the quality and reliability of their purchase.When shopping for a used car, there are several factors to consider to ensure you make a smart buying decision. First, determine your budget and research the market to understand what types of vehicles are available within your price range. Consider factors such as mileage, condition, and features to narrow down your options.Next, thoroughly inspect any used car you're considering purchasing. Look for signs of wear and tear, such as rust, dents, or mechanical issues. Take the car for a test drive to evaluate its performance and handling. If possible, have a trusted mechanic inspect the vehicle to identify any potential problems.Additionally, research the vehicle's history using services like Carfax or AutoCheck to uncover any past accidents, damage, or other issues. A comprehensive understanding of the vehicle's history can help you make an informed decision about whether it's the right choice for you.In conclusion, buying a used car offers numerous advantages, including cost savings, a wider selection of models, and lower insurance premiums. By carefully researching the market, inspecting potential vehicles, and understanding their history, you can make a smart buying decision and find a reliable used car that meets your needs and budget. Whether you're looking for a commuter car, a family vehicle, or a weekend cruiser, buying used is a practical and economical choice.。

买二手车比买新车好英语作文Buying a used car can often be a more practical and cost-effective option compared to purchasing a brand-new vehicle. While new cars have their own appeal and advantages, there are several compelling reasons why opting for a pre-owned car may be the better choice in many cases. In this essay, we will explore the key benefits of buying a used car and why it may be the smarter financial decision.One of the primary advantages of purchasing a used car is the significant cost savings. New cars typically depreciate rapidly, often losing a substantial portion of their value within the first few years of ownership. This means that a used car, even just a couple of years old, can be purchased for a fraction of the original price. This can be particularly beneficial for those on a tighter budget or those who simply want to get more value for their money. By avoiding the steep initial depreciation that comes with a new car, buyers can enjoy a lower purchase price and potentially save thousands of dollars.In addition to the upfront cost savings, owning a used car can also result in lower insurance premiums. Insurance companies generallycharge higher rates for new vehicles, as they are more expensive to repair or replace in the event of an accident. Older cars, on the other hand, are typically less expensive to insure, which can lead to substantial long-term savings for the car owner.Another compelling reason to consider a used car is the availability of a wider selection of models and features. When buying new, buyers are often limited to the latest model year and the specific options and configurations offered by the manufacturer. With a used car, the pool of available vehicles is much larger, allowing buyers to potentially find a model that better suits their needs and preferences, even if it's a few years older. This can be especially beneficial for those who have specific requirements or are looking for a particular set of features that may not be available in the current model year.Furthermore, used cars have often already undergone the initial "break-in" period, where the vehicle's components and systems have been thoroughly tested and any initial issues have been addressed. This means that the car is more likely to be reliable and require fewer repairs in the near future, potentially saving the owner money on maintenance and repair costs.Another advantage of buying a used car is the ability to negotiate the price more effectively. Unlike with a new car, where the price is often fixed or only slightly negotiable, used car prices are generallymore flexible and open to negotiation. Savvy buyers can leverage their research and bargaining skills to potentially secure a better deal, further enhancing the cost savings.It's important to note that while buying a used car can offer significant benefits, it also comes with some potential drawbacks that should be carefully considered. Used cars may not have the latest safety features or technological advancements, and their history may not be as well-documented as a new car. Additionally, the reliability and condition of a used car can vary significantly, depending on factors such as the previous owner's maintenance habits and the vehicle's overall history.To mitigate these risks, it is crucial for buyers to thoroughly research the used car's history, obtain a comprehensive inspection by a trusted mechanic, and carefully evaluate the vehicle's condition before making a purchase. Taking the time to conduct due diligence can help ensure that the used car is a sound investment and meets the buyer's needs and expectations.In conclusion, buying a used car can often be the more financially prudent choice compared to purchasing a brand-new vehicle. The significant cost savings, lower insurance premiums, wider selection of models, and potential for better negotiation make a strong case for considering a pre-owned car. However, it is essential to carefullyweigh the pros and cons and conduct a thorough evaluation to ensure that the used car is a reliable and safe investment. By making an informed decision, buyers can enjoy the benefits of owning a quality used car while saving money in the long run.。