‘Stress Accent ’ without Phonetic Stress Accent Type and Distribution in Bininj Gun-wok

石家庄二中、长沙市雅礼中学、郸城一中等校联考2024-2025学年高三上学期摸底定位信息卷（一）一、阅读理解In the heart of the Cyclades, Mykonos has long been an attraction for visitors. The beaches on the island’s southwest coast are among the Mediterranean’s best wild-party scenes, but head east and travelers will find something quite different. Here, the crowds slowly fade away, revealing what originally made the island famous: its beauty with rocky coastline and sandy bays.Fokos BayPark your vehicle in the dirt lot and climb over the low dunes (沙丘) to find perfect little Fokos Bay, where deep, sheltered waters offer delightful swimming for all ages. Once you’ve worked up a bit of an appetite, head on over to the famous Greek cafe overlooking the sand for a lazy seafood lunch.Mersini BeachHead west around the headland to the next beach along — the Mersini Beach, which is usually the least-crowded on Mykonos. Bring your own sun mat and even an umbrella as this beach is completely wild and raw.Agrari BeachIf getting your own wheels isn’t an option, Agrari is only a 15-minute walk east of the more famous Elia Beach and on the south coast beach ferry(渡轮) route. It’s one of the closest uncrowded beaches to Hora, Mykonos’ main town, and home to a restaurant that provides sunbeds and drinks and snacks.Kalafati BeachIn the far southeast, about seven miles from Mykonos town, the Kalafati Beach is beloved for its steady winds that blow the sails of windsurfers and kite surfers. Rent boards and get lessons right at the beach at Windsurfing Mykonos.1．What can be done in Fokos Bay?A．Get surfing lessons.B．Take car rides on dirt tracks.C．Rent sun mats and umbrellas.D．Sample the delights of seafood.2．What feature does Mersini Beach have?A．It’s service-free.B．It’s heavily populated.C．It’s on a coast beach ferry route.D．It’s within easy reach of Hora.3．Which beach is perfect for wind sports?A．Fokos Bay.B．Mersini Beach.C．Agrari Beach.D．Kalafati Beach.If you’re looking for inspiration to get healthy and stay active, look no further than Edna Giordano.Edna, who lives in Canada, has become famous for the fitness level she maintains at age 91. The mom of five, grandmother of twenty-one and great-grandmother of four still drives now. “I’ve always had a busy lifestyle because, let’s face it, with that many children, you have to be busy,” Edna said. “So, I never really thought about it. That’s just the way I live.” She said she only really began to focus on her fitness in her 60s, when she was forced to retire from her job at a local hospital. She had to face the fact that she was 60.To keep herself busy, Edna began gardening again that she had to abandon due to her busy work. She said she also started going to the gym in her 60s, which she still does every other day. “I have to keep my feet to the fire because it’s cold in the morning in winter, and when it’s snowy or icy out there, I don’t really get enthusiastic about going outside,” she said. “But I make myself do it and mark it on the calendar. So I cannot take any shortcuts.”Edna said she focused on walking at the gym for her cardiovascular (心血管) health and also included lots of weight lifting in her routine to maintain her bone strength. “When in the gym, I don’t try to break any records or compete with anyone else,” Edna said. “I only push myself to do better all the time, and I only compete with myself.”When it came to her age, Edna said the people at the gym didn’t realize she’s 91. She prefers it that way, because when people do realize she’s in her 90s, they’ll surely demand to help her. “I know them well. But I don’t really want help,” said Edna. “It’s funny to say that, but I like to be independent.”4．What made Edna leave her job in the hospital?A．Her turning 60.B．Her looking after many kids.C．Her wish to live a busy life.D．Her suffering from a disease.5．What do we know about Edna after retirement?A．She lives in a cold place all year round.B．She manages to be a regular at the gym.C．She develops a new hobby for gardening.D．She likes to take shortcuts in her daily life. 6．Which of the following best describes the people at the gym?A．Competitive.B．Humorous.C．Humble.D．Caring.7．What can we learn from Edna’s story?A．The elderly also enjoy trends.B．Experience beats youth.C．A positive attitude extends life.D．Fitness is fit for everyone.Come up with something at least 10 characters long. Include numbers, at least one symbol, and —just to be safe. Oh, and make it something you’ll remember, of course. Yes, passwords are maddening, but their days are numbered: Passkeys are here to make passwords obsolete.With passkeys you don’t have to remember — or make up — anything. When you register to use a site or app, your device generates two mathematically linked keys: a public key and a private key. The public key stays on the servers of the app or website you’re signing in to. The private key, a long string of characters, is stored only on your device. When you sign in, the server, like the guard at the gate, presents a challenge to your device. Your device responds by using the private key as your personal signature or authorization. You then use your PIN (Personal Identification Number), fingerprint, facial recognition, or similar means to unlock your device to approve the signature, and the server then match your signature with your corresponding public key. Your private passkey is safe because there’s no way to get a private key from a public key.Because passkeys are generated for a specific site or app, they won’t work on phishing sites (those that look just like your bank’s website, for example, and steal your password when you try to sign in). Passkeys are also immune to social engineering attacks, because you don’t know the passkey; only your device does.Even though passkeys are “as foolproof a solution as has ever existed,” Jonathan S. Weissman, a cybersecurity expert in the Rochester Institute of Technology, says many people will stick with what they’re comfortable with.Andrew Shikiar, director of the FIDO Alliance (线上快速身份验证联盟), agrees thatpeople resist change, but believes that consumers eventually adapt to new technologies. “We’ll come to a point where we look back on passwords like we do the dial phone,” he predicts. 8．What does the underlined word “obsolete” in paragraph 1 probably mean?A．Out of trouble.B．Out of reach.C．Out of hand.D．Out of date. 9．What is the second paragraph mainly talking about concerning passkeys?A．Its composition.B．Its mechanics.C．Its characteristics.D．Its application. 10．What can be inferred about passkeys from paragraphs 3 and 4?A．They’re phishing-resistant.B．They’re stored by specific apps.C．They became an immediate success.D．They’ll change automatically for safety. 11．What attitude does Shikiar have toward the prospect of passkeys?A．Doubtful.B．Cautious.C．Optimistic.D．Dismissive.It is no accident that so many fairy tale characters find themselves having to cross dangerous areas of woodland. In a most practical sense, as the ancients dreamed up those stories and even when the oral traditions were finally written down in the middle ages and later, the lands of northern and western Europe were thick with woodland. The dangers were obvious: from robbers lying in wait for unsuspecting travelers to opportunistic wolves hungry for the kill.In many cultures, the forest is for god or ancestor worship. In An Illustrated Encyclopaedia Of Traditional Symbols, JC Cooper writes, “Entering the Dark Forest or the Enchanted Forest is a threshold (门槛) symbol: the soul entering the dangers of the unknown; the world of death; the secrets of nature, or the spiritual world which man must go through to find the meaning.”The forest is a place of magic then, magic that can be dangerous, but also a place of opportunity and transformation. In the tale of Beauty and the Beast, the merchant is directed by invisible forces within the forest to the Beast’s castle, only then to be directed by invisible hands to his fate.As for Little Red Riding Hood, straying from (偏离) the path and into the woods is similarly dangerous and filled with treachery (背叛). Symbolically, those who lose their way in the uncharted forest are losing their way in life, losing touch with their conscious selves and voyaging into the state of the subconscious.And yet, in legends such as Robin Hood, or the great Hindu love story of Rama and Sita, theforest becomes a hiding place. The forest provides refuge (庇护) for great heroes who after a period of hard time come back to fight for justice. Their time in the forest could perhaps be interpreted as a period of personal development.Today, still, woodland remains as a refuge from institutional order, from control and limitation of personal freedom. Forests are places full of mystery, where imagination and the subconscious can run free, where we can return to our original selves.12．What does the author think of the woodland dangers in fairy tales?A．They are created without reasonable basis.B．They are a reflection of real-lifedangers.C．They differ greatly from those in real life.D．They are apparent and can be easily avoided.13．What does JC Cooper stress with her words in paragraph 2?A．The hidden dangers in the forest.B．The symbols in different cultures.C．The symbolic meaning of the forest.D．The educational functions of the forest. 14．The woodland plays the role of a shelter for the hero in ______.A．Rama and SitaB．Beauty and the BeastC．Little Red Riding HoodD．An Illustrated Encyclopaedia Of Traditional Symbols15．How is the text developed?A．By following time order.B．By giving examples.C．By making comparisons.D．By explaining a principle.Loud noise can be very damaging to your hearing, whether it’s a loud burst or years of exposure. Approximately 15 percent of adults 18 years of age or older report some trouble hearing.16 The good news is that taking action now may protect you from hearing loss later in life.Get a baseline hearing test. Most people have never had a hearing test. 17 At your next physical, ask for a hearing test as part of your routine checkup. A hearing test gives your audiologist a baseline that they can compare with future results to monitor the progression of hearing loss.18 While you are watching TV or using mobile devices, keep the volume at a comfortable level. It should be loud enough to make sure you can hear very well, but not so loud that when you leave the room, you can still hear it from another part of your home.Wear protective hearing devices. Think ear protection before you’re exposed to any noisy environment, such as rock concerts or airports. When you are in a noisy environment, wear protective hearing devices such as earplugs or protective earphones. 19Have proper earphones. If you often listen to music on earphones using a portable music or video device, it’s a good idea to have earphones that fit the unique shape of your ear canal, and block outside noise. 20A．The risk rises as we age.B．Monitor the volume of your devices.C．However, it benefits you to go against that trend.D．Meanwhile, you will find the sound truly superior.E．You can find them at your local drugstore or music supply shop.F．Think about buying appliances and devices that have low noise ratings.G．You must do something to keep age-related hearing loss from getting worse.二、完形填空A 6-year-old girl named Quinn Hill is being honored for what she did for her mom.Quinn’s mom, Jennifer, said that earlier this year, she was 21 . She didn’t remember what happened next, so Quinn filled in the 22 .“Quinn told me that I, 23 , sat down in a chair, looking up at the ceiling and started breathing quickly,” Jennifer said. “She said that I then 24 the chair onto my left side and my hands were together and my body was shaking. She kept saying, ‘Mommy, Mommy,’ and I wouldn’t 25 .”When Jennifer didn’t come to, 26 Quinn decided to grab her three-year-old brother and run to a neighbor’s house to ask for help. No one 27 at the first house, so she tried another. Fortunately, they came to the door and 28 followed the kids back to their home, where they 29 Jennifer lying unconscious on the kitchen floor.The 30 neighbor called Jennifer’s husband, who sent emergency services to the 31 . And they transported her to a local hospital where doctors 32 she had a grand mal seizure I (癫痫). It was the first time she’d had one.To recognize Quinn and her 33 , Conover, NC, Mayor (市长) Kyle J. Hayman, honored her with a 34 certificate during a city council ceremony, where he also 35 Resolution 05-24 naming February 5, 2024, as “Quinn Hill Day”.21．A．cooking B．sleeping C．driving D．camping 22．A．positions B．blanks C．districts D．forms23．A．in turn B．for example C．with kindness D．at first 24．A．gave way to B．made up for C．broke away from D．fell out of 25．A．care B．repeal C．respond D．agree 26．A．modest B．courageous C．grateful D．curious 27．A．commented B．wondered C．answered D．rejected 28．A．instantly B．naturally C．eventually D．gradually 29．A．had B．left C．prevented D．found 30．A．tough-minded B．kind-hearted C．eye-catching D．face-saving 31．A．home B．office C．school D．hospital 32．A．feared B．predicted C．discovered D．doubted 33．A．experience B．idea C．action D．intention 34．A．registration B．competition C．birth D．recognition 35．A．inspected B．adopted C．promised D．continued三、语法填空阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

Festival Multisyn Voices for the2007Blizzard Challenge Korin Richmond,Volker Strom,Robert Clark,Junichi Yamagishi and Sue Fitt Centre for Speech Technology ResearchUniversity of Edinburgh,Edinburgh,United Kingdom(korin|vstrom|robert|jyamagis|sue)@AbstractThis paper describes selected aspects of the Festival Mul-tisyn entry to the Blizzard Challenge2007.We provide an overview of the process of building the three required voices from the speech data provided.This paper focuses on new fea-tures of Multisyn which are currently under development and which have been employed in the system used for this Bliz-zard Challenge.These differences are the application of a more flexible phonetic lattice representation during forced alignment labelling and the use of a pitch accent target cost component. Finally,we also examine aspects of the speech data provided for this year’s Blizzard Challenge and raise certain issues for discussion concerning the aim of comparing voices made with differing subsets of the data provided.1.IntroductionMultisyn is a waveform synthesis module which has recently been added to the Festival speech synthesis system[1].It pro-vides aflexible,general implementation of unit selection and a set of associated voice building tools.Strong emphasis is placed onflexibility as a research tool on one hand,and a high level of automation using default settings during“standard”voice build-ing on the other.This paper accompanies the Festival Multisyn entry to the Blizzard Challenge2007.Similar to the Blizzard Challenges of the previous two years([2,3]),the2007Blizzard Challenge required entrants to build three voices from the speech data pro-vided by speaker“EM001”,then submit a set of synthesised test sentences for evaluation.Thefirst voice,labelled voice“A”, used the entire voice database.Two smaller voices,“B”and“C”used subsections of the database.V oice“B”used the set of sen-tences from the ARCTIC database[4]which were recorded by the EM001speaker.For voice“C”,entrants were invited to per-form their own text selection on the voice database prompts to select a subset of sentences no larger than the ARCTIC data set in terms of total duration of speech in seconds.V oices“B”and “C”are intended as a means to compare different text selection algorithms,as well as to evaluate the performance of synthesis systems when using more limited amounts of speech data.Multisyn and the process of building voices for Multisyn is described in detail in[1].In addition,entrants to the Blizzard Challenge this year have been asked to provide a separate sys-tem description in the form of a template questionnaire.For the reader’s convenience this paper will provide a brief overview of Multisyn and the voices built.To limit redundancy,however,we will not repeat all details comprehensively.Instead,we aim to focus here on areas where the use of Multisyn differs from[1]. Those significant differences are two-fold.First,we will intro-duce a new technique we have been developing to help in forced alignment labelling.Next,we describe a target cost component which uses a simple pitch accent prediction model.Finally,we will discuss our experience of building voice“C”,and highlight some issues we believe may complicate comparison of entrants’voices“B”and“C”.2.Multisyn voice buildingWe use our own Unisyn lexicon and phone set[5],so only used the prompts and associated wavefiles from the distributed data, performing all other processing for voice building from scratch. Thefirst step of voice building involved some brief examina-tion of the text prompts tofind missing words and to add some of them to our lexicon,fix gross text normalisation problems and so on.Next,we used an automatic script to reduce the du-ration of any single silence found in a wavefile to a maximum of50msec.From this point,the process for building Multisyn voices“A”,“B”and“C”described in the remainder of this sec-tion was repeated separately for the relevant utterance subset for each voice.We used HTK tools in a scripted process to perform forced alignment using frames of12MFCCs plus log energy(utter-ance based energy normalisation switched off)computed with a10msec window and2msec frame shift.The process be-gan with single mixture monophone models with three emitting states,trained from a“flat start”.Initial labelling used a single phone sequence predicted by the Festival Multisyn front end. However,as the process progressed with further iterations of reestimation,realignment,mixing up,adding a short pause tee model,and so on,we switched to using a phone lattice for align-ment described in Section3.Once labelling was completed,we used it to perform a waveform power factor normalisation of all waveforms in the database.This process looks at the energy in the vowels of each utterance to compute a single factor to scale its waveform.The power normalised waveforms were then used throughout the remainder of the voice building process,which began with repeating the whole labelling process.Once the labelling had been completed,it was used to build utterance structures1,which are used as part of the internal rep-resentation within afinal Multisyn voice.At this stage,the text prompts were run through a simple pitch accent prediction model(see Section4),and this information stored in the utter-ance structures.Additional information was also added to the utterance structures at this stage;for example,phones with a duration more than2standard deviations from the mean were flagged.Such information could be used later at unit selection time in the target cost function.In addition to labelling and linguistic information stored in utterancefiles,Multisyn requires join cost coefficients and RELP synthesis parameters.To create the synthesis parameters, wefirst performed pitchmarking using a custom script which makes use of Entropic’s epochs,get resid,get f0 and refcof programs.We then used the sig2fv and sigfilter programs from the Edinburgh Speech Tools for lpc analysis and residual signal generation respectively.The 1a data structure defined in the Edinburgh Speech Tools libraryMultisyn join cost uses three equally weighted components: spectral,f0and log energy.The spectral and log energy join cost coefficients were taken from the MFCCfiles calculated by HTK’s HCopy used for labelling.The f0contours were pro-vided by the ESPS program get f0.All three of these feature streams were globally normalised and saved in the appropriate voice data structure.During unit selection,Multisyn does not use any acoustic prosodic targets in terms of pitch or duration.Instead,the target cost is a weighted normalised sum of a series of components which consider the following:lexical stress,syllable position, word position,phrase position,part of speech,left and right phonetic context,“bad duration”and“bad f0”.As mentioned above,“bad duration”is aflag which is set on a phone within a voice database utterance during voice building and suggests a segment should not be used.Similarly,the“bad f0”target cost component looks at a candidate unit’s f0at concatenation points,considering voicing status rather than a specific target f0 value.We have also used an additional target cost component for the presence or absence of a pitch accent on a vowel.This is described further in Section4.Finally,we stress that during concatenation of the best can-didate unit sequence,Multisyn does not currently employ any signal processing apart from a simple overlap-add windowing at unit boundaries.No prosodic modification of candidate units is attempted and no spectral,amplitude or f0interpolation is performed across concatenation boundaries.3.Finite state phonetic lattice labelling For all three voices for this Blizzard Challenge we employed a forced alignment system we have been developing which makes use of afinite state representation of the predicted phonetic real-isation of the recorded prompts.The advantage of thefinite state phonetic representation is that it makes it possible to elegantly encode and process a wide variety pronunciation variation dur-ing labelling of speech data.In the following two sections we first give a general introduction to how our phonetic lattice la-belling works,and then give some more specific details of how the system was applied to building voices for this Blizzard Chal-lenge.3.1.General implementationIf we consider how forced alignment is standardly performed using HTK,for example,the user is required to provide,among other things,a pronunciation lexicon and word level transcrip-tion.The pronunciation lexicon contains a mapping between a given word and a corresponding sequence of phone model labels.During forced alignment,the HTK recognition engine loads the word level transcription and expands this into a recog-nition network,or“lattice”,of phone models using the pronun-ciation dictionary.This lattice is then used to align against the sequence of acoustic parameter vectors.The predominant way to include pronunciation variation within this system is to use multiple entries in the lexicon for the same word.This approach generally suits speech recognition,but in the case of labelling for building a unit selection voice,we could perhaps profit from moreflpleteflexibility is achieved if we compose the phone lattice directly and pass that to the recognition engine.To build the phone lattice for a given prompt sentence,we first lookup each word in the lexicon and convert the phone string to a simplefinite state structure.When a word is not found in the lexicon,we use the CART letter-to-sound rules the final festival voice would use to generate a phone string.Where multiple pronunciations for a word are found,we can combine these into a singlefinite state representation using the union op-eration.Thefinite state machines for the separate words are then concatenated in sequence to give a single representation of the sentence.The topfinite state acceptor(FSA)in Figure 1gives a simplified example of the result of this process for a phrase fragment“...wider economic...”.At this stage,there is little advantage over the standard HTK method,which would internally arrive at the same result.How-ever,once we have a predicted phonetic realisation for a record-ing prompt in afinite state form,it is then straightforward to process this representation further in an elegant and robust way. This is useful to help perform simple tasks,such as splitting stops and affricates into separate symbols for their stop and release parts during forced alignment(done to identify a suit-able concatenation point).More significantly,though,we can also robustly apply more complex context dependent postlex-ical rules,for example optional“r”epenthesis intervocalically across word boundaries for certain British English accents.This is indicated in the bottom FSA of Figure1.This may be conveniently achieved by writing rules in the form of context dependent regular expressions.It is then possi-ble to automatically compile these rules into an equivalentfinite state transducer which can operate on the input lattice which resulted from lexical lookup(e.g.top FSA in Figure1).Sev-eral variations of compilation methods have been previously described to convert a system of handwritten context dependent mapping rules into an equivalent FST machine to perform the transduction,e.g.[6,7,8].Note that the use of context depen-dent modifications is moreflexible and powerful than the stan-dard HTK methods.For example,a standard way to implement optional“r”epenthesis pronunciation variation using a pronun-ciation lexicon alone would be to include multiple entries for “wider”,one of which contains the additional“r”.However,this introduces a number of problems.The most significant problem is the absence of any mechanism to disallow“r”epenthesis in environments where a vowel does not follow.The phonetic lattice alignment code has been implemented as a set of python modules which underlyingly use and extend the MIT Finite State Transducer Toolkit[9].We use CSTR’s Unisyn lexicon[5]to build voices and within the running syn-thesis system.For forced alignment,we use scripts which un-derlying make use of the HTK speech recognition library[10]. Finally,we are planning to make this labelling system publicly available once it reaches a more mature state of development.3.2.Application to EM001voiceSpeaker EM001exhibits a rather careful and deliberate ap-proach to pronunciation during the recordings and uses a rel-atively slow rate of speech.This in fact tends to limit the ap-plicability and usefulness of postlexical rules for the Blizzard Challenge voices somewhat.Postlexical rules are more use-fully applied to the processes of morefluent and rapid connected speech.Thus,in building the three voices for the2007Bliz-zard Challenge,the sole postlexical rule we used was a“tap”rule.Under this rule,alveolar stops in an intervocalic cross word environment could undergo optional transformation to a tap.Specifically,the left phonetic context for this rule com-prised the set of vowels together with/r,l,n/(central and lateral approximants and alveolar nasal stop),while the right context contained just the set of vowels.4.Pitch accent predictionIn this year’s system,we have experimented with a simple pitch accent target cost function component.To use pitch accent pre-diction in the voices built for the Blizzard Challenge required three changes.First,we ran a pitch accent predictor on the textFigure1:Toy examplefinite state phonetic lattices for the phrase fragment“wider economic”:a)after lexical lookup,the lattice encodes multiple pronunciation variants for“economic”b)after additional“r”insertion postlexical rule,the input lattice(top)is modified to allow optional insertion of“r”(instead of short pause“sp”).prompts andflagged words with a predicted accent as such in the voice data structures.Next,at synthesis time,our front end linguistic processor was modified to run the accent predictor on the input sentence to be synthesised,and words with a predicted accent were similarlyflagged.Finally,an additional target cost component compared the values of the pitch accentflag for the word associated with each target vowel and returned a suitable cost depending on whether they match or not.The method for pitch accent prediction we used here is very simple.It is centred on a look-up table of probabilities that a word will be accented,or“accent ratios”,along the lines of the approach described in[11].The accent predictor simply looks up a word in this list.If the word is found and its probability for being accented is less than the threshold of0.28,it is not accented.Otherwise it will receive an accent.These accent ratios are based on the BU Radio Corpus and six Switchboard dialogues.The list contains157words with an accent ratio of less than0.282.The pitch accent target cost component has recently been evaluated in a large scale listening test and was found to be beneficial[12].5.Voice“C”and text selection Entrants to the2007Blizzard Challenge were encouraged to enter a third voice with a voice database size equal to that of the ARCTIC subset,but with a freely selected subset of utterances. The purpose of this voice is to probe the performance of each team’s text selection process,as well as to provide some insight into the suitability of the ARCTIC data set itself.5.1.Text selection processOrdinarily,when designing a prompt set for recording a unit selection voice database,we would seek to avoid longer sen-tences.They are generally harder to read,which means they are more taxing on the speaker and are more likely to slow down the recording process.In this case,however,since the sentences had been recorded already,we decided to relax this constraint.In a simple greedy text selection process,sentences were chosen in an iterative way.First,the diphones present in the EM001text prompts were subcategorised to include certain contextual features.The features we included were lexical stress,pitch accent and proximity to word boundary.Syllable boundary information was not used in the specification of di-phone subtypes.Next,sentences were ranked according to the number of context dependent diphones contained.The top ranking sen-tence was selected,then the ranking of the remaining sentences was recomputed to reflect the diphones now present in the sub-set of selected sentences.Sentences were selected one at a time in this way until the total time of the selected subset reached the 2using the accent ratio table in this way is essentially equivalent to using an(incomplete)list of English function words.count of diphone type in full EM001 setcountofcountsofmissingdiphonetypesFigure2:Histogram of counts of unique context dependent di-phone types present in the full EM001set which are missing from the selected subset used to build for voice“C”.prescribed threshold.This resulted in a subset comprising431 utterances,with a total duration of2908.75seconds.Our definition of context dependent diphones implied a to-tal of6,199distinct diphones with context in the entire EM001 corpus.Our selected subset for voice“C”contained4,660of these,which meant1,539were missing.Figure2shows a his-togram of the missing diphone types in terms of their counts in the full EM001data set.We see that the large majority of the missing diphone types only occur1–5times in the full EM001 dataset.For example,773of the diphone types which are miss-ing from the selected subset only occur once in the full EM001 set,while only one diphone type which is missing occurred as many as26times in the full data set.5.2.Evaluation problemsAlthough it is certainly interesting to compare different text se-lection algorithms against the ARCTIC sentence set,we suggest the way it has been performed this year could potentially con-fuse this comparison.Thefirst issue to which we would like to draw attention concerns the consistency of the recorded speech material throughout the database.The second issue concerns the question of how far the full EM001data set satisfies the se-lection criteria used by arbitrary text selection algorithms.5.2.1.Consistency of recorded utterancesFigures3–5show plots of MFCC parameter means from the EM001database taken in alphabeticalfile ordering.To produceEMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 9t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 3:Mean value for 9th MFCC channel for each file of the EM001voice database.EMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 7t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 4:Mean value for 7th MFCC channel for each file of the EM001voice database.EMOO1 File (alphabetical sorting)m e a n f o r 11t h M F C C c h a n n e lFigure 5:Mean value for 11th MFCC channel for each file of the EM001voice database.these plots we have taken all files in the EM001data set in al-phabetical ordering (along the x-axis)and calculated the mean MFCC parameters 3for each file.In calculating these means,we have omitted the silence at the beginning and end of files us-ing the labelling provided by the force alignment we conducted during voice building.A single selected dimension of this mean vector is then plotted in each of the Figures 3–5.From these figures,we notice that there seem to be three distinct sections of the database,which correspond to the “ARC-TIC”,“BTEC”and “NEWS”file labels as indicated in the plots.Within each of these blocks,the MFCC mean varies randomly,but apparently uniformly so.Between these three sections,however,we observe marked differences.For example,com-pare the distributions of per-file means of the 9th (Fig.3)and 7th (Fig.4)MFCC parameters within the “NEWS”section with those from the other two sections of the database.We naturally expect the MFCC means to vary “randomly”from file to file according to the phonetic content of the utter-ance contained.However,an obvious trend such as that exhib-ited in these plots suggests the influence of something more than phonetic variation alone.Specifically,we suspect this situation has arisen due to the significant difficulty of ensuring consis-tency throughout the many days necessary to record a speech corpus of this size.We have observed similar effects of incon-sistency within other databases,both those we have recorded at CSTR,as well as other commercially recorded databases.Recording a speech corpus over time allows the introduction of variability,with potential sources ranging from the acous-tic recording environment (e.g.microphone placement relative to speaker)to the quality of the speaker’s own voice,which of course can vary over a very short space of time [13].In addi-tion,even the genre and nature of the prompts themselves can influence a speaker’s reading style and voice characteristics.Note that although we do not see any trends within each of the three sections of the EM001data set,and that they appear relatively homogeneous,this does not imply that these subsec-tions are free of the same variability and inconsistency.These plots have been produced by taking the files in alphabetical,and hence numerical,order.But it is not necessarily the case that the files were recorded in this order.In fact,it is likely the file order-ing within the subsections has been randomised which has the effect of disguising inconsistency within the three sections.The inconsistency between the sections is evident purely because the genre identity tag has maintained three distinct groups.Therefore,despite the probable randomisation of file order within sections,we infer from the patterns evident in Figures 3–5that the speech data corresponding to the ARCTIC prompt set was recorded all together,and constitutes a reasonably con-sistent “block”of data.Meanwhile,the rest of the data seems to have been recorded at different times.This introduces in-consistency throughout the database,which a selection algo-rithm based entirely upon text features will not take account of.This means that unless it is explicitly and effectively dealt with by the synthesis system which uses the voice data,both at voice building time (ing cepstral mean normalisation dur-ing forced alignment)and at synthesis time,voice “C”stands a high chance of being disadvantaged by selecting data indis-criminately from inconsistent subsections of the database.The forced alignment labelling may suffer because of the increased variance of the speech data.Unit selection may suffer because the spectral component of the join cost may result in a nonuni-form probability of making joins across sections of the database,compared with the those joins within a single section.This has the effect of “partitioning”the voice database.3extractedusing HTK’s HCopy as part of our force alignment pro-cessing,and also subsequently used in the Multisyn join costThe Multisyn voice building process currently takes ac-count of amplitude inconsistency,and attempts waveform power normalisation on a per-utterance basis.However,other sources of inconsistency,most notably spectral inconsistency are not currently addressed.This means that Multisyn voice “C”is potentially affected by database inconsistency,which in-troduces uncertainty and confusion in any comparison between voices“B”and“C”.Within the subset of431sentences we se-lected to build voice“C”,261came from the“NEWS”section, 169came from the“BTEC”section,and the remaining36came from the“ARCTIC”section.This issue of inconsistency can potentially affect the com-parison between the“C”voices from different entrants.For example,according to our automatic phonetic transcriptions of the EM001sentence set,the minimum number of phones con-tained in a single sentence within the“NEWS”section is52. Meanwhile,the“BTEC”section contains1,374sentences with less than52phones.Although we have not done so here,it is not unreasonable for a text selection strategy to favour short sentences,in which case a large majority may be selected from the“BTEC”section.This would result in avoiding the large discontinuity we observe in Figures3and4and could poten-tially confer an advantage which is in fact unrelated to the text selection algorithm per se.The problem has the potential,however,to introduce most confusion into the comparison between entrants’voices“B”and “C”,as there is most likely to be a bias in favour of the ARCTIC subset,which seems to have been recorded as a single block. We suggest there are at least two ways of avoiding this bias in future challenges.One way would be to provide a database without the inconsistency we observe here,for example through post-processing.This is likely to be rather difficult to realise, and our own previous attempts have failed tofind a satisfactory solution,although[14]reported some success.A second,sim-pler way would be to record the set of ARCTIC sentences ran-domly throughout the recording of a future Blizzard Challenge corpus.5.2.2.Selection criteria coverageThe second problem inherent in attempting to compare text se-lection processes in this way arises from differing selection cri-teria.It is usual to choose text selection criteria(i.e.which di-phone context features to consider)which complement the syn-thesis system’s target cost function.Hence the criteria may vary between systems.The set of ARCTIC sentences was selected from a very large amount of text,and so the possibility for the algorithm to reach its optimal subset in terms of the selection criteria it used is maximised.In contrast,the text selection required for voice “C”was performed on a far smaller set of sentences.Although, admittedly,it is likely to be phonetically much richer than if the same number of sentences had been selected randomly from a large corpus,it is possible that the initial set of sentences does not contain a sufficient variety of material to satisfy the selec-tion criteria of arbitrary text selection systems.This again may tend to accord an inherent advantage to voice“B”.6.ConclusionWe have introduced two new features of the Multisyn unit selec-tion system.We have also raised issues for discussion concern-ing the comparison of voices built with differing subsets of the provided data.Finally,we note that,as in previous years,par-ticipating in this Blizzard Challenge has proved both interesting and useful.7.AcknowledgmentsKorin Richmond is currently supported by EPSRC grant EP/E027741/1.Many thanks to Lee Hetherington for making the MITFST toolkit available under a BSD-style license,and for other technical guidance.Thanks to A.Nenkova for process-ing the Blizzard text prompts for pitch accent prediction.8.References[1]R.A.J.Clark,K.Richmond,and S.King,“Multisyn:Open-domain unit selection for the Festival speech syn-thesis system,”Speech Communication,vol.49,no.4,pp.317–330,2007.[2]R.Clark,K.Richmond,V.Strom,and S.King,“Multisyn voice for the Blizzard Challenge2006,”in Proc.Blizzard Challenge Workshop(Inter-speech Satellite),Pittsburgh,USA,Sept.2006, (/blizzard/blizzard2006.html).[3]R.A.Clark,K.Richmond,and S.King,“Multisyn voicesfrom ARCTIC data for the Blizzard challenge,”in Proc.Interspeech2005,Sept.2005.[4]J.Kominek and A.Black,“The CMU ARCTIC speechdatabases,”in5th ISCA Speech Synthesis Workshop,Pitts-burgh,PA,2004,pp.223–224.[5]S.Fitt and S.Isard,“Synthesis of regional English usinga keyword lexicon,”in Proc.Eurospeech’99,vol.2,Bu-dapest,1999,pp.823–826.[6]M.Mohri and R.Sproat,“An efficient compiler forweighted rewrite rules,”in Proc.34th annual meeting of Association for Computational Linguistics,1996,pp.231–238.[7]R.Kaplan and M.Kay,“Regular models of phonologicalrule systems,”Computational Linguistics,vol.20,no.3, pp.331–378,Sep1994.[8]L.Karttunen,“The replace operator,”in Proc.33th an-nual meeting of Association for Computational Linguis-tics,1995,pp.16–23.[9]L.Hetherington,“The MITfinite-state transducer toolkitfor speech and language processing,”in Proc.ICSLP, 2004.[10]S.Young,G.Evermann,D.Kershaw,G.Moore,J.Odell,D.Ollason,D.Povey,V.Valtchev,and P.Woodland,TheHTK Book(for HTK version3.2),Cambridge University Engineering Department,2002.[11]J.Brenier,A.Nenkova,A.Kothari,L.Whitton,D.Beaver,and D.Jurafsky,“The(non)utility of linguistic features for predicting prominence on spontaneous speech,”in IEEE/ACL2006Workshop on Spoken Language Technol-ogy,2006.[12]V.Strom,A.Nenkova,R.Clark,Y.Vazquez-Alvarez,J.Brenier,S.King,and D.Jurafsky,“Modelling promi-nence and emphasis improves unit-selection synthesis,”in Proc.Interspeech,Antwerp,2007.[13]H.Kawai and M.Tsuzaki,“Study on time-dependentvoice quality variation in a large-scale single speaker speech corpus used for speech synthesis,”in Proc.IEEE Workshop on Speech Synthesis,2002,pp.15–18. [14]Y.Stylianou,“Assessment and correction of voice qualityvariabilities in large speech databases for concatentative speech synthesis,”in Proc.ICASSP-99,Phoenix,Arizona, Mar.1999,pp.377–380.。

雅思IELTS口语考试五种语调表达技巧雅思（IELTS）口语考试五种语调表达技巧口语语调作为发音特征之一，在雅思口语评分标准中是很重要的部分。

一个好的语调，能帮助大家更好地拿到雅思口语高分。

所谓语调(intonation)，即说话的腔调，就是一句话里声调(pitch)高低抑扬轻重的配制和变化。

世界上没有一种语言是用单一的声调说出的，以英语为例，英语有五种基本语调：升调(↗)、降调(↙)、升降调(∧)、降升调(∨)以及平调(→)。

一句话除了词汇意义(lexical meaning)还有语调意义(intonation meaning)。

所谓词汇意义就是话中所用词的意义，而语调意义就是说话人用语调所表示的态度或口气。

一句话的词汇意义加上语调意义才算是完全的意义。

同样的句子，语调不同，意思就会不同，有时甚至会相差千里。

请看下例：1) A：Jean, can you bring me the newspaper?B：Sorry?(↗)Jean用升调说“Sorry”，其意思是“I didn't hear you. Could you say that again, please?”我们再看下句：2) A：Jean, can you bring me the newspaper?B：Sorry.(↙)在对话2中，Jean用降调说“Sorry”，显然其意思是拒绝帮助或无能为力。

英语中的语调规则主要可以归纳为以下几种情况：(1)陈述句、特殊疑问句、命令祈使句和感叹句用降调;(2)一般疑问句和婉转祈使句用升调;(3)选择疑问句、列举事物、以状语(从句)开头和宾语从句的主句用升降调;(4)反意疑问句用降升调;(5)主语前状语(从句)后和并列连词前后成分用降降调。

在实际中，你常常会自觉地运用好各种语调来表达你的情感，比如说你想让淘气的孩子跟着你出去，就会用“降凋”的肯定的语气说到“Come with me!”;如果你还没有确定对方是否和你出去吃饭，就可以用“升调”问到“Come with me?”，表示“和我出去怎么样啊”这种“试探性”的语气;细细体会起来，“场合用什么语调”还真是很自然的事情。

岳阳市2024届高三教学质量监测（二）英语试卷时量：120分钟；满分：150分。

注意事项：1. 本试卷分为四部分，共12页。

2. 答题前，考生务必将自己的姓名，准考证号与校名填写在答题卡的相应位置。

3. 全部答案在答题卡上完成，答在本试卷上无效。

第一部分听力（共两节，满分30分）第一节（共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分）听下面5段对话。

每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。

听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。

每段对话仅读一遍。

1. What does the man want to do?A. Admire the scenery.B. Have a rest.C. Continue walking.2. What’s the probable relationship between the speakers?A. Professor and student.B. Interviewer and interviewee.C. Doctor and patient.3. What is the woman’s attitude to the man’s words?A. Negative.B. Unclear.C. Favorable.4. What do we learn about the woman?A. She cooled herself down by a fan.B. She wants to buy an air conditioner.C. She is more sensitive to hot weather than the man.5. Which drink is probably unavailable in the party?A. White wine.B. Beer.C. Orange juice.第二节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面5段对话或独白。

Rules of Word Stress in English There are two very simple rules about word stress:1.One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have twostresses. If you hear two stresses, you hear two words. Twostresses cannot be one word. It is true that there can be a"secondary" stress in some words. But a secondary stress ismuch smaller than the main [primary] stress, and is only used in long words.)2.We can only stress vowels, not consonants.Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can help you understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on them too much, because there are many exceptions. It is better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the stress naturally.1 Stress on first syllable2 Stress on last syllableThere are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and class change with a change in stress. The word present, for example is a two-syllable word. If we stress the first syllable, it is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent). But if we stress the second syllable, it becomes a verb (to offer). More examples: thewords export, import, contract and object can all be nouns or verbs depending on whether the stress is on the first or second syllable.3 Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from end)For a few words, native English speakers don't always "agree" on where to put the stress. For example, some peoplesay teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another exampleis:CONtroversy and conTROversy.4 Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate = third from end)5 Compound words (words with two parts)Here are the main principles that determine how words are stressed or accentuated in English.This list of rules is not complete, but it does explain where to place the mainaccent in the majority of words in English.Can you designate the tonic syllable (main stress) in these words which all obey the rules?Britain,England,Edinburgh,region, regional, economic, to complain, community, to refuse, considering.Examples:•SAMples•CARton•COlorful•RAInyExamples:•reLAX•recEIVE•diRECT•aMONG•aSIDE•beTWEEN•About 80% or so of two-syllable words get their stress on the first syllable.•There are of course, exceptions to this rule, but very few nouns and adjectives get stress on their second syllable.•Verbs and prepositions usually get stress placed on the second syllable, but there are exceptions to this too.For three syllable words, look at the word ending (the suffix), using the following as your guide.For words ending with the suffixes er, or, or ly, the stress is placed on the first syllable.Examples:If there is a word that ends in a consonant or in a y, then the first syllable gets the stress.Examples:T ake a good look at the list of suffixes below (suffixes are word endings).Your stress is going to come on the syllable right before the suffix. This applies to words of all syllable lengths.Examples:1.able: ADDable, ARable, DURable2.ary: PRIMary, DIary, liBRary3.cial: juDIcial, nonSOcial4.cian: muSIcian, phySIcian, cliNICian5.ery: BAkery, SCENery6.graphy: calLIgraphy, bibliOgraphy, stenOgraphy7.ial: celesTIal, iniTIal, juDICial8.ian: coMEdian, ciVILian, techNIcian9.ible: viSIble, terRIble, reSIstible10.ic: arCHAic, plaTOnic, synTHEtic11.ical: MAgical, LOgical, CRItical12.ics: diaBEtics, paediAtrics13.ion: classifiCAtion, repoSItion, vegeTAtion14.ity: imMUnity, GRAvity, VAnity15.ium: HElium, ALUminum, PREmium16.imum: MInimum, MAXimum, OPtimum17.logy: BIology, CARdiology, RAdiology18.tal: caPItal, biCOAstal, reCItalWords that use the suffix ee, ese, eer, ique or ette, have the primary stress actually placed on the suffix.This applies to words of all syllable lengths.Examples:1.ee: agrEE, jamborEE, guarantEE2.eer: sightsEER, puppetEER3.ese: SiamESE, JapanESE, cheESE4.ette: cassETTE, CorvETTE, towelETTE5.ique: unIQUE, physIQUEUsually, prefixes do not take the stress of a word.There are a few exceptions to this rule, however, like: un, in, pre, ex and mis, which are all stressed in their prefix.Examples:1.ex: EXample, EXplanation, EXamine2.in: INside, INefficient, INterest3.mis: MISspoke, MIStake, MISspelled4.pre: PREcede, PREarrange, PREliminaryYou put stress on the second syllable from the end of the word, with words ending in ic, sion and tion.Examples:•iCONic•hyperTENsion•nuTRItionYou put stress on the third from end syllable with words that end in cy, ty,phy, gy and al.Examples:•demoCRAcy•TREAty•geOGraphy•ALlergy•NAUtical11. Word stress for compound wordsA. Compound nouna compound noun, the first word usually takes on the stress.Examples:•SEAfood•ICEland•TOOTHpasteOften, hyphens are used in compound adjectives. In compound adjectives, the stress is placed within the second word.Examples:•ten-MEter•rock-SOlid•fifteen-MInutesecond or on the last part.Examples:•Matilda loves bread but deTESTS butter.•Sarah baked cookies and ATE them up.•Dogs love to eat bones and love DRINking water.noun, the stress is on the first word.Examples:•AIRplane mechanic•PROject manager•BOARDroom memberIn phrasal verbs, the second word gets the stress (the preposition). Examples:•Black OUT•break DOWN•look OUTSpain, Google.The second word is always the one that takes the stress Examples:•North DAKOTA•Mr. SMITH•Apple INCORPORATEDThe second syllable usually takes the stress.Examples:•mySELF•themSELVES•ourSELVESIf the number is a multiple of ten, the stress is placed on the first syllable.Examples:•TEN•FIFty•ONEhundredWord stress and dictionariesDictionaries are great tools for learning word stress.For every word, the dictionary indicates where the stress goes, for example by placing an apostrophe before the stress.T ake a look at your dictionary to find out how your dictionary indicates word stress.Word Stress in EnglishWord stress is your magic key to understanding spoken English. Native speakers of English use word stress naturally. Word stress is so natural for them that they don't even know they use it. Non-native speakers who speak English to native speakers without using word stress, encounter two problems:1.They find it difficult to understand native speakers, especially those speaking fast.2.The native speakers may find it difficult to understand them.To understand word stress, it helps to understand syllables. Every word is made from syllables. Each word has one, two, three or more syllables.vowel (a, e, i, o or u) or vowel sound.What is Word Stress?In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we accentuate ONE syllable. We say one syllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the other syllables very quietly.Let's take 3 words: photograph, photographer and photographic. Do they sound the same when spoken? No. Because we accentuate (stress) ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always the same syllable. So the shape of each word is different.This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETeraThe syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet. Native speakers of English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English - on the radio, or in films for example. Your first step is to HEAR and recognise it. After that, you can USE it!There are two very important rules about word stress:1.One word, one stress.(One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear twostresses, you have heard two words, not one word.)2.The stress is always on a vowel.Why is Word Stress Important?Word stress is not used in all languages. Some languages, Japanese or French for example, pronounce each syllable with eq-ual em-pha-sis. Other languages, English for example, use word stress.Word stress is not an optional extra that you can add to the English language if you want. It is part of the language! English speakers use word stress to communicate rapidly and accurately, even in difficult conditions. If, for example, you do not hear a word clearly, you can still understand the word because of the position of the stress.Think again about the two words photograph and photographer. Now imagine that you are speaking to somebody by telephone over a very bad line. You cannot hear clearly. In fact, you hear only the first two syllables of one of these words, photo...Which word is it, photograph or photographer? Of course, with word stress you will know immediately which word it is because in reality you will hear either PHOto... or phoTO...So without hearing the whole word, you probably know what the word is ( PHOto...graph or phoTO...grapher). It's magic! (Of course, you also have the 'context' of your conversation to help you.)This is a simple example of how word stress helps us understand English. There are many, many other examples, because we use word stress all the time, without thinking about it.Where do I Put Word Stress?There are some rules about which syllable to stress. But...the rules are rather complicated! Probably the best way to learn is from experience. Listen carefully to spoken English and try to develop a feeling for the "music" of the language. When you learn a new word, you should also learn its stress pattern. If you keep a vocabulary book, make a note to show which syllable is stressed. If you do not know, you can look in a dictionary. All dictionaries give the phonetic spelling of a word. This is where they show which syllable is stressed, usually with an apostrophe (') just before or just after the stressed syllable. (The notes at the front of the dictionary will explain the system used.) Look at (and listen to) this example for the word plastic. There are 2 syllables. Syllable #1 is stressed.Rules of Word Stress in EnglishThere are two very simple rules about word stress:1.One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. If you hear twostresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one word. It is true that there can be a "secondary" stress in some words. But a secondary stress is much smallerthan the main [primary] stress, and is only used in long words.)2.We can only stress vowels, not consonants.Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can help you understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on them too much, because there are many exceptions. It is better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the stress naturally.1 Stress on first syllable2 Stress on last syllableThere are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and class change with a change in stress. The word present, for example is a two-syllable word. If westress the first syllable, it is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent). But if we stress the second syllable, it becomes a verb (to offer). More examples: the words export, import, contract and object can all be nouns or verbs depending on whether the stress is on the first or second syllable.3 Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from end)For a few words, native English speakers don't always "agree" on where to put the stress. For example, some people say teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another example is: CONtroversy and conTROversy.4 Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate = third from end)5 Compound words (words with two parts)ENGLISH WORD STRESS - MAIN RULESA few explanations before starting:•An asterisk * means that the form proposed at the right of this symbol is not acceptable.• A capital V stands for Vowel and a capital C for Consonant.•/0/ symbolizes an unstressed syllable, /1/ the primary stress and /2/ the secondary stress.•The forms written between this type of brackets <…> represent the spelling of a word or a piece of word. Hence, <-ate>means “words ended with the lettersmentioned between these brackets”.•In this abridged course, a bold cha racter or bold chain of cha racters means that this part of the word bears a primary or a secondary stress. The usual symbolswill be used in the full course.•/01/ the primary stress and /2/ the secondary stress.IMPORTANT:The rules proposed here are not complete in this abridged course which shows the main tendencies only. There may be other cases which will be explained in class in the unabridged course.In fo reign, the first three letters are not a German prefix but are part of the word, whereas in for get, <for > is an unstressed strong prefix. For example, it may be replaced by another prefix such as <be > in be get, a verb which can be found in the English version of the Bible: and he be gat…I.- PRIMARY STRESS:1 A°) Normal Stress Rule:(code/10/): fo reign , moun tain, le gal, …b) Three-syllable words are normally stressed on the first syllable (code /100/): cha racter, fa mily, …c) Words of more than three syllables are normally stressed on the antepenultimate (code /-100/) and may need a secondary stress (see section II below): o ri ginal, curi o sity, … (unless a strong suffix assigns the primary stress to the penultimate as in cha racteri za tion /200010/, po pulari za tion /200010/, or elsewhere as in cha racte ris tically /20010(0)0/ where one strong suffix is followed by two weak suffixes).1 B°) Main classes of exceptions for two-syllable words /01/:a) Words beginning with a Latin or Germanic prefix : re mind, de cide, ex cept... ; a bout, be hind, for get...b) Verbs ending in <-ate> : cre ate, frus trate, tran slate...2°) Retrieving the original word (= the deriving word)To calculate the main stress of longer words, you must first remove any "weak" suffix, and then count from the end.The principal weak suffixes, added to words without modifying the stress of the stem, are:a)grammatical suffixes such as <-ed>, <-en>, <-ing>, <-(e)s>, <-er>, <-est>…b)agent suffixes such as <-er>,<-or>, <-ist>, …c)any suffix beginning with a C (= Consonant) such as <-ful>, <-less>, <-ness>, <-ment>, <-ly>,…3A°) Words of three or more syllables are normally stressed on the antepenultimate (code /100/ or /-100/)a) Three-syllable words are normally stressed on the first syllable (code /100/): cha racter, fa mily, …b) Words of more than three syllables are normally stressed on the antepenultimate (code /-100/) and may need a secondary stress (see section II below)3B°) Main classes of exceptions:a) Words ending in <-ic> (code/ 10/): ec cen tric, sym bo lic, ca tas tro phic,…(CAUTION: a few words, which are not derived adjectives, are stressed according to the "Normal" Stress Rule (code /100/ or / 100/) and must be learnt by heart: A rabic,a ri thmetic, ar senic, Ca tholic, he retic, lu natic, po litics, rhe toric)b) Verbs ending in <-ish> / 10/: de mo lish, di mi nish, ex tin guish...c) Words ending in <-ion>, or more generally in V{i/e/u}V(C)# [or -iV(C)# , -eV(C)# or -uV(C)#], have their main stress on the syllable immediately preceding the ending (code/ 10/): e du ca tion, co lo nial, a tro cious, ad van ta geous, con spi*cuous, re si dual, ra tio…Please note:The # symbol means that this is the end of the word (after all the suffixes have been removed). II.- SECONDARY STRESS :1°) Whenever two or more syllables precede the main stress, there must be a secondary stress2°) When ONLY two syllables precede the main stress, the secondary stress falls on the first:as in: ma the ma tics /2010/, e du ca tion /2010/, per spi ca city /20100/,...This can be summed up thus: (code /201/)3°) When more than two syllables precede the main stress (code */00 /), consult the nearest deriving form (= the root word)The main stress of the deriving form becomes the secondary stress of the derivedcha racter /100/ -> cha racte ris tic /20010/;e ra dicate /0100/ -> e ra di ca tion /02010/...Ce cours est une refonte d'un document aimablement prêté par Ruth Huart que je remercie pour sa générosité. Bien évidemment, les erreurs qui pourraient subsister sont les miennes. SiD'avance merci.Article mis en ligne le 20 octobre 2005.。

How to Sell Your English Skills and Put On a Show Every Time You SpeakEverybody is a salesperson –even if you’re not aware of it.If you’re looking for a new job, you’re going to attend quite a few job interviews trying to do your best to sell your skill set and experience.When you’re meeting a potential partner you’re automatically putting on a performance to show yourself off –you’re essentially selling yourself just like any professional marketer would sell a product or a service. By concealing the downsides and emphasizing the advantages you’re increasing your chances of having the edge over your rivals, right?Same goes with nearly every other aspect of your life whenever you’re doing something that may possibly work to your benefit.When you’r e cooking for your family –you’re selling your cooking skills.When you’re being professional and nice to a customer on the phone –you’re selling your customer service skills in order to remain in high estimation among the management of your company and earn promotion in the future.But here’s the thing– and every good marketer is going to confirm this –it’s very important HOW you sell it; you will outdo your competition 9 times out of 10 even if what you sell isn’t as good as your competitor’s!You may not be a professional cook, yet if you’ve served the food nicely and used enough spices, it may be just as tasty as what your partner cooks.Use Body Language To Project A Confident ImageAll else being equal, you’ll come across as a more entertaining and eloquent English speaker if you use plenty of gestures to emphasize the main points of your speech. You can use your hands to help you to explain nearly everything – starting from technical things like describing how a particular machine works and ending with helping your conversation partner to understand abstract concepts.Many of you would be naturally good communicators and using body language would be a second nature to you. Some of you, on the other hand, would be slightly more introvert by nature and that might show even more when you communicate with English speakers. You know –there’s always a chance you’ll make an odd mistake, or hesitate, or won’t be able to put your thoughts into the right words and that in turn may make you freeze up and get stuck in the middle of your speech.If it ever happens to you – try to use your hand gestures to send a message to your conversation partner that you’re not confused and left in a state of flux. And on top of using your hands, use simple hesitation filler phrases such as “What do you call it…”, “You see…”, “You know…”to indicate that whatever words you’re looking for have just slipped your mind and that it’s got nothing to do with you being unable to speak proper English.Hand gestures isn’t the end of it all, of course – you should engage your facial features as well as the whole body to give away an image of a confident person. Smile even if you feel grumpy and keep your hands in the region of your chest or belly ready to gesticulate to create an impression of being active and involved.Don’t stand with your arms folded or clasped behind your back as this will make you look arrogant or unsure of yourself. Remember –people will perceive what you have to say depending on how they see you！f you come across as a friendly andeasy-going person, the communication is also going to be more effective and your conversation partner is going to be more open!Use Smart English Phrases To ImpressYour Conversation PartnersYou don’t need to be academically educated in English philology to come across as a very fluent English speaker. Quite often the trick is to say the right thing at the right time, and that’s when knowing a handful of phrases may be even more useful than a large vocabulary of sophisticated, very formal English words.Phrases like “it puts things in perspective”, “at the end of the day”, “regardless of what happens” and similar can be used in so many different situations that each of them is worth much more than just the words contained within it.For instance, you can use the phrase “Yes, it really puts things in perspective” whenever somebody tells you a shocking story about some sort of a natural disaster having happened somewhere on the planet. That one phrase says so much – it proves that you understood what was being told to you, it shows you’re a compassionate person, and it also confirms you’re a person worthy discussing interesting topics with.I’m not saying you can become a fluent English speaker by learning a handful of English phrases, speaking fluent English entails an awful lot more than that!Nevertheless, if you use smart English phrases in conversations to help you make your point and make it easier to get the message across, your estimation in the eyes of others will definitely go up and you’ll be selling yourself as a foreign English speaker properly!Stress Your Strengths And Conceal Your Weaknesses Just Like In A Job Interview!The above statement is true in every aspect of life including successful communication with other English speakers – both foreign and native. A lot of times success of the outcome of your conversation with another English speaker will depend on how well you conducted the conversation and also how confident you were as a person.So if you have any weaknesses – such as making certain mistakes when speaking English – try not to make them and also think of ways to eliminate them.Let’s say, you’re aware that you have a tendency to speak very fast and mispronouncing words is a frequent occurrence when you’re involved in a conversation – especially with strangers. Now, you should make a conscious effortto slow your speech down every time you feel a bit agitated and also make sure you pronounce words clearly by cont rolling your mouth movements and don’t get carried away by desire to sound like a native speaker and speak super fast.If you know that you’re prone to making certain grammar mistakes –use shorter sentences. Why bother with trying to create super long grammar constructs and possibly get stuck while trying to do so if you can say it simpler and sound just as fluent?Maybe your strength on a particular occasion is having valuable information that your conversation partner would want to hear and you can use it to raise your stocks– so make it your priority instead of trying to be a 100% perfect with your English grammar constructs. And believe me –if the person you’re chatting with is really into it, they won’t even notice many of your mistakes so that’s not really at issue at that given moment!You see – the problem quite often is that foreign English speakers try PROVING the opposite instead of using their strengths and concealing their weaknesses.They kind of think –“this time I’m really going to impress him with how fas t I can speak, and I know I can do it!” And then they start mispronouncing words and getting stuck for words, and communication might not be as successful as it would have been if they played their cards right!OK, it’s about time to wrap it up and I hope you gained some valuable insights into how to sell yourself properly when speaking English. Force yourself to be polite and smile even if you don’t feel like it, loosen up your body and use gestures to make your verbal presentation more visual, and also do n’t fall for the same mistakes you’ve been making all along!The Illusion of Elsewhere – How to Clear Your Mind and Achieve Complete English Fluency in 4 Easy StepsI love reading English fiction and there are some books I’ve re-read many times because they’ve helped me to grasp very important concepts.One of my favorite fictional characters, for instance –Skilgannon the Damned– is at his best when it comes to fighting when he slips into a special state of mind called the Illusion of Elsewhere. Basically his mind wanders and he allows his body to relax. Surprisingly, this state of mind doe sn’t make him less of a fighter; it’s actually quite the contrary–by clearing his mind he actually heightens his senses and allows his body to do the fighting automatically.So the key is to allow a process that’s been practiced for years to happen witho ut much of conscious consideration thus eliminating any emotional restraints that might hinder your performance.Over the years I’ve come to realize the very same applies when you engage in English conversations– which essentially is quite an automatic pr ocess that you’ve been practicing for years. The only difference is that your mouth and lips have to do the verbal fighting instead of your arms and legs beating the living daylights out of some villain!Step 1 – Visualize Your Mind Being EmptiedIt’s not as difficult as you may think at first – all you have to do to is adopt a comfortable posture for a few moments and slow down your breathing a little. You may also want to close your eyes while you perform this part of the whole process because it definitely helps with calming down and also with the subsequent visualization.It’s really not that hard –and you don’t even need to lie down or adopt a seated posture. Skilgannon the Damned could slip into the Illusion of Elsewhere while walking and preparing for a combat, so would you not be capable of the same while preparing for a conversation with someone?Basically you have to take a few deep breaths, close your eyes, and visualize your mind being stuffed with hundreds of different English words, phrases and sentences. Then, force yourself to imagine all that jumble pouring out of your mind and crystal clear oxygen filling your head instead. So after those 10 – 20 seconds of visualization you should have a picture in your mind’s eye of your head being completely empty.And once again –it may sound quite an advanced meditation technique if you’ve never done any type of visualization or meditation in your life. It becomes quite an easy task, however, if you do it a couple times so please don’t let your insecurities hold you back. Just do it!Step 2 – Let Go of All Psychological InhibitionsYou just cleared your mind visually, but now I want you to get rid of all emotions that you might be experiencing at this particular moment. It’s quite important because our behavior and also interpersonal communication is governed largely by our emotions and to achieve a state of complete English fluency you need to remain as emotionally unaffected as possible.Of course I’m not going to lie to you telling that this step is very easy. If it were very easy to switch off certain emotions there wouldn’t be any depressed or unhappy people around! The secret of success, however, is persistence and perseverance. The more you try to forget about your own insecurities, the better you get at it, and eventually you will achieve a state of mind when you just forget about those emotions for a while.If you’re excited about something that happened or is about to happen – tell yourself it’s not important RIGHT NOW.If you’re angry with someone or yourself for whatever reason – tell yourself you ACCEPT IT and let it go.If you’re afraid of the conversation you’re expecting, tell yourself you’ll forget a bout it soon after anyway –so there’s no need to worry about it NOW.If you often feel looked down on by those English speakers who are morewell-spoken and eloquent, tell yourself you just DO N’T CARE about others’ behavior and their opinion.In other words, whatever emotions you might be experiencing at this moment, try to quell them and not to think about them. There’s just crystal clear oxygen filling your mind and you’re totally uninhibited.Step 3 – Stop Paying Attention to Your Own SpeechYou’re ready to speak now, my friend! All that knowledge, all those English words, phrases, sentences, grammar forms and tenses are going to come out of your mouth and be heard by your conversation partner.Now, the trick is to retain the relaxed and calm state of mind and speak without ANY conscious consideration as to HOW you’re going to s ay whatever it is that you’re about to say.The reason is quite simple – your subconscious mind stores your active English vocabulary and spoken English patterns the same way your muscles would be conditioned to perform certain moves while fighting. Of cou rse, it’s your mouth that has to do all the talking –not your mind, therefore it’s quite understandable that you won’t be able to deliver the same English content that you’d write on a piece of paper, for instance, because when writing you can take extra time for planning the best way of saying a certain thing.But Skilgannon the Damned didn’t have time to prepare for an attack either, my friend, so I’d say you’re in a better position anyway because you don’t risk being hacked to pieces!Basically you have to allow your mouth do the talking and stay emotionally unaffected by whatever might be happening while you have that conversation. You might be making mistakes, the person you’re speaking with might be making stupid comments, but you still have to stay in your own world. It’s not always 100% possible, but you have to aim for it.Whenever you feel you’re failing, tell yourself –“I’m letting this go, it’s not important to me at all!”On top of that, you have to make sure not to pay attention to how you speak because the moment you start analyzing your own speech you run the risk of overloading your brain and you may start making an awful lot more mistakes and even get tongue-tied.So try to speak not too fast to get mixed up, and try to get fully involved into the actual conversation by focusing entirely on the matter at hand.Step 4 – Stop Making Effort to Recall Certain Wordsand PhrasesOver the years you definitely must have noticed that when you want to recall something badly, you just can’t remember it no matter how hard you try! You must have had moments when you just can’t remember a name of an actor or a music band, and the same goes with speaking English. You may be trying to recall a certain English word, but it has slipped your mind and you just can’t jog your memory!If you keep trying to make your speech perfect and use the best fitting words by all means, you risk knocking yourself out of the balanced mental state you’ve achieved going through steps 1 – 3. You may start getting too frustrated to retain the emotional harmony and then you may get very conscious of your own speech and that’s the last thing you want!If you want to retain the clearness of your mind and ability to deliver instant, automatic English speech, you just need to allow your mouth to use words that cross your mind as you speak; just say whatever comes to your mind first! Probably the most important thing you should bear in mind is that you should never be embarrassed to use simple language. The more sophisticated vocabulary you’re using, the more conscious consideration you have to give to what you’re saying and subsequently you risk becoming very conscious of your own speech again.Remember, the whole point of this particular exercise is to experience a state of mind where your head is emptied of all intrusive thoughts and you enjoy a conversation with an English speaker with a complete focus on the topic of the conversation.You have to allow your mouth to speak on its own the same way Skilgannon the Damned allowed his body reflexes to take over his conscious mind when fighting because that’s when it reaches its top performance!* * *This particular technique of developing your ability to speak English naturally and freely can be effectively used as part of your English fluency management. You maynot be able to achieve the perfect Illusion of Elsewhere during a conversation when you try it for the first time, and you may even find it difficult after a good number of attempts.Still, you have to remember that even when you just do your best and achieve SOME improvement in terms of managing your English fluency, it’s still much better than doing nothing and keeping struggling when you have to engage in English conversations!。

疯狂英语口语绝招第六招冷静的你疯狂英语口语绝招第六招冷静的你Calmness理性，是现代人不可或缺的基本素质。

面对错综复杂的问题，置身变动不已的环境，让我们按捺骚动和激情，发挥理智与冷静。

“你越是为解决问题而努力，你就越变得急躁，在错误的思路中陷得越深，也越难摆脱痛苦”( The more you fight something, the more anxious you become-the more you're involved in a bad pattern, the more difficult it is to escape. )。

Key Words关键词calm, control, cool, level-headed, reasonable, relaxedThe Most Common Expressions最常用表达法Don't lose your head!不要昏了头!Calm down. Keep your hat on!冷静一点，别发火!It's nothing to be surprised about. Don't make such a big deal out of it.这事不值得大惊小怪，不要小题大做。

It's no wonder. There's no point in making a big fuss about it.那不足为奇，没必要对此大惊小怪。

No need to shout! Please try to control yourself.没必要大喊大叫，请克制自己。

Don't get carried away! Be a little more levelheaded.不要忘乎所以!冷静一点。

Take your time. We're in no hurry.慢慢来，不用着急。

办公室英语面试保持冷静口语面试要保持冷静核心句型：Keepyourshirton.保持冷静Keepyourshirton直译过来就是“好好地穿着衬衫别脱下来”，这个短语的真正意思是“保持冷静，沉住气”。

因此当美国人说:"Keepyourshirton."时，他要表达的意思就是："Takeiteasy."、"Holdyourhorses."、"Calmdown."。

情景对白：Terry:I'mgoingtohaveaface-to-faceinterviewwiththechairmaninhalfanhour.Ifeelsonervous.Wha tshallIdo.泰瑞：还有半个小时，总裁就要亲自面试我了。

好紧张啊，我该怎么办啊?Benjamin:Don'tworry!Keepyourshirton.本杰明：别担心!保持冷静就可以了。

搭配句积累：①Theinterviesupsetsme.这场面试弄得我坐立不安。

②Ifeelverynervousatthetho ughtofseeingtheinterviewerrigh tnow.一想到马上要面试，我就很紧张。

③IalwaysbecomequiteincoherentasIcometoanswertheintervie wer'squestion.一开始回答面试官的问题，我就变得语无伦次。

④Idon'twanttotakethisinterviewanymore.I'mscared我不想参加这场面试了，我害怕。

单词：1.face-to-face面对面的，直接的，无可回避的Nowtheonlyface-to-faceobstaclethatchallengethetiebetweenChinaandJapanliesinth esamllIsland.2.atthethoughtofsomething一想到，就;Ifeelveryangryagainstanymilitarismatthethoughtofourhisto ryofinvasion.一想到祖国被侵略的历史，我就对军国主义产生不可遏制的愤怒。

克服发音问题的更好方法英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Overcoming pronunciation issues is a common challenge for English language learners. Whether you are a beginner or an advanced learner, mastering pronunciation can greatly enhance your communication skills and boost your confidence in speaking English. In this article, I will discuss some effective methods to improve your pronunciation and help you sound more like a native speaker.First and foremost, it is essential to pay attention to the sounds of the English language. English has a wide range of vowel and consonant sounds that may not exist in your native language. One way to familiarize yourself with these sounds is to listen to native speakers and practice mimicking their pronunciation. You can use online resources such as YouTube videos, podcasts, or language learning apps to help you identify and replicate the correct sounds.Another helpful tip is to practice phonetic transcriptions. Phonetic transcriptions provide a written representation of thesounds in a word, making it easier for you to understand and produce the correct pronunciation. You can find phonetic transcriptions in dictionaries or online pronunciation guides. By practicing phonetic transcriptions regularly, you can improve your pronunciation and reduce the likelihood of making pronunciation errors.Furthermore, practicing tongue twisters is a fun and effective way to improve your pronunciation skills. Tongue twisters are phrases that contain similar sounds or sequences of sounds that are challenging to pronounce quickly. By practicing tongue twisters regularly, you can improve your enunciation, fluency, and overall pronunciation. Some popular tongue twisters include "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" and "She sells seashells by the seashore."In addition to practicing pronunciation exercises, it is important to focus on stress and intonation patterns in English. Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables or words in a sentence, while intonation refers to the rising and falling pitch patterns used in speech. By mastering stress and intonation, you can sound more natural and fluid when speaking English. You can practice stress and intonation by listening to how nativespeakers emphasize certain words and phrases in a sentence and trying to replicate their intonation patterns.Another helpful tip is to practice speaking English regularly with native speakers or language exchange partners. Engaging in conversations with native speakers can help you improve your pronunciation, vocabulary, and overall communication skills. You can find language exchange partners through online platforms, language exchange meetups, or language exchange apps. By practicing speaking English with native speakers, you can receive feedback on your pronunciation and make necessary adjustments to improve your accent.Finally, it is important to be patient and persistent in your efforts to improve your pronunciation. Pronunciation is a skill that takes time and practice to develop, so do not get discouraged if you do not see immediate results. By incorporating these methods into your language learning routine and being consistent in your practice, you can make significant progress in overcoming pronunciation issues and sounding more like a native English speaker.In conclusion, overcoming pronunciation problems in English requires dedication, practice, and patience. By paying attention to sounds, practicing phonetic transcriptions,mastering stress and intonation patterns, practicing tongue twisters, and engaging in conversations with native speakers, you can enhance your pronunciation skills and sound more like a native speaker. Remember that improvement takes time, so be persistent in your efforts and celebrate your progress along the way. With determination and practice, you can conquer pronunciation challenges and become a confident English speaker.篇2Overcoming Pronunciation Problems with Better MethodsWhen it comes to mastering a second language, one of the most challenging aspects for many learners is overcoming pronunciation problems. Accurate pronunciation is crucial for effective communication and can be a key factor in how fluent and natural a speaker sounds. While it may seem daunting at first, there are several effective methods that can help you improve your pronunciation and eliminate common mistakes. In this article, we will explore some of these methods and how you can use them to enhance your pronunciation skills.1. Practice regularly: Like any skill, mastering pronunciation requires practice. Make it a habit to practice speaking Englishevery day, even if it's just for a few minutes. This can help you build muscle memory and improve your ability to produce sounds accurately. You can practice by reading aloud, listening to podcasts or songs, or even recording yourself and analyzing your pronunciation.2. Focus on sounds: English has many sounds that may not exist in your native language, which can make it difficult to pronounce certain words correctly. Take the time to learn and practice the sounds of English, paying attention to the position of your lips, tongue, and throat. You can use resources like pronunciation guides, videos, or apps to help you identify and practice difficult sounds.3. Break it down: Instead of trying to pronounce whole words or sentences at once, break them down into smaller parts. Focus on individual sounds or syllables and practice them separately before putting them together. This can help you better understand the pronunciation of each component and improve your overall accuracy.4. Mimic native speakers: One of the best ways to improve your pronunciation is to mimic native speakers. Listen to how they pronounce words and try to imitate their accent, intonation, and rhythm. You can watch movies, TV shows, or videos inEnglish, or even engage in conversations with native speakers to observe and learn from their pronunciation.5. Use phonetic symbols: Phonetic symbols can help you better understand and reproduce the sounds of English. Learn to read and write phonetic symbols, and use them to transcribe words or sentences. This can help you identify pronunciation patterns, recognize common errors, and improve your overall accuracy.6. Seek feedback: Practice alone can only take you so far. To truly improve your pronunciation, seek feedback from others. Ask teachers, tutors, or language exchange partners to listen to your speaking and provide constructive criticism. Take note of their feedback and work on implementing their suggestions to refine your pronunciation.7. Be patient and persistent: Improving pronunciation takes time and effort, so be patient with yourself and stay persistent in your practice. Don't get discouraged by mistakes or setbacks, but rather see them as opportunities for growth and learning. Celebrate small victories along the way and keep pushing yourself to improve.In conclusion, overcoming pronunciation problems in English requires dedication, practice, and the willingness to learn.By following these better methods and incorporating them into your daily routine, you can make significant progress in improving your pronunciation skills. Remember that everyone has their own unique accent and style of speaking, so focus on clear communication and effective expression rather than striving for perfection. With time and effort, you can become a confident and proficient speaker of English.篇3Overcoming Pronunciation Problems: Effective Strategies for ImprovementIntroductionImproving pronunciation in a second language can be a challenging task for many learners. However, with the right strategies and practice, anyone can make significant progress in this area. In this article, we will discuss some effective methods for overcoming pronunciation problems in English.1. Listen and RepeatOne of the best ways to improve pronunciation is to listen to native speakers and mimic their pronunciation. By listening to how words are pronounced in natural conversations, learners can pick up on the subtle nuances of English sounds and intonationpatterns. It is important to practice repeating these sounds aloud to develop muscle memory and improve pronunciation accuracy.2. Use Pronunciation AppsThere are many pronunciation apps available that can help learners improve their pronunciation. These apps typically provide audio recordings of words and phrases spoken by native speakers, along with exercises to practice pronunciation. Some popular pronunciation apps include Duolingo, Babbel, and Rosetta Stone.3. Record YourselfRecording yourself speaking English can be a useful tool for identifying pronunciation errors. By listening to your own recordings, you can pinpoint areas where your pronunciation is less accurate and work on improving those sounds. You can also compare your recordings to native speakers to see how your pronunciation stacks up.4. Practice Tongue TwistersTongue twisters are a fun and effective way to improve pronunciation skills. By practicing tongue twisters regularly, learners can improve their ability to pronounce difficult sounds and combinations of sounds in English. Some popular tonguetwisters for English learners include "she sells seashells by the seashore" and "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."5. Work with a Language PartnerPracticing pronunciation with a language partner can be a great way to receive feedback and support in improving your pronunciation. Language partners can provide guidance on correct pronunciation, help you identify areas for improvement, and offer encouragement as you work towards mastering English pronunciation.6. Seek Professional HelpIf you are struggling with pronunciation despite your best efforts, it may be helpful to seek professional help from a language tutor or speech therapist. These professionals can provide personalized guidance and support to help you overcome pronunciation challenges and improve your overall speaking skills.ConclusionImproving pronunciation in English is a gradual process that requires dedication and practice. By incorporating these effective strategies into your language learning routine, you can make significant progress in overcoming pronunciation problems andspeaking English with more clarity and confidence. Remember to be patient with yourself and celebrate your progress along the way. Keep practicing, and soon you will see improvements in your pronunciation skills. Good luck!。

英语语音（上海师范大学）解忧书店 JieYouBookshopAchievement Test 11单选(3分)The soft palate is also called __________A.tracheaB.epiglottisC.velumD.uvula正确答案：C你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)The back of the tongue helps to produce __________ sounds.A.dentalB.alveolarC.velarD. palatal正确答案：C你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)/p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ are produced with the help of __________.A.the tongue tip on or close to the alveolar ridgeB.the upper and lower lipC.the tip of the tongue raised close to the hard palateD.the upper teeth and inner lower lip正确答案：B你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)The sounds produced with the help of the upper teeth are called __________ sounds.A.dentalbio-dentalC.post-alveolarD.bilabial正确答案：A你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)The study of speech organs is important to know the nature of __________.A.speech productionB.public speechC.speech contestD.telegraphic speech正确答案：A你没选择任何选项6单选(3分)The organs that take part in production of speech sounds are called __________A.pharyngeal cavityB.speech organsC.speech productionD.nasal cavity正确答案：B你没选择任何选项7单选(3分)The positional variants of the same phoneme are known as __________.A.consonantsB.vowelsC.allophonesD.sounds正确答案：C你没选择任何选项8单选(3分)In English, [l] and [ɫ] are allophones of the phoneme /l/ because they occur in___________________, i.e., they never appear in the same sound contexts. [l] always occurs before vowels (as in the word leaf, look), while [ɫ] comes after vowels and before consonants (as in the word feel, cold).plementary distributionB.free variationC.a minimal setD.regional differences正确答案：A你没选择任何选项9单选(3分)Using the diacritics provided by the IPA, _____________ transcription captures as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible and makes very subtle distinctions between sounds.A.broadB.phoneticC.narrowD.conventional正确答案：C你没选择任何选项10单选(3分)/p/ and /b/ can appear in initial position (as in pin and bin) and also in final position (as in rope and robe)．They are in phonemic contrast and said to form a_______________ because they occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.A.allophonic distributionB.segmental phonemeplementary distributionD.minimal pair正确答案：D你没选择任何选项Achievement Test 21单选(3分)Like all languages in the world, English phonemes are also divided into vowels and consonants. The distinction between the two lies in the obstruction of __________.A. vocal cordsB. noseC. airstreamD. mouth正确答案：C你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)The __________ Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically British’. It is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as “the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England”.A. ReceivedB. RespectableC.RenownedD.Respected正确答案：A你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)The vowel __________ can be described as low, front, and unrounded, but the feature “unrounded” is usually omitted because all front vowels in English are unrounded.A. /ɒ/B./æ/C./e/D./i:/正确答案：B你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)Syllabically, although a diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds, and the tongue glides in the production of it, it is perceived as one phoneme, not two. Thus, diphthongs are treated as having one __________ only.A. allophoneB.vowelC.stressD.syllable正确答案：D你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)Words such as fire /faɪə/, flour /flaʊə/, or loyal /lɔɪəl/ are considered by the native English speakers to have only one syllable, whereas higher /haɪə/ and player /pleɪə/ are more likely to be heard with disyllabic realizations because the third vowel is a__________.A. monophthongB.diphthongC. suffixD. triphthong正确答案：C你没选择任何选项6判断(2分)In the production of a consonant sound, the air stream from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in the pronunciation of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.正确答案：×7判断(2分)Daniel Jones worked out a set of Cardinal Vowels that students learning phonetics could be taught to produce, the aim of which is to give an approximate picture of the degree and direction of the tongue movement involved.正确答案：√8判断(2分)/i:/ and /ɪ/ are both high front vowels, but /i:/ is a bit lower and more forward than /ɪ/. In addition, /i:/ is tense in that the root of the tongue is more advanced than with /ɪ/, which is lax.正确答案：×9判断(2分)English diphthongs are divided into both falling diphthongs (the first vowel sound is pronounced longer, louder and stronger than the second one), and rising diphthongs (the second sound is produced longer and stronger than the first正确答案：×解析：All English diphthongs are said to be falling diphthongs.10判断(2分)If two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables — for example, in the English word re-elect (/ˌri:ˈɪlekt/) — the result is described as hiatus not as a diphthong.正确答案：√Achievement Test 31判断(2分)The manner of articulation refers to the way in which the airstream is obstructed. For example, with plosive sounds, the articulation acts in such a way that the air is temporarily trapped, and then suddenly released.正确答案：√2判断(2分)Generally speaking, the place and the manner of articulation are the two common features of any languages except the voicing, which is language specific. For example, voicing is a distinctive feature of Mandarin Chinese, whereas aspiration is the distinctive feature of English.正确答案：×3判断(2分)Plosives occur when the airstream is blocked or stopped completely before its release. They are also known as stops because they involve the complete blockage of the airstream.正确答案：√4判断(2分)The sound /ŋ/ remains unchanged at the word boundaries where it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound as in bring it (/brɪŋɪt/) and sing us a song (/sɪŋəs əsɒŋ/). However, in the case of adjectives, the adding of the suffixes –eror -est to the comparative and superlative degree of the words longer and longest has changed the pronunciation of /ŋ/ into /ŋɡ/.正确答案：√5判断(2分)Within the class of approximants, lateral /l/ and retroflex /r/ are further distinguished from semi-vowels /j/ and /w/. This is because /j/ and /w/ are made without a restriction to the airflow. They are phonetically like consonants but phonologically like vowels.正确答案：×6单选(3分)Consonants are formed by interrupting, narrowing or diverting the airflow in a variety of ways. There are three ways of classifying the English consonant sounds: __________ of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing.A. placeB.obstructionC. aspirationD.vibration正确答案：A你没选择任何选项7单选(3分)When the letter n come before g or k, it is pronounced as /ŋ/ as in strong, bang, thank, drink. However, when g is followed by e or i, the letter n is read as /n/ as in strange, stranger, arrange, longitude because the letter g is pronounced as __________.A./ʃ/B./ʒ/C./ʤ/D. /ʧ/正确答案：C你没选择任何选项8单选(3分)RP has two allophonic variants of /r/. One is retroflex [r], and the other is tapor flap [ɾ]. In the pronunciation of retroflex [r], the tongue curls backward and retroflexes at the __________.A.frontB.centralC. tipD.root正确答案：C你没选择任何选项9单选(3分)The /r/ may be replaced by an alveolar tap [ɾ] in intervocalic positions (e.g. very,sorry, tomorrow) and in word-final /r/ __________ with an initial vowel (e.g. far away).A.connectingB.joiningC. insertingD.linking正确答案：D你没选择任何选项10单选(3分)Generally speaking, plosive sounds undergo three stages: the closing stage, the compression stage and the __________ stage.A.releaseB.unreleasedC.aspiratedD.unaspirated正确答案：A你没选择任何选项Achievement Test 41判断(2分)The general distribution of RP consonants is that all consonants can occur at the initial position as singletons except /n/, and that all consonants can appear at the final position as singletons except /h, w, j, r/.正确答案：×2判断(2分)The dark [ɫ] has two types of distributions. One is in word-final position, after vowel,as in call and real, and also after vowel, before consonant, such as cold and help. The other is syllabic [ɫ̩]: e.g. little and table.正确答案：√3判断(2分)Both ‘clear’ [l] and ‘dark’ [ɫ] are formed with the tip of the tongue touching the teeth ridge. The only difference is that in the articulation of the ‘clear’ [l], the back part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. In the articulation of the‘dark’ [ɫ], the front part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and slightly velarised, with a concave upper surface.正确答案：×4判断(2分)Within the class of approximants, lateral /l/ and retroflex /r/ are further distinguished from semi-vowels /j/ and /w/. This is because /j/ and /w/ are made without a restriction to the airflow. They are phonetically like consonants but phonologically like vowels.正确答案：×5判断(2分)Affricates occur when a complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released more slowly than in plosives.正确答案：√6判断(2分)The sound /ŋ/ remains unchanged at the word boundaries where it is followed by aword beginning with a vowel sound as in bring it (/brɪŋɪt/) and sing us a song (/sɪŋəs əsɒŋ/). However, in the case of adjectives, the adding of the suffixes –eror -est to the comparative and superlative degree of the words longer and longest has changed the pronunciation of /ŋ/ into /ŋɡ/.正确答案：√7判断(2分)Inaudible (incomplete) release of plosives refers to the process of articulation of a plosive is not complete. It has only two stages, namely, the closure and the compression, without the release.正确答案：√8判断(2分)Generally speaking, the place and the manner of articulation are the two common features of any languages except the voicing, which is language specific. For example, voicing is a distinctive feature of Mandarin Chinese, whereas aspiration is the distinctive feature of English.正确答案：×9判断(2分)English diphthongs are divided into both falling diphthongs (the first vowel sound is pronounced longer, louder and stronger than the second one), and rising diphthongs (the second sound is produced longer and stronger than the first正确答案：×10判断(2分)If two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables — for example, in the Englishword re-elect (/ˌri:ˈɪlekt/) — the result is described as hiatus not as a diphthong.正确答案：√Achievement Test 51单选(3分)The minimum unit of speech is a syllable. Syllables have a minimum of one (as in the word air /eə/), and a maximum of __________ structural parts (as in the word text/tekst/).A.threeB.twoC.fiveD.four正确答案：A你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)__________ consonants are consonants which form the nucleus of a syllable that does not contain a vowel.A.ApproximantteralC.SyllabicD.Nasal正确答案：C你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)In fact, the formation of syllabic consonants has much to do with the __________principle, a term in auditory phonetics for the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration.A.maximumB.sonorityC.articulatoryD.minimum正确答案：B你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)The V and CV syllables are referred to as a/an __________ syllable because they end with a vowel.binationB.closedC.openD.r-syllable正确答案：C你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)Statements of what sequences may or may not occur are called __________. The full description of such constraints is called phonotactics.A.rulesB.constraintsC.regularitiesD.restrictions正确答案：B你没选择任何选项6判断(2分)Syllables are units of language, smaller than a word but larger than a phoneme, and every language is said to have syllables.正确答案：√7判断(2分)Phonological treatments of syllable structure usually call the first part of a syllable the onset, the middle part the nucleus and the end part the coda. The combination of nucleus and coda is called the rhyme.正确答案：√8判断(2分)A syllabic consonant is to be interpreted phonologically as /ə/ plus a consonant, but phonetically as the under-stroke [ ˌ] combining vertical line below a consonant. Thus, the word button is phonologically ['bʌt n̩] but phonetically /'bʌtən/.正确答案：×9判断(2分)Not all English vowel phonemes can occur in the CV syllable pattern, but all can appear in the CVC pattern.正确答案：√10判断(2分)English has a complex system of consonant clusters, in which two or more consonants occur in sequence in onset or coda position.正确答案：√Achievement Test 61单选(3分)__________ stress is the relative degree of force given to a certain syllable in a word of more than one syllable when it is pronounced in isolation, as if quoted from a dictionary.A.TonicB.SentenceC.Word D. Nuclear正确答案：C你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)Stressed syllables bear four physiological properties: loudness, vowel duration, pitch and vowel __________. A.qualityB.intensity C.reductionD.quantity正确答案：A你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)Absence of stress on a syllable, or on a word in some cases, is frequently associated in English with vowel __________, the changes that result from unstressed syllables.A. reduction B.quality C.pitchD.loudness正确答案：A你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)__________, on the whole, do not have much effect on the placement of the base or root element.A.Prefixes B. Suffixes C.Affixes D.Derivation正确答案：A你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)There are two types of -ing + noun combinations. For one type, the -ing form serves as a modifier of the noun and expresses the purpose of the noun; for instance,dining-room means the room for dining. In such circumstances, the word stress always falls on the ___________ element.A.either B.first C.second D.neither正确答案：B你没选择任何选项6判断(2分)Some words in English are shown in dictionaries as having three levels of stress: primary, secondary, unstressed or weak.正确答案：√7判断(2分)In every lexical word, and in some grammatical words, one syllable is identified as having primary stress, though in monosyllables the stress is not generally marked. 正确答案：√8判断(2分)Word stress is the framework upon which sentence stress and intonation contour is built.正确答案：√9判断(2分)The pitch movement is associated with secondary stress, but not with primary stress.A.B.正确答案：×10判断(2分)The major stress on two-syllable words is more likely to fall on the second syllable if the word is a noun or an adjective, and on the first syllable if the word is a verb.正确答案：×Achievement Test 71单选(3分)Stressed syllables bear four physiological properties: loudness, vowel duration, pitch and vowel __________.A. qualityB.quantityC.intensityD.reduction正确答案：A你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)In fact, the formation of syllabic consonants has much to do with the __________ principle, a term in auditory phonetics for the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration.A.minimumB.articulatoryC.sonorityD.maximum正确答案：C你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)In English, [l] and [ɫ] are allophones of the phoneme /l/ because they occur in___________________, i.e., they never appear in the same sound contexts. [l] always occurs before vowels (as in the word leaf, look), while [ɫ] comes after vowels andbefore consonants (as in the word feel, cold).A.free variationB.a minimal setC.regional differencesplementary distribution正确答案：D你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)The __________ Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically British’. It is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as “the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England”.A.RespectedB.ReceivedC.RenownedD.Respectable正确答案：B你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)Stress is being used in a more general way. It refers to the syllable that receives lexical stress. __________, on the other hand, is being used in a more specific way. It is a place where a tonal marker will fall on the lexically stressed syllable.A.LoudnessB.EmphasisC.IntensityD.Accent正确答案：D你没选择任何选项6判断(2分)In more than three-syllable words, if the primary stress falls on the third syllable or later, the secondary stress are usually marked on one of the preceding syllables, for example, introduction / /ɪntrədʌkʃn/ and education/eʤukeɪʃn/.正确答案：√7判断(2分)Word stress in English is not as predictable as it is in other languages, and therefore, the stress placement in English words is not rule-governe正确答案：×8判断(2分)Phonological treatments of syllable structure usually call the first part of a syllable the onset, the middle part the nucleus and the end part the cod The combination of nucleus and coda is called the rhyme.正确答案：√9判断(2分)Not all English vowel phonemes can occur in the CV syllable pattern, but all can appear in the CVC pattern.正确答案：√10判断(2分)In coda position, the maximum number of clusters is four. Many clusters of two or three and virtually all cluster of four are the result of adding a plural /s, z/ or a past tense /t, d/ inflection to a stem ending in two or three consonants正确答案：√Achievement Test 81判断(2分)The notion of rhythm comes from the unstressed syllables. Word and sentence stress combine to create the rhythm of an English utterance.正确答案：×2判断(2分)Just as in music, spoken English moves in regular, rhythmic beats from stress to stress – irrespective of how many unstressed syllables fall in between.正确答案：√3判断(2分)A rhythm group contains more than one stressed syllable, together with unstressed syllables clustering about it or none.正确答案：×4判断(2分)Any unstressed syllables that may come before the first rhythm group do not belong to any stress-group. They are the strong beat and are read as quickly as possible.正确答案：×5判断(2分)Chinese learners of English are likely to assign equal weight to each syllable, regardless of whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed.判断(2分)The epenthesis (or insertion) of glides [j, w] occurs because they are the least marked epenthetic consonants in hiatus position.正确答案：√7判断(2分)A non-rhotic speaker will pronounce words like far as /fɑːr/, whereas a rhotic speaker does not pronounce [r] at all unless followed by a vowel.正确答案：×8判断(2分)For rhotic speakers [r] is pronounced just because far has an [r] in it, but for non-rhotic speakers [r] appears in far away because the first word ends with a vowel and the second word begins with a vowel, namely, the [r] links the two words together.正确答案：√9判断(2分)Vowels which trigger [r]-insertion never trigger [j]-insertion or [w]-insertion. Each glide has its own domain, although the domains exempt short stressed vowels /e, æ, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ/, which never occur word-finally in English.正确答案：√10判断(2分)Generally speaking, the assimilation involves both vowels and consonants, particularly across word boundaries, but within words too.Achievement Test 91判断(2分)English intonation has three systemic features: tonality, tonicity and tone.正确答案：√2判断(2分)A public speaker tends to pause less frequently to make their message clearer or more emphatic. By contrast, if the speaker is communicating urgency, he may contain more breaks.正确答案：×3判断(2分)No matter in spontaneous conversation or in material read aloud, the speaker must pause at a proper place where it makes sense because the intonation phrase boundary may act to differentiate between two possible meanings.正确答案：√4判断(2分)The nucleus, also known as nuclear syllable or tonic syllable, the syllable that bears the nuclear tone (a fall, rise, fall-rise or rise-fall).正确答案：√5判断(2分)Accent has potentiality for stress. It involves how a prominence is supposed to be made, while stress refers to why a prominence is placed in a certain position of an intonation phrase.正确答案：×6判断(2分)Pragmatic reasons for deaccenting the ‘last content word’ involve old or repeated information, namely, words express known or given information.正确答案：√7判断(2分)Some words have little meaning of their own. Their meaning can be inferred from certain context. Such words are usually not accented even though they are the last content words.正确答案：√8判断(2分)When every part of an intonation phrase is brought into focus, we have narrow focus. If we focus only on one particular part, we have broad focus.正确答案：×9判断(2分)A fall may indicate definiteness, a rise may suggest some implications, and a fall-rise may imply incompleteness.正确答案：×10判断(2分)In sentence non-final position the difference in tone meaning between low rise, high rise, fall-rise or mid level tone varieties is not great. Sometimes speakers just seem to ring the changes between them to avoid repetition.正确答案：√Achievement Test 101判断(2分)If there are syllable following the nucleus (i.e. the tail), the rising pitch movement does not happen wholly on the nuclear syllable, as in the case of a fall. Rather, the syllable or syllables of the tail will continue to move upwards from the pitch of the nuclear syllable.正确答案：√2判断(2分)The pitch movement for a fall, either high or low, is all in one direction, namely downwards. Often there are syllables after the nucleus, a tail. After a falling nucleus, the tail is always high.正确答案：×3判断(2分)In a complex low level head, there is no upward movement in the head. The onset and all the remaining syllables of the head are uttered on a low pitch.正确答案：√4判断(2分)A simple head is one that contains only one stressed syllable, while a complex heads contains two or more stressed syllables.正确答案：√5判断(2分)The head does not necessarily consist of a complete word. They are usually spoken with a fairly low level pitch.正确答案：×6判断(2分)By definition, the prehead contains no stressed syllables, but occasionally, prehead may include a syllable that is lexically stressed but that the speaker chooses not to stress.正确答案：√7判断(2分)The prehead does not necessarily consist of a complete word. They are usually spoken with a fairly high level pitch.正确答案：×8判断(2分)The relative height of the pitch range will depend on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords: the higher the frequency of vibration, the lower the pitch.正确答案：×9判断(2分)Although every IP contains a nucleus, not all IPs contain a prehead, head or a tail.正确答案：√10判断(2分)A complete IP, according to John Wells (2006), consists of four constituent elements, namely, the prehead, the head, the nucleus and the tail.正确答案：√期末考试1单选(3分)The soft palate is also called __________.A. uvulaB.tracheaC.velumD.epiglottis正确答案：C你没选择任何选项2单选(3分)/p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ are produced with the help of __________.A.the upper teeth and inner lower lipB. the tip of the tongue raised close to the hard palateC.the tongue tip on or close to the alveolar ridgeD.the upper and lower lip正确答案：D你没选择任何选项3单选(3分)The study of speech organs is important to know the nature of __________.A. public speechB.speech contestC.telegraphic speechD.speech production正确答案：D你没选择任何选项4单选(3分)The positional variants of the same phoneme are known as __________.A.soundsB.consonantsC.vowelsD.allophones正确答案：D你没选择任何选项5单选(3分)Using the diacritics provided by the IPA, _____________ transcription captures as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible and makes very subtle distinctions between sounds.A.phoneticB.narrowC.broadD.conventional正确答案：B你没选择任何选项6单选(3分)Like all languages in the world, English phonemes are also divided into vowels andconsonants. The distinction between the two lies in the obstruction of __________.A.vocal cordsB.mouthC.airstreamD.nose正确答案：C你没选择任何选项7单选(3分)The __________ Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically British’. It is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as “the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England”.A.RespectableB.ReceivedC.RespectedD.Renowned正确答案：B你没选择任何选项8单选(3分)The vowel __________ can be described as low, front, and unrounded, but the feature “unrounded” is usually omitted because all front vowels in English are unrounded.A./æ/B. /e/C./ɒ/D./i:/正确答案：A你没选择任何选项9单选(3分)Syllabically, although a diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds, and the tongue glides in the production of it, it is perceived as one phoneme, not two. Thus, diphthongs are treated as having one __________ only.A.vowelB.syllableC.allophoneD.stress正确答案：B你没选择任何选项10单选(3分)The duration of a diphthong is similar to that of a __________ vowel.xB.highC.longD.short正确答案：C你没选择任何选项11单选(3分)Consonants are formed by interrupting, narrowing or diverting the airflow in a variety of ways. There are three ways of classifying the English consonant sounds: __________ of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing.A.placeB.aspirationC.obstructionD.vibration正确答案：A你没选择任何选项12单选(3分)When we discuss the English consonant, we begin with voicing first, then the place of articulation and lastly, the manner of articulation. The sound __________, for instance, is said briefly as voiceless palate-alveolar affricate.A./ʒ/B./ʧ/C./ʃ/D./ʤ/正确答案：B你没选择任何选项13单选(3分)__________ release refers to the air used to produce the stop is released through the nose rather than the mouth, namely, the velum is lowered before the stop closure is removed and the air pressure will be released through the nose instead of the mouth.A.IncompleteteralC.InaudibleD.Nasal正确答案：D你没选择任何选项14单选(3分)Fricative sounds can be maintained as long as there is air in the lungs; for this reason they are known as __________.A.obstruentsB.continuantsC.sibilantsD.sonorant正确答案：B你没选择任何选项15单选(3分)RP has two allophonic variants of /r/. One is retroflex [r], and the other is tap or flap [ɾ]. In the pronunciation of retroflex [r], the tongue curls backward and retroflexes at the __________.A.centralB.frontC.tipD.root正确答案：C你没选择任何选项16单选(3分)The minimum unit of speech is a syllable. Syllables have a minimum of one (as in the word air /eə/), and a maximum of __________ structural parts (as in the word text/tekst/).A.fourB.threeC.twoD.five正确答案：B你没选择任何选项17单选(3分)__________ consonants are consonants which form the nucleus of a syllable that does not contain a vowel.A.SyllabicteralC.ApproximantD.Nasal正确答案：A你没选择任何选项18单选(3分)The V and CV syllables are referred to as a/an __________ syllable because they end with a vowel.binationB.closedC.r-syllableD.open正确答案：D你没选择任何选项19单选(3分)With __________ clusters of three consonants, the first sound is always /s/, the second sound is a voiceless plosive /p, t, k/, and the third sound is one of the four approximants /l, r, w, j/.A.codaB.nucleusC.rhymeD.onset正确答案：D你没选择任何选项20单选(3分)There are cases where a consonant or a cluster could be either the coda to the first syllable of a word, or the onset to the second, we can say that it fulfils both functions, for instance, the /b/ in rabbit, the /st / in posting, the /n/ and /m/ in cinema. This is。