Unit 1 工商管理英语翻译--概论

一、名词解释1. The plan of action is, at one and the same time, the result envisaged, the line of action to be followed, the stages to go through, and methods to use.2. Human needs are states of felt deprivation. Humans have manly complex needs. These include basic physical needs for food, clothing, warmth, and safety; social needs for belonging and affection; and individual needs for knowledge and self-expression.3. Customer value is the difference between the values the customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of obtaining the product.4. Place, another key marketing-mix tool, includes the various activities the company undertakes to make the product accessible and available to target customers.5. Group technology is a concept that currently is attracting a lot of attention from the manufacturing community.6. Issuing bank is obligated to honor drawings under the L/C regardless of the buyer’s ability or willingness to pay.7. Letter of credit is an instrument issued by a bank on behalf of the importer (buyer) promising to pay the exporter (beneficiary)upon presentation of shipping documents in compliance with the terms stipulated therein.8. Leader ship is a personal relationship in which one person directs, coordinates, and supervises others in the performance of a common task.9. Advising bank. The correspondent bank in the beneficiary’s country to which the issuing bank sends the L/C is commonly referred to as the “advising”.10. Marketing mix is one of the key concepts in modern marketing theory. Marketing mix is the set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market.11. Total quality management means a comprehensive approach to quality by everyone in an organization to provide customers with reliable products and services.二、简答1. What are the features of a good plan of action? P30一个好的行动计划有什么特点：（1）统一性，即一个既能面向整体又能顾及各个部分的行动计划。

Unit 1社团（社会，共同体，社区）community；首席执行官chief executive officer；（政府或国际机构的）部，处agency；常务董事（相当于总经理）managing director；流行价格prevailing price；监督员（基层经理）supervisor；市场份额market share；计算机程序员computer programmer；管理能力managerial competency；保险业务员insurance agent；资源配置allocation of resources；新闻广播员newscaster；任务小组task force；销售合作人sales associate；收入，税收revenue；a global giant 巨大的全球公司；talented people 人才；profit-oriented/for-profit business 以利润为导向；accountmanager 财务经理；plant manager 工厂经理；task force manager 业务经理；chief knowledge officer 首席培训官；chief executive officer 首席执行官；managing director 常务董事；a board of directors 董事会；stockholder 股东；stakeholder 利益相关人；accounts 客户；Unit 2管理；管理人员management；工作框架work setting；电话营销中心telemarketing center；顾客投诉customer complaint；业绩评价标准evaluation criteria for performance；具体运作计划specific operational plans；分派权利与责任delegate authority and responsibility；协调进度与资源coordinate schedule and resources；商务合作人business associate；财务崩溃financial debacle；刺激业务增长spur the growth of the business；监督现场工作supervise on-site work；dealership 经销店；high turnover 高人员流动；executive vice-president 执行副总裁；community affairs 社交事务；government negotiations 政府谈判；on-site work 现场工作；Unit 4个人决策individual decisionmaking；换取关系tradeoff；效率与公平efficiency and equity；稀缺资源scarce resources；成本与效益costs and benefits；增量调整incremental adjustments；边际成本marginal costs；边际收益marginal benefits；机会成本opportunity cost；竞争对手与贸易伙伴competitors and partners；天下没有免费的午餐there is no such thing as a free lunch；生活中的换取关系life’s tradeoff；考虑边际量think at the marginal；对激励作出的反应中in response to the incentives；使每个国家状况更好make each country better off；相互作用interact with one another；material/spiritual standard of living 生活物质水平；board 伙食；Unit5市场经济market economies；市场失灵market failure；市场势力market power；经济繁荣economic prosperity；预算赤字budget deficit；金融市场financial market；人力物力资本human capital and physical capital；通货膨胀inflation；公平分配equitable distribution；个人所得税personal income tax；福利制度welfare system；医疗保健health care；develop market economy 发展市场经济；direct economic activity 指导经济活动；allocate resources efficiently 有效地配置资源；influence market price 影响市场价格；enhance economic efficiency 提高经济效率；boost living standard 提高生活水平；charge the price 要价/收费；regulate the price 规范价格；result in chaos 造成/导致混乱；work one’s magic 施展魔力；planned economies 计划经济；self-interest 个人利益/利己；the wealth of nations 《国富论》；externality 外部性；monopoly 垄断；economic well-being 经济福利；labor union 工会；minimum wage laws 最低工资法；price rise 物价上涨；deflation 通货紧缩；the quantity of money 货币量；Unit 6develop an action plan 制定行动计划；develop safety training session 开安全生产培训课；develop a line of thought 展开思路；develop the front-line employees 培养一线雇员；develop an interest in management 对管理产生兴趣；develop the national economy 发展国民经济；develop the company’s business 扩展公司业务；develop one’s idea 阐述观点；develop a new device 研制一个新装置；develop the region in the west of China 开发建设中国西部地区；目标管理management by objective；一次性计划a single-use plan；常备计划a stand plan；应变计划a contingency plan；企业目标corporate goals；计划时间范围planning time horizon；业绩评估系统performance appraisal system；应急预算emergency budget；灵活性与适应性flexibility and adaptability；安全认定系统system of safety recognition；基层部门监督者line supervisor；表彰信a letter of commendation；Unit 7deploy resources 有效地利用资源；hierarchical levels 层级；span of managers’ control 经理的管理职权范围；effective coordination 有效地协调；vertical control of the organization 组织机构的纵向管理；an automobile assembly line 汽车组装线；chain of command 指令链；delegate authority 分权；meet customers’ needs 满足消费者的需求；line department 业务部门；staff department 职能部门；issue orders 发布命令；rule books 规章手册；organization chart 企业章程；Unit 8position power 职位权力；legitimate power 法理权；reward power 奖赏权力；coercive power 惩罚权力；personal power 个性化权力；expert power 专业技能权力；referent power 秉性相关权力；charismatic leadership 个人勉力型领导；autocratic leader 独断/专断型领导；democratic leader 民主型领导；authoritarian management 授权型领导；centralize authority 集权；Unit 11课后练习无；forms of business enterprise 企业组织形式；sole proprietorships 独资商；partnership 合伙商；corporation 公司；risks and rewards 风险和收益；retail establishment 零售机构；personal income 个人收入；tax rate 税率；interest rate 利率；financial resources 财政资源；lend institutions 借贷机构；management-level employees 管理基层员工；professional consultants 专业顾问；unlimited liability 无限责任；profits and loses 盈利和亏损；general partners 任职合伙人；master limited partnership（MLP）全能的有限合伙商；stock exchange 股票交易所；partnership agreement 合伙商协议；obtain financing 融资；departure and addition 离去和增添；malpractice insurance 渎职保险；business risk insurance 企业风险保险；managing partner 常务合伙人；political maneuver 政治操控；shareholder 股东；public corporation 公营公司；quasi-public corporation 准公营公司；parent company 母公司；holding company 控股公司；subsidiary corporation 子公司；public utility 公用事业；basic public services 基础公共服务；open corporation 公开公司；closed corporation 封闭公司；incorporated business 组建公司；industry sector 产业部门；service business 服务业；goods-producing business 制造业；with access to inexpensive labor 拥有廉价劳动力；real estate broker 房地产经纪人；capital-intensive business 资金密集型产业；labor-intensive business 劳动力密集型产业；prune layers of bureaucracy 精简官僚机构层次；business cycle 商业周期，经济周期；cyclical business 周期性产业Unit 12世界经济a global economy；经济模式the economic model；工业化经济an industrialized economy；自给自足self-sufficient；银行业a banking industry；提高生活质量enhance the quality of life；经济活动的核心the hub/heart of economic activity；商务服务业business services；销售服务业trade services；基础设施服务业infrastructure services；社会服务业social/personal services；公共管理服务public services；public administration 公共管理服务；social/personal service 社会/个人服务；extractive sector 资源耗取部门；service sector 服务行业；economic growth 经济增长；health care 保健；economic evolution 经济演进；primary 第一产业；secondary 第二产业；tertiary 第三产业；quaternary 第四产业；real estate 房地产；maintenance and repair 保养和维修；service economy 服务经济；retail trade 零售；negative growth rates 负增长；recession-resistant 抗衰退的；manufactured goods 制成品；lay off 下岗；capital expenditures 资金支出；the driving force 驱动力；labor-saving 节省劳动力；an aging population 老年人口geriatric health care 老年健康护理Unit 14市场营销组合marketing mix；市场细分研究segmentation research；市场导向marketing orientation；目标市场target market；描述功能descriptive function；诊断功能diagnostic function；预测功能predictive function；生产导向活动production-oriented exercises；前控管理proactive management；后控管理reactive management；市场信息反馈过程marketing intelligence feedback process；市场营销系统marketing system；decision maker 决策者；improve the bottom line 改善企业营利；production schedule 生产期限；mechanistic exercise 机械活动；sales promotion 促销；Unit 15人力资源管理human resource management；竞争优势competitive advantage；员工投诉系统employee grievance systems；达到企业目标meet the organization’s objectives；全权负责have sole responsibility for；业绩评估体系performance appraisal system；招聘与筛选recruitment and selection；灵活工作时间制flexible scheduling；成本有效性cost effectiveness；成本领先战略cost leadership strategy；产品差别化product differentiation；岗位培训on-the-job training；纪律执行程序disciplinary procedure；激励计划incentive plan；career advancement 职业发展；productivity levels 生产率水平；。

翻译句子（原文部分）A business must anticipate when it will need cash and make sure it has access to cash at critical times. 74A trademark is a distinctive mark, motto, device, or emblem that its creator stamps, prints, or otherwise affixes to the goods it produces so that they may be identified on the market and their origin vouched for. 26According to the marketing company era view of business, the entire organization is structured to discover and respond to what customers want in the products and services the company creates and offers for sale. 67Advertising differs from personal selling in that the seller cannot gauge the reaction of the buyer to the advertising message. 72After the screening process is done and hiring decisions are made, it is necessary to place the employees. 53An a ppreciation of the organization’s strategy helps all of its members relate their work assignments more closely to the direction of the organization and influence that direction in a positive manner. 31But the logistics of delivering those appliances, maintaining the fleet of vehicles to make the deliveries (either as part of the company’s support staff or outsourced to third-party vendors), and tracking inventories to manage supply and demand are also part of the “place” decisions that fall under the 4Ps of marketing. 69By knowing what is supposed to be done within a particular job, an organization is able to better look for employees who possess the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics required for a job that it is seeking to fill. 48By the 1930s enough manufacturers had successfully increased production to the point that most industries in Western countries had greater capacity to produce than was supported by demand among their potential customers. 58By way of example, the government has declared that employment discrimination based on race, sex and national origins is illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, subjecting companies to damage claims and other penalties for discriminatory employment conditions they aloe to exist.23Care must be taken to use all of these sources of funding carefully so that future opportunities are not overly compromised by poor decisions made in the past. 14Commoditization refer to the increasing difficulty firms have distinguishing their products and services from those of their rivals. 44Contract law seeks to assure that promises under private agreements are enforceable and that parties under a contract honor their respective obligations. 27Debates over the nature of the organization’s competitive advantage, its mission, and whether or not a strategic plan is really needed can be widespread. 32During the sales era, most companies taught sales people aggressive selling techniques that focused on overcoming potential resistance on the part of buyers. 59Each of the stakeholders have slightly different value interests in the business, but only when all of the stakeholders are satisfied is the business likely to be successful. 10Each of the sub-systems (sub-processes) can impact each other and the overall system at one and the same time. 5Firms can become proactive by choosing to operate in environments where opportunities and threats match the firms’ strengths and weaknesses. 40Following a discussion of this evolution, it will be possible to offer a modern definition of marketing as it is operationalized in American business practice. 57For example, an employee in a company’s research and development department may attend a trade show where a new product or production process idea that seems relevant to the company is discussed. 42For example, many companies have switched from product containers that are not biodegradable to ones that are made from recyclable paper that are biodegradable. 73For example, the success of Japanese car manufacturers, particularly Toyota and Honda, in capturing large shares of the US automobile market is due in large part to the constant effort of these companies to build cars with the features American consumers want. 62For instance asking a potential employee if they enjoy working with others might be a useful question to ask someone seeking a job as a customer service representative but not as useful for a programmer who might be expected to work for hours at a time with little human interaction-it might actually be a negative indicator for the computer programmer. 54For instance, if a party to enter in to the contract, that would form the basis of undue influence and would make the contract voidable at the option of the threatened part. 29Future cash inflows are discounted at an appropriate rate which for an average risk project is the firm’s cost of capit al. 79Hindu law is prominent primarily in India where it exists alongside secular law derived from the British Common Law. 22However, the comprehensive, systematic model proposed herein is presented as a starting point for understanding the strategic management process. 36However, the type of formal, systematic strategic planning proposed in this text is not without its critics. 35Human resource planning is where the human resource management strategy and the organization mission come together in determining the numbers and skill sets needed for employees based upon the future plans of the organization. 51If one firm deviates from the industry norm and implemented a new, successful strategy, other firms would rapidly mimic the higher-performing firm by purchasing the resources, competencies, or management talent that have made the leading firm so profitable. 39If the value of assets exceeds the value of liabilities and equity, the firm requires external financing to that extent. 75In fact, increasing the retention ratio from 50% to 80% eliminates the need for external funds ad AFN equals 0. 76In the marketing company era, overall business strategy is developed with extensive participation by the marketing department and the use of marketing research to help the company decide how to better serve customers. 61IO assumes that an organization’s performance and ultimate survival depend on its ability to adapt to industry forces over which it has little or no control. 38It emphasizes the principle of stare decisis, that is, the authority of prior decisions in resolving current cases. 19It is in the context of this more complicated view of how businesses operate in an increasinglycompetitive and global environment, that we can now offer a definition of marketing. 68It is rather that profit is defined differently and the resources to produce that profit are acquired somewhat differently. 16It occurs, for example, when Amazon. Com suggests top-selling books for customers at its web site based on previous product searches or purchases. 45It often requires modification as environmental or organizational conditions change, or as top management’s ability to interpret these changes improves. 34Many businesses find that the detail of the pro forma statements is worth the time it takes to construct them. 77Modern human resources management practice has a dual heritage developing out of Scientific Management and the notion of personnel work as improving the welfare of employees. 47Most companies have them all at some time in the company life cycle. 8Most of accounting is done by accountants who are employees of the business. 13Not all companies have every one of these stakeholders at any given time. 7NPV is simply the present value of expected future cash inflows minus the initial investment. 78 Objective evidence must be shown to demonstrate the existence of a contract in order for an aggrieved party to succeed in a claim for breach of contract. 28Of the types of organizational capital upon which an organization depends its focus is on the human capital as opposed to the financial capital or the physical capital. 46Only the major stakeholders will be introduced but not covered in detail. 9Punishment for violations is fast and sometimes harsh by western standards. 21Resource-based theory is applied directly to the internal analysis phase and the effort to identify an organization’s resources that could lead to sustained competitive advantage. 41Selling activities expanded to include more impersonal forms of communication and organization created marketing departments to coordinate all the selling activities of the firm.60Some organizations only consider external applicants (people not yet employees of the organization) for entry-level positions so in such a situation if seeking more senior employees in such a case the organization need only advertise internally (for individuals already employed by the organization who may be seeking career advancement). 52Staff functions in contrast are not traditionally directly involved in the production of products or services. 65Strategic management is a broader term that includes top management’s analysis of the environment in which the organization operates prior to formulating a strategy, as well as the plan for implementation and control of the strategy. 33Substantive law is concerned with the laws that define, describe, regulate and create the rights and responsibilities of the parties to a lawsuit. 24That is the very nature of business for that is the only way to sustain a livelihood. 3The business signs an indemnity contract with an insurance company agreeing to make regular cash payments called premiums in exchange for a promise by the insurer to reimburse the company if the property is damaged or destroyed by perils such as fire or flood. 80The central tenet of industrial organization theory is the nation that a firm must adapt to influences in its industry to survive and prosper, and thus its financial performance is primarily determined by the success of the industry in which it competes. 37The first may be thought of as research, the second may be thought of as teaching and the third asservice.56The lack of consumer knowledge, as well as the lack of time and expertise required to pursue it, results in higher selling prices for many of the retailers. 43The line functions are activities which create the product or service that the company sells at a profit. 64The means of transforming input into outputs is by means of business processes. 6The predominant characteristic of Common Law is its dependence on judicial decisions, developed over a period of time. 18The role of court decisions, is minimized, although this is changing as these systems are influenced by court decisions in Common Law countries. 20The sanctions against a defendant in civil cast are generally monetary whereas in criminal court the penalties include not only fines but imprisonment or even execution (in the case of a capital offense). 25The strategic challenges it faces are usually ambiguous and unstructured, requiring its managers to understand the relationships among the organization’s parts and chart a course for moving it forward. 30There are a number of definitions of English word business. 1These tools are referred to as a mix because how they are combined, in what order, proportion, and relative importance is usually customized by the seller with the intention of optimizing the overall effectiveness of the selling/marketing activity. 71They also must then go through refresher courses at predetermined intervals in order to ensure that they remain combat ready and that they do not forget what they were trained to do and how they are supposed to do what they are trained to do, 55They are circular in nature as opposed to the linear type of relationship that is assumed in the process concept. 4This process is further complicated by the need to accomplish this while enabling the business to meet its profit. 11Thus price-related decisions are concerned with not only supply and demand issues but also with how perceptions of price relate to how customers may distinguish a product from its competition.70To a large extent, this view of marketing as a staff function holds true in the marketing company era. 66Traditionally, businesses have considered line functions as those activities that directly relate to the production of the goods or services that are sold by the firm. 63We will attempt to identify and define the components of this definition. 2While each system provides unique information for the business, they are generally integrated to provide management with the information necessary to make reasoned decisions. 15While there is some overlap-both require that one be able to manage time effectively-typing is likely a more highly valued skill for the administrative assistant while lecturing/teaching/speaking in front of audiences would likely be more important for the professor. 50While these categories are, of course, an oversimplification, with much overlapping, a company doing business in a legal system different from its own must learn the perimeters of the foreign law. 17Without the systematic study of what SHOULD be done within a job, employees involved in thehiring process are more likely to introduce personal bias, prejudices, and other non-job relevant information possibly leading to a less than optimal hiring decision. 49Without t hese reports, it would not be possible to accurately inform the stakeholders on the overall health of the business. 12翻译句子（翻译部分）1.英语单词business有许多定义。

1.现代管理学The modern era of management began early in the 20th century when classicaltheorists,economists,and industrial engineers offered a classical approach to increase the productivity of individuals and organizations.2.例如一种管理理论For example ,a management theory that emphasizes employee satisfactionmay be more helpful in dealing with a high employee turnover than with delays in production.3.甚至在今天Even today ,a great deal of what we know about management comes from theautobiographies and memoirs of men and women who are or have been practicing managers.4.尽管这些办法Although these approaches evolved in historical sequence ,later ideas havealways replaced early ones.5.在过去的30年During the last 30 years or so ,there have been attempts to integrate the threeapproaches to management—classical,behavioral,and management science.6.在这种情况下In this situation ,a compromise is necessary for the overall syetem to achieveits objective.7.例如严格的计划For example ,rigid plans,clearly defined jobs,antocratic leadership ,and tightcontrols have at times resulted in high productivity and satisfied workers.8.换言之In other words,the contingency approach seeks match different situations withdifferent management methods.9.当然富有远见Of cause ,having a vision is no guarantee of success.10.通常一份任务 A mission statement often focus on the market and customers that thecompany serves.11.这些管理人员These managers are the strategists who develop the plans that guide theorganization toward its goals.12.与其他人的沟通All the skills required to communicate with other people ,work effectivelywith them , motive them ,and lead them are interpersonal skills.13.为了把梦想变成In order to transform vision to reality ,managers must define specific goalsand objectives.14.最好的企业目标The best organizational ,measurable ,relevant ,challenging ,attainable ,andtime limited.15.折扣的发生A allowance occurs when a customer is not satisfied with a purchase for somereason.16.企业在计算These refunds and price reductions must be considered when the firm computersits net sales figure for the period.17.一系列这样的A series of these statement is a valuable tool for directing and controlling thebusiness.18.商人们谈及Businesspeople commonly use accounting terms when talking aboutcosts ,prices ,and profit.19.一份损益表The basic components of an operating statement are sales ,costs ,and profit orloss.20.零售商们正在寻求Retailers are searching for new marketing strategies to attract and holdcustomers.21.零售商们必须对Retailers must decide on three major product variables :productassortment ,services mix ,and store atmosphere.22.多数零售商不能Too many retailers fail to define their target markets and positions clearly.23.零售商的价格A retailer’s price policy is a crucial positioning factor and must be decided inrelation to its target market , its product and service assortment ,and its competition24.零售商使用Retailers use the normal promotion tools—advertising ,personal selling ,salespromotion ,and public relations—to reach consumers.25.零售商必须确定The retailers must determine both the product assortment’s width and itsdepth.26.制定正确价格The first step in setting the right price is to establish pricing goals.27.对于产品和服务The basic ,long-term pricing framework for a good or service should be alogical extension of the pricing objectives.28.因此，在销售Thus ,changing a pricing strategy can require dramatic alternations in themarketing mix.29.低价格可以获取The low price designed to capture a large share of a substantial market ,resulting in lower production costs.30.当生产由于技术Managers may follow a skimming strategy when production cannot beexpanded rapidly because of technological difficulties ,shortages ,or constraints imposed by the skill and time required to produce a product.31.低价格可以吸引Low price can draw additional buyers to enter the market.32.广告的基本功能The most basic function of advertising is to identify products anddifferentiate them from others.33.为了提高销售额To increase their sales or profit,companies develop marketing strategy byusing various marketing elements.34.广告的另一个功能Another function of advertising to induce consumers to try new productsand to suggest reuse.35.广告涉及到通过Advertising involves presenting the message,usually through the massmedia,to a large group of people know as target audience.36.通过同时向许多人By informing many people at once about available products andservices,advertising greatly reduces the costs and higher profits,can ease the task of personal selling.37.广告的定义有许多The definitions of advertising are many and varied.38.广告是产品和服务Advertising is a very important tool that enables competitors to enter themarket place.39.市场营销组合是由The marketing mix includes a set of elements known as four Ps and theyare under the heading of product,price,place and promotion.1.The three ( T )2.In solving ( F )3.In order words ( T )4.The systems ( T )5.Managers around ( T )6.It seeks ( F )7.Between the ( F )8.Management is ( T )9.To meet ( F ) 10.In order to ( T )11.As the ( T ) 12.A starting ( F ) 13.Technical skills ( F ) 14.And using ( F ) 15.An operating ( F ) ually, however ( T ) 17.An allowance ( F ) 18.All this ( T ) 19.Today, national ( T ) 20.They see ( F ) 21.Most retailers ( T ) 22.For all ( T ) rge retailers ( F )24.Small retailers ( T ) 25.A good ( T ) 26.A profit ( F ) 27.Theoretically ( T ) 28. A successful ( F ) 29.As a product ( T ) 30.A company’s ( T ) 31.Advertising is ( T ) 32.Advertising can ( F ) 33.The first ( T ) 34.The freedom ( T ) 35.Advertising itself ( T ) 36.All advertising ( F ) 37.All forms of ( T ) 38.advertising has ( F )1. 古典方法Classical approach to Management2. 管理学行为方法Behavioral approach to Management3. 管理学科学方法Management science approach4. （管理学）权变情境方法Contingency or situational approach to Management 1. 远见，洞察力Vision 2. 任务表述Mission statement 3. 长期目标Goal1. 短期目标Objective2. 管理结构Management pyramid3.高层管理者Top managers 1. 战略目标Strategic goals 2. 中层管理着Middle managers 3.战术目标Tactical objectives 1.一线管理者First-line managers 2. 损益表Operating Statement1. 销售总额Gross sales 2 价格折扣Allowance 3 净利润Net profit 1. 目标市场Target market2.市场定位Market positioning 1. 中间商品牌Private brand or middleman brand 2.价格策略Price strategy1. 撇指定价Price skimming2. 渗透定价Penetration pricing 1. 基础价格Base price 2 促销活动Promotion campaign3.目标受众Target audience 1. 促销组合Promotional mix 2.品牌忠诚Brand loyalty1.The managers described their ( generalize ) 管理者描述他们自己的管理经验，还尝试去概括他们认为可以被运用到相似情形中的那些准则。

外文原文Stages of Corporate CitizenshipBusiness leaders throughout the world are making corporate citizenship a key priority for their companies.1 Some are updating policies and revising programs; others are forming citizenship steering committees, measuring their environmental and social performance, and issuing public reports. Select firms are striving to align staff functions responsible for citizenship and move responsibility—and accountability—into lines of business. Vanguard companies are trying to create a broader market for citizenship and offer products and services that aim explicitly to both make money and make a better world.Amid the flurry of activity, many executives wonder what’s going on and worry whether or not their myriad citizenship initiatives make sense. Is their company prepared to take appropriate and effective actions on transparency, governance, community economic development, work-family balance, environmental sustainability, human rights protection, and ethical investor relationships?Is there any connection between, say, efforts in risk management, corporate branding, stakeholder engagement, supplier certification, cause related marketing, and employee diversity? Should there be? Studies conducted by the Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College suggest that the balance between confusion and coherence depends very much on what stage a company is in its development of corporate citizenship.Comparative neophytes, for instance, often lack understanding of these many aspects of corporate citizenship and have neither the expertise nor the machinery to respond to so many diverse interests and demands. Their chief challenges are to put citizenship firmly on the corporate agenda, get better informed about stakeholders’ concerns, and take some sensible initial steps.At the other extreme are companies that have already made a full-blown foray into citizenship. Their CEO is typically leading the firm’s position on social and environmental issues, and their Board is fully informed about company practices. Should these firms want to move forward, they might next try to connect citizenship to corporate branding and everyday employees through a “live the brand” campaign like those at IBM and Novo Nordisk or establish citizenship objectives for line managers, as DuPont and UBS have done.When it comes to making sense of corporate citizenship, much depends on what acompany has accomplished to date and how far it wants (and has to) go. The Center’s surveys of a random sample of American businesses find that roughly ten percent of company leaders don’t understand what corporate citizenship is all about. On the other end of the spectrum, not quite as many firms have integrated programs and are setting new standards of performance. In the vast majority in between, there is a wide range of companies in transition whose knowledge, attitudes, structures, and practices represent different degrees of understanding of and sophistication about corporate citizenship.Knowing at what stage a company is, and what challenges it faces in advancing citizenship, can clear up an executive’s confusion about where things stand, frame strategic choices about where to go, aid in setting benchmarks and goals, and perhaps speed movement forward.Stages of DevelopmentWhat does it mean that a company is at a “stage” of corporate citizenship?The general idea—found in the study of children, groups, and systems of all types, including business organizations—is that there are distinct patterns of activity at different points of development. Typically, these activities become more complex and sophisticated as development progresses and therefore capacities to respond to environmental challenges increase in kind. Piaget’s developmental theory, for example, has children progress through stages that entail more complex thinking and finer judgments about how to negotiate the social world outside of themselves. Similarly, groups mature along a developmental path as they confront emotional and task challenges that require more socially sensitive interaction and sophisticated problem solving.Greiner, in his groundbreaking study of organizational growth, found that companies also develop more complex ways of doing things at different stages of growth. They must, over time, find more direction after their creative start-up phase, develop an infrastructure and systems to take on more responsibilities, and then “work through” the challenges of over-control and red-tape through coordination and later collaboration across work units and levels.Development of CitizenshipThere are a number of models of “stages” of corporate citizenship. On a macro scale, for example, scholars have tracked changing conceptions of the role of business in society as advanced by business leaders, governments, academics, and multi-sectorassociations. They document how increasingly elaborate and inclusive definitions of social responsibility, environmental protection, and corporate ethics and governance have developed over recent decades that enlarge the role of business in society. Others have looked into the spread of these ideas into industry and society in the form of social and professional movements.At the level of the firm, Post and Altman have shown how environmental policies progressively broaden and deepen as companies encounter more demanding expectations and build their capability to meet them. In turn, Zadek’s case study of Nike’s response to challenges in its supply chain highlights stages in the development of attitudes about social responsibilities in companies and in corporate responsiveness to social issues. Both of these studies emphasize the role of organizational learning as conceptions of company responsibilities become more complex at successive stages of development, action requirements are more demanding, and the organizational structures, processes, and systems used to manage citizenship are more elaborate and comprehensive.What such firm-level frameworks have not fully addressed are the generative logic and mechanisms that drive the development of citizenship within organizations. Here we consider the development of citizenship as a stage-by-stage process where a combination of internal capabilities applied to environmental challenges propels development forward in a m ore or less “normal” or normative logic.Greiner’s model of organizational growth illustrates this normative trajectory. In his terms, the development of an organization is punctuated by a series of predictable crises that trigger responses that move the organization forward. What are the triggering mechanisms? They are tensions between current practices and the problems they produce that demand a new response from a firm. For instance, creativity, the entrepreneurial fire in companies in their first stage, also generates confusion and a loss of focus that can stall growth. This poses a “crisis of leadership” that is resolved—and a stage of orderly growth results—once the firm gains direction, often under new leadership and with more formal structures. A later tension between delegation and its consequences, sub-optimization and inter-group conflict, triggers a “crisis of control” and moves toward coordination. In development language, companies in effect “master” these challenges by devising progressively more effective and elaborate responses to them.The model presented here is also normative in that it posits a series of stages in thedevelopment of corporate citizenship. The triggers for movement are challenges that call for a fresh response. These challenges center initially on a firm’s credibility as a corporate citizen, then its capacities to meet expectations, the coherence of its many subsequent efforts, and, finally, its commitment to institutionalize citizenship in its business strategies and culture.Movement along a single development path is not fixed nor is attaining a penultimate “end state” a logical conclusion. This means that the arc of citizenship within any particular firm is shaped by the socio-economic, environmental, and institutional forces impinging on the enterprise. This effect is well documented by Vogel’s analysis of the “market for virtue” where he finds considerable variability in the business case for citizenship across firms and industries and thus limits to its marketp lace rewards. Notwithstanding, a company’s response to these market forces also varies based on the attitudes and outlooks of its leaders, the design and management of its citizenship agenda, and firmspecific learning. Thus, there are “companies with a conscience” that have a more expansive citizenship profile and firms that create a market for their good works.Dimensions of CitizenshipTo track the developmental path of citizenship in companies, we focus on seven dimensions of citizenship that vary at each stage:Citizenship Concept: How is citizenship defined? How comprehensive is it? Definitions of corporate citizenship are many and varied. The Center’s concept of citizenship considers the total actions of a corporation (commercial and philanthropic). Bettignies makes the point that terms such as citizenship and sustainability incorporate notions of ethics, philanthropy, stakeholder management, and social and environmental responsibilities into an integrative framework that guides corporate action.Strategic Intent: What is the purpose of citizenship in a company? What it is trying to achieve through citizenship? Smith observes that few companies embrace a strictly moral commitment to citizenship; instead most consider specific reputational risks and benefits in the market and society and thereby establish a business case for their efforts. Rochlin and Googins, in turn,see increasing interest in an “inside-out” framing where a value proposition for citizenship guides actions and investments. Leadership: Do top leaders support citizenship? Do they lead the effort? Visible, active, top level leadership appears on every survey as the number one factor drivingcitizenship in a corporation. How well informed are top leaders are about citizenship, how much leadership do they exercise, and to what extent do they “walk the talk”? Structure: How are responsibilities for citizenship managed? A three-year indepth study of eight companies in the Center’s Executive Forum on Corporate Citizenship found that many progressed from managing citizenship from functional “islands” to cross-functional committees and that a few had begun to achieve more formal integration through a combination of structures, processes, and systems.Issues Management: How does a company deal with citizenship issues that arise? Scholars have mapped the evolution of the public affairs office in corporations and stages in the management of public issues. How responsive a company is in terms of citizenship policies, programs, and performance?Stakeholder Relationships: How does a company engage its stakeholders? A wide range of trends—from increased social activism by shareholders to an increase in the number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) around the world—has driven major changes in the ways companies communicate with and engage their stakeholders.Transparency: How “open” is a company about its financial, social, and environmental performance? The web sites of upwards of 80% of Fortune 500 companies address social and environmental issues and roughly half of the companies today issue a public report on their activities.Citizenship at Each StageThe model in Figure 1 presents the stages in the development of corporate citizenship along these seven dimensions. We illustrate each stage with selected examples of corporate practice. (Note, however, that we are not implying that these companies currently operate at that stage; rather, at the times noted, they were illustrative of citizenship at that development stage.) A close inspection of these companies reveals instances where they had a leading-edge practice in some dimensions but were less developed in others. This should come as no surprise. For example, the pace of a child’s physical, mental, and emotional development is seldom uniform. One facet typically develops faster than another. In the same way, the development of group and organizational capabilities is uneven. Firm-specific forces in society, industry dynamics, and other environmental influences feature in how citizenship develops within a firm.Stage 1. ElementaryAt this base stage, citizenship activity in a company is episodic and its programs are undeveloped. The reasons are straightforward: scant awareness of what corporate citizenship is all about, uninterested or indifferent top management, and limited or one-way interactions with external stakeholders, particularly in the social and environmental sectors. The mindset in these companies, and associated policies and practices, often centers on simple compliance with laws and industry standards.Responsibilities for handling matters of compliance in these firms are usually assigned to the functional heads of human resources, the legal department, investor relations, public relations, and community affairs. The job of these functional managers is to make sure that the company obeys the law and to keep problems that might arise from harming the firm’s reputation. In many cases, they take a defensive stance toward outside pressures—e.g., Nike’s dealings with labor activists in the early 1990s.Some corporate leaders, for example, have espoused economist Milton Friedman’s notion that their company’s obligations to society are solely to“make a profit, pay taxes, and provide jobs.”20 Others, particularly those heading smaller and mid-size businesses, comply willingly with employment and health, safety, and environmental regulations but have neither the resources nor the wherewithal to do much more for their employees, communities, or society.Former General Electric CEO Jack Welch is an exemplar of this principled big-business view. “A CEO’s primary social responsibility is to assure the financial success of the company,” he says. “Only a healthy, winning company has the resources and capability to do the right thing.”21GE’s financial success over the past two decades is unquestioned. However, the company’s reputation suffered toward the end of Welch’s tenure when it was revealed that that one of its business units had discharged tons of the toxic chemical PCB into the Hudson River. When challenged, Welch was defensive and pointed out that GE had fully complied with then existing environmental protection laws.This illustrates one of the triggers that move a company forward into a new stage of citizenship. Welch’s sta nce was plainly out of touch with changing expectations of corporate responsibilities and the contradiction between GE’s success at wealth creation and loss of reputation was palpable. Welch’s successor,Jeffrey Immelt, reversed this course, accepted at least partial financial responsibility for the clean up, and thereafter reprioritized citizenship on the company’s agenda.中文译文企业公民的阶段全世界的商界领袖都认为企业公民是他们公司的一个优先环节。

外文资料翻译AbstractThis paper introduces the concept of knowledge networks toexplain why some business units are able to benefit from knowledgeresiding in other parts of the c ompany while others arenot. The core premise of this concept is that a proper u nderstandingof effective interunit knowledge sharing in a multiunitfirm requires aj oint consideration of relatedness in knowledgecontent among business units and t he network of lateral interunitrelations that enables task units to access related k nowledge.Results from a study of 120 new product developmentprojects in 41 bu siness units of a large multiunit electronicscompany showed that project teams o btained more existingknowledge from other units and completed their projects fas terto the extent that they had short interunit network paths to unitsthat possessed related knowledge. In contrast, neither networkconnections nor extent of related k nowledge alone explainedthe amount of knowledge obtained and project completi on time.The results also showed a contingent effect of having directinterunit relations i n knowledge networks: While establisheddirect relations mitigated problems of tra nsferring noncodifiedknowledge, they were harmful when the knowledge to be tra nsferredwas codified, because they were less needed but stillinvolved maintenance costs. These findings suggest that researchon knowledge transfers and synergies i n multiunit firmsshould pursue new perspectives that combine the concepts ofnetwork connections and relatedness in knowledge content.Why are some business u nitsable to benefit from knowledgeresiding in other parts of the company while othersare not? Both strategic management and organization theoryscholars have ex tensively researched this question,but differences in focus between the various ap proacheshave left us with an incomplete understanding of whatcauses knowledge sharing to occur and be beneficialacross business units in multiunit firms. In one line ofresearch, scholars have focused on similarity in knowledgecontent among b usiness units, arguing that a firmand its business units perform better tothe exten t thatunits possess related competencies that can be used bymultiple units (e.g., Rumelt 1974, Markides and Williamson1994, Farjoun 1998). While this knowledg e content viewhas demonstrated the importance of relatedness in skillbase, it doe s not shed much light on the integrative mechanismsthat would allow one busine ss unit to obtainknowledge from another (Ramanujam and Varadarajan1989, Hill 1994). When sharing mechanisms are consideredin this research, it is often assu med that the corporatecenter is able to identify and realize synergies arisingfrom similarity in knowledge content among businessunits, but this assumption is typic ally not tested empiricallyand excludes a consideration of lateral interunit relation s(Chandler 1994, Markides and Williamson 1994,Farjoun 1998).In other lines of research, in contrast, scholars havedemonstrated the importanc e of havinglateral linkagesamong organization subunits for effective knowledgesha ring to occ ur. Researchhas shown that a subunit’sinformation processing capacity is enhanced by lateralinterunit integration mechanisms (e.g., Galbraith 1973,1994; Egelhoff 1993; Gupta and Govindarajan 2000),product innovation knowledge flow s more efficientlythrough established relationships spanning subunitboundaries (Tu shman 1977, Ghoshal and Bartlett 1988,Nobel and Birkinshaw 1998,Hansen 199 9), and bestpractices are transferred more easily when a positive existingrelations hip exists between the two parties to atransfer (Szulanski 1996). These lines of r esearch on linkageshave, however, not incorporated opportunities forknowledge sh aring based on commonality in knowledgecontent among subunits, but has taken this aspect asgiven.Yet the existence of both related knowledge in thefirm—i.e., expertise in the f irm’s business units that canbe useful for tasks per formed in a focal business un itand a set of established linkages among business unitsseems necessary for inter unit knowledge sharing to occurand be effective. In this paper, I consider both d imensionsand develop theconcept of task-specific knowledge networks,which comp rise not only those business units thathave related knowledge for a focal task un it, but also theestablished direct and indirect interunit relations connectingthis sub set of business units.I define establishedinterunit relations as regularly occurring informal contactsbet ween groups of people from different businessunits in a firm, and I assume thatt ask units will be abletouse these relations to search for and access knowledgeresi ding in other business units.I make two main arguments. First, with respect to indirect relations (i.e., conne ctions throughintermediaries),I argue that task teams in focal business units with shortpath lengths in a knowledge network (i.e., few intermediariesare needed to c onnect with other units) are likelyto obtain more knowledge from other business units andperform better than those with long path lengths becauseof search benef its accruing to business units with shortpath lengths. Long path lengths, in contra st, lead to informationdistortion in the knowledge network, makingsearch for usef ul knowledge more difficult. Second, I arguethat a focal unit’s direct established relations in aknowledge network are a two-edged sword: While theyprovide im mediate access to other business units that possessrelated knowledge, they are als o costly to maintain.They are, therefore, most effective when they help teamssolve difficult transfer problems, as when the knowledgeto be transferred is noncodified (Szulanski 1996, Hansen1999). Whenthere is no transfer problem, they are likelyto be harmful fort ask-unit effectiveness because of theirmaintenance costs.This knowledge network model seeks to advance ourunderstanding of knowled ge sharing in multiunit companiesin several ways. First, by integrating the conce ptsof related knowledge and lateral network connections thatenable knowledge sharing, the model seeks to extend extantresearch that has addressed only one of th ese aspects.Second, while extant research on knowledge transferstends to focus o n direct relations (i.e., the dyadic linkbetween a recipient and a source unit of k nowledge), Ialso consider the larger organization context of indirectrelations, which are conduits for information about opportunitiesfor knowledge sh aring (cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett1990). This approach enables a richer understandin g ofsearch processes forknowledge use in multiunit firms.Third, while scholars of ten consider the positive effectsof network relations on knowledge sharing, I also considermaintenance costs of n etworks byincorporating thistime commitment in analyzing the impact of interunit networkrelations on knowledge-sharing effectiveness inmultiunit firms.Knowledge Networks in Multiunit FirmsThe joint consideration of related knowledge and lateralinterunit relations of a knowledge network is illustratedin Figure 1 for a new product development team, whichis the unit of analysis in this paper. Diagram 1a illustratesa network of re lations among all business units in a firm,but does not partition these units into those that have relatedknowledge for the focal new product developmentteam, A (i.e., a pure network consideration). Diagram 1b,in contrast, partitions the busines s units in the firm intothose that have related knowledge for the focal productde velopment team (A) and those that have not, but thereis no consideration of then etwork among the units (i.e.,a pure related knowledge consideration). Diagram 1 illustratesa project-specific knowledge network: Businessunits are partitioned into t hose that have related knowledgefor the focal product development team (A), an d thecomplete set of network ofrelations among them are included,including both direct and indirect relations (i.e.,intermediarylinks connecting the focal unit with othersin the knowledge network). Both the indirect and directrelations affect the extent to which a focal product developmentteam is able to obtain knowledge fr om otherbusiness units and use it to perform better.Effects of Indirect Relations in Knowledge NetworksA product development team’s direct and indirect interunitrelations in its know ledge network affect the effectivenessof its search for useful knowledge by being importantconduits for information about opportunities the existence, whereabouts, a nd relevance of substantiveknowledge residing in other business units. While busi nessunits in the network may not be able to pass onproduct-specific knowledge directly, as such knowledgeoften requires direct interaction with the source to be extracted,a focal team that hears about opportunitiesthrough the network can cont act the source directly toobtain the knowledge. Sucknowledge,as defined here,incl udes product-specific technical know-how, knowledgeabout technologies and mark ets, as well as knowledgeembodied in existing solutions, such as already develop edhardware and software.Although direct relations in the knowledge networkprovide immediate access a nd hence areespecially usefulfor a focal team inquiring about opportunities, indire ctrelations are beneficialas well, because information aboutopportunities is likely t o be passed on by intermediaryunits and eventually reach the focal team, provide d thatbusiness units in the knowledge networkare reachable.1The idea that interm ediaries pass on messages and thatthey help forge connections has been well sup ported incommunications and social network research. Studies investigatingthe “s mall-world” phenomenon demonstratedthat the path length (i.e., the minimum nu mber of intermediaries)needed to connect two strangers from differentstates in the United Stateswas remarkably short and consistedof about five to seven intermedia ries (Milgram1967, Kochen 1989, Watts 1999). Early work on innovationresearch showed that new product developmentteams benefited from having a gatekeeper o r boundaryspanner, that is, a person who scans and interprets theteam’s environm ent and then passes on information to therest of the tea (Allen 1977, Katz and Tushman 1979).In social network research, Granovetter (1973) showedthat intermediary persons who are weakly tied to a focalperson are uniquely plac ed to pass on information aboutnew job opportunities because they are more likely thanstrongly tied connections to possess nonredundant information.The common thread in these lines of work is thatindirect relations are pervasi ve conduits for information.Intermediaries help forge connections and pass on me ssagesthat bridge two otherwise disconnected actors.However, indirect interunit relations may not be perfectconduits of informationa bout opportunities. As informationgets passed on across people from different uni ts,there is likely to be some degree of imperfect transmissionof the message abo ut opportunities for knowledgeuse. In particular, when information about opportun itieshas to be passed on through many intermediaries (i.e.,through long paths, cf. Freeman 1979), it is likely to becomedistorted (Bartlett 1932, March and Simon 1958).People who exchange such information are prone to misunderstandingeach other, forgetting details, failing tomention all that they know to others, filtering, or deliberatelywithholding aspects of what they know (Collinsand Guetzkow 1964 Huberand Daft 1987, Gilovich1991). The distortion may be unintentional or delib erate(O’Reilly 1978). Huber (1982) relates a drama tic example,originally provided by Miller (1972), of a mistakemade during the Vietnam War. The chain of mess ageswas as follows: The order from headquarters to the brigadewas “on no occas ion must hamlets be burned down,”the brigade radioed the battalion “do not bur n down anyhamlets unless you are absolutely convinced that the VietCong are in them;” the battalion radioed the infantry companyat the scene “if you think there are any Viet Congin the hamlet, burn it down;” the company commanderordered his troops “burn down that hamlet.” Thus, themore intermediaries needed, the hig her the chances ofsuch distortion, and hence the less precise is the informationth at is passed on (Miller 1972, Huber 1982).The implication of receiving imprecise information inthis context is that a proj ect team cannot easily focus ona few opportunities that are especially relevant, b ut mustinstead check anumber of imprecise leads to verifywhether they are releva nt for the team, resulting in a moreelaborate interunit search process that takes ti me. For example,a project manager in my study told me that he hadbeen told b y a third party in the company about a groupof engineer in another unit who were supposed to havesome useful technical know-how, but when he was ableto r each them after trying for a while, it turned out thatthe know-how was not relev ant for the project. Such fruitlesssearches not only take time, but also cause dela ys inthe project to the extent that the needed knowledge inputholds up the comp letion of other parts of he project.Because of the problem of information distorti on whenrelying on intermediary units, a focal team is likely tobenefit from short path lengths in the knowledge network(i.e., few intermediaries required to connec t a team in afocal unit with other units). Short path lengths enable theteam to k now about precisely described opportunities involvingrelated knowledge and allow it to discard informationabout irrelevant opportunities. The team can thenfocus on opportunities with a high degree of realizationpotential and can quickly contact p eople in these unitsand begin working with them to extract and incorporatetheir knowledge into the focal project. Thus, less time isspent evaluating and pursuing opportunities, reducing effortsdevoted to problemistic search, including search effo rtsthat establish that no useful opportunities exist(Cyert and March 1992). Teams with short path lengthsare thus more likely than teams with long path lengths to hear about more opportunities that overall yield more usefulknowledge, to the ext ent that opportunities are notredundant to one another. All else equal, this benefi tshould reduce a focal team’s time to complete t he project.The arguments can be summarized in two hypotheses.HYPOTHESIS 1. The shorter a team’s path lengths inthe knowledge network, the more knowledge obtainedfrom other business units by the team. HYPOTHESIS 2. The shorter a team’s path lengths inthe knowledge network, the shorter th project completiontime.Effects of Direct Relations in Knowledge NetworksThe shortest possible path length is to have an establisheddirect relation to all other business units in a knowledgenetwork. Such a network position does not re quire anyintermediary units and should remove the informationdistortion caused by using intermediaries. However, unlikeindirect relations, which are maintained by intermediarybusiness units, direct interunit relations need to bemaintained by peo ple in the focal business unit, possiblyincluding focal team members, and require their own setof activities that take time. In the company I studied, forexample, product developers spent time outside of theirprojects traveling to other business units on a regular basisto discuss technology developments, market opportunities,a nd their respective product development programs.Such interunit network mainten ancecan be adistraction from completing specific project tasks: Timespent on mai ntaining direct contacts is time not spent oncompleting project-related tasks. Although direct interunit relations involve maintenancecosts, they also provide a benefit incertain situations:Established direct relations between a focal team and anotherbusiness unit may be helpful when the team identifiesknowledge that requ ires effort to be moved from thesource unit and incorporated into the project. Fo r example,in a number of projects in my sample, team memberswere frequently able to obtain software code from engineersin other business units, but sometime s the engineerswho wrote the code needed to explain it and help the teamto inc orporate the code into the new project. Receivingsuch help was often much easie r when the team and theengineers providing the code knew each other beforehan d.This likely positive aspect of direct relations needsto be compared with their maintenance costs.Direct relations are especially helpful when a team isexperienci ng transfer difficulties—i.e., spending significanttime extracting, moving, and inco rporating knowledgefrom other subunits—because the knowledge is noncodified,w hich is defined as knowledge that is difficultto adequately articulate in writing (Zander and Kogut1995, Hansen 1999). Relying on establisheddirect relationsmay ease the difficulties of transferring noncodifiedknowledge, because the team and people in the directlytied unit have most likely worked with each other beforean d have thus established some heuristics for workingtogether, reducing the time itt akes to explainthe knowledgeand understand one another (Uzzi 1997, Hansen199 9). When a focal team experiences significant transferdifficulties because of noncodified knowledge, having establisheddirect relations to related business units is li kelyto reduce the amount of time spent transferring knowledge,which may offset the costs of maintaining such relationsand shortening project completion time. In particular,having a number of direct relations in a knowledgenetwork increases th e likelihood that a team will be ableto use one of them in transferring noncodifi ed knowledge.Thus, while indirect relations are beneficial to the extentthat they serve as inte rmediaries that provide a focal unitwith nonredundant information, direct relations are beneficialto transferring noncodified knowledge, implyingthat the benefit of ha ving intermediaries supplying nonredundantinformation is relative (cf. Burt 1992).I n contrast, this transfer benefit of direct relations isless important when a focal t eam can easily extract andincorporate the knowledge that was identified in anoth ersubunit, as when that knowledge is highly codified. Inthese situations, direct int erunit relations are not usefulfor transfer, but they still carry maintenance costsw hichtake time away from the completion of the project to theextent that team me mbers d not have slack resources thatcan be devoted to maintaining these relatio nships. Themore suchrelations that are maintained by a focal unit,the higher the maintenance costs, and the more time istaken away from completing a project. T he arguments canbe summarized as follows:HYPOTHESIS 3A. The higher a team’s number of directrelations in the know ledge network, the shorter the projectcompletion time when the knowledge to be transferredis noncodified.HYPOTHESIS 3B. The higher a team’s number of directrelations in the knowl edge network, the longer the projectcompletion time when the knowledge to be tr ansferred iscodified.Data and MethodsSettingI tested the knowledge network model in a large, multidivisionaland multinatio nal electronics company (hereaftercalled “the Company”). I negotiated access to t hecompany through three senior corporate R&D managersand initially visited 14 divisions where I conducted openendedinterviews with 50 project engineers and managersto better understand the context, and todevelop surveyinstruments. The c ompany, which has annual sales ofmore than $5 billion, is involved in developin g, manufacturing,and selling a range of industrial and consumerelectronics produc ts and systems, and is structured into41 fairly autonomous operating divisions tha t are responsiblefor product development, manufacturing, and sales.By focusing on these divisions, I was able to compareunits that occupy the sa me formal position in the Company,thereby controlling for a potential source of variationin formal structure. They all had the same formalstatus as a business uni t with profit-and-loss responsibility,all had a general manager, and none of the di visionsreported to another division. In additio to interunit relations,there were a f ew other integrative mechanismsacross divisions, notably divisionwide conferences andelectronic knowledge management systems, but initial interviewsrevealed that these did not vary much among thedivisions.Selecting Product Development ProjectsI used two surveys: a network survey administered to theR&D managers in th e 41 divisions and a survey for theproject managers of the product development projects includedin this study. In selecting projects, I first createda list of all projects that the di visions had undertaken duringthe three-year period prior to the time of data colle ction.I then excluded very small projects (i.e., those withless than two project engineers) and projects that had notyet moved from the investigation to the developmentphase and were therefore ha rd to track I also excludedidiosyncratic projects that had no meaningful start and end (e.g., special ongoing customer projects). Includingonly successfully complete d projects may lead to an overrepresentationof successful projects, biasing the res ults.I therefore included both canceled projects and projectsstill in progress. After having removed too-small, premature,and idiosyncratic projects, I ended up with a listof 147 projects. The project managers of 120 of thesereturned their survey, yielding a response rate of 85%. Ofthe 120 projects, 22 were still in progress at the time ofdata collection, four had been canceled, and 54 reporteda significant t ransfer event involving another division.Specifying Project-Specific Knowledge NetworksIdentifying Related Subunits. Together with the threecorporate R&D managers, I developed a list of 22 technicalcompetencies that constituted related knowledgea reas(see Appendix 1 for the list of technical competencies).2 I asked the R&D managers in the divisions toindicate up to four specific competencies of their divisionson this list and to add any if they thought the listwas incomplete. The three corporate R&D managers r eviewedthe responses to verify whether it made sense togroup those divisions tha t had reported the same competence.The project managers of the 120 projects we rethen asked to indicate what technical competencies thespecific project required and were presented with thesame list that was presented to the divisional R&D managers.Thus, for a given project, a number of divisionshad a competence that matche d the requirements listedby the project manager (see Appendix 1 for the distribut ionof projects per competence). For example, a projectmanager indicated that his project required technicalcompetencies in three areas: distributed measurement,communication system monitoring, and optics. Twelve different divisions had at least one of these technical competenciesand thus constituted theknowledge network fo rthis particular project.Specifying Interunit Relations. A group of engineers ina di vision typically maintained an informal regular contactwith a group of engineers inanother division, and aproject team would use such contacts to access other di visions.These relationships were common knowledge inthat most product develope rs seemed to know about theirexistence and how to use them, and I was told in preliminaryinterviews that a main responsibility of a division’sman agers was to p rovide these contacts for his or herproject teams,should the need arise. I therefor e assumedthat at least one member of a project team woul knowabout the divisi onal-level contacts and that the teammembers could access these contacts if they wanted to.Because of the importance of these interdivisional contactsin the compa ny, I chose to focus on these types ofcontacts.Following previous research, I use d a key informant toobtain information on interdivisional relations (Knokeand Ku klinski 1982, Marsden 1990). I considered the divisionalR&D managers to be the most appropriate informantsbecause they were “in the thick of things” in theR& D department in their division. The R&D manager ineach of the 41 divisions re ceived a questionnaire asking,“Over the past two years, are there any divisions fr omwhom your division regularly sought technical and/ormarket-related input?”3 T he question was followed by alist of the 41 divisions included in the study, allo wingrespondents to indicate whether they had a tie to any onthe list, leading to a complete network where everybodywas asked whether a tie existed with everyb ody else(Marsden 1990). Because I asked everybody to indicatewhether a tie exis ted with each of the other 40 divisions,I avoided a potential bias resulting from having to asksomeone to ascertain whether ties exist among others(Krackhardt an d Kilduff 1999).To validate the responses, I employed the crossvalidationmethod used by Krac khardt (1990by askingthe R&D managers who comes to them for input. Anactual tie exists when both divisions agree that one comesto the other for input. I then sent an e-mail to all of theR&D managers, asking them about the ones about whichthere was no joint agreement. On the basis of their responses,I included som e of these suspect ties and excludedothers.Merging Network and Project Data. I constructedproject-specific knowledge net works by including all relationsamong divisions possessing related knowledge fora given project. For example, for the aforementioned projectfor which there were12 related divisions, I includedall relations among these 12 divisions, and this ne tworkconstituted the project-specific knowledge network. Toconstruct these project -specific networks, I merged theproject data with the divisional network data by ass igninga division’s network relations to its projects. Thus, interdivisionalties bec ame the equivalent of interdivisionalproject ties. It is important to record thevalu es on thenetwork variables prior to the start of a project becausemy theoretical a rguments assume that a project team usesestablished preexisting interunit ties to s earch for andtransfer knowledge. Following the approach of Burt(1992) and Podo lny and Baron (1997), I handled this issueby measuring the interdivisional netwo rk relationsover several years by only assigning network ties thatexisted prior to the start of the project. This proceduregenerated time-varying network data from informationthat the respondents could recall.The potential bias in this approach is that it may excludesome relations that e xisted prior to a project’s startbut that ceased to exist by the time the R&D ma nagerscompleted the survey. This problem can be partially controlledfor. This pot ential bias should be more of a problemfor projects in divisions in which relatio ns come andgo than in divisions with long-lasting relations. If a division’srelatio ns are long lasting, then it is less likelythat there were some relations that cease d to exist betweenthe time just prior to the project’s start and the timeof surveying. To control for this potential bias, I entereda control variable for th e average age of direct relationsto related subunits (Age relations).Dependent VariablesProject Completion Time. To assess project task performance,I measured project completion time as thenumber of months from the start of concept developmen tto the time of marketintroduction for a given project (ortime to the end of the study period or cancellation forongoing and canceled projects, respectively). I def inedstarting time as the month when a dedicated personstarted working part or f ull time on the project, whichtypically coincided with the time an account was o penedfor the project. I defined the end date as the date on whichthe product was released to shipment, which is a formalmilestone date in this co mpany because it signifies thatthe product is ready to be manufactured and shipp ed ona regular basis. These definitions turned out to be veryclear and provided f ew problems in specifying the startand completion times, which were 14.8 months on averagefor completed projects. Scholars have proposed two alternative measures ofcompletion time. First, com pletion timecan be measuredas the extent to which the project is finished on sch edule(e.g., Ancona andCaldwell 1992). The assumption in thisschedule measure is that inherent project differences areaccounted for in the original schedule, but als o that everybodysets equally ambitious schedules, which was mostlikely not true in this company, where individual projectmanagers set their own targets. A second approach is togroup projects according to some similarity measure andthen take a project’s deviation from the mean completiontime of the group (Eisenhardtan d Tabrizi 1995). Theproblem with this approach is that the mean deviationrelies on a clearsimilarity measure that was not easy toattain in this setting. Given that these two alternativemethods seemed problematic, I chose to use the numberof m onths as the dependent variableand then add projectspecificvariables to control for inherent differences betweenthe projects.Amount Acquired Knowledge. During field interviewsI was told that the most c ommon knowledge that projectteams received from other divisions took the form of technicalsolutions embodied in already developed softwarecode and hardware components. T here were two types of“ware” being used in the projects—standar input to theproducts being made (e.g., components that were used innearly all os cilloscopes being manufactured), and warethat helped solve ad hoc problems that。

Unite 1. Precursors in Management Theory管理理论的先驱们Read the following questions first, which will help you understand the text below better, and then answer the questions after reading the text carefully.先看看下面的问题，这些问题将有助于你更好地理解后面的课文，仔细地读完课文后再回答这些问题。

l. Why did Kenneth Feld consider management as "the greatest job on earth"?为什么肯尼斯-费尔德把管理看做地球上最伟大的工作？2. How can work be done most efficiently according to your opinion based on management knowledge?根据自己的管理知识，你认为怎样工作才能最有效率？3. What is the real meaning of the phrase –“management theory jungle”?术语“管理理论丛林”的真正含义是什么？4. Why is Frederick Winslow Taylor regarded as the Father of Scientific Management?为什么人们把弗雷德里克-温斯洛-泰勒视作科学管理之父？5. What is the main idea of Taylor's famous book, The Principles of Scientific Management?泰勒著名的《科学管理原理》一书，主要观点是什么？Dating back to the ancient times, we may discover that the basic principles of management had their beginnings in the birth of civilization, when people first began to live in groups and first sought to improve their lot in life. Ever since people began forming groups to accomplish aims they could not achieve as individuals, managing has been essential to ensure the coordination of individual efforts. Kenneth Feld, president of Ringling Bro. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, once described management as "the greatest job on earth", for one of the most important human activities is managing.追溯到古代时候，我们可以发现管理的基本原理在文明起源之时就已经开始了（存在了），（在那时）当人们最早开始群体生活，最早寻求改善生活。

Special English ReadingUnit 1The Evolution of Management as a Field of StudyPart 1 new words（computer，illustrative sentence）autobiography [ɔːtəbaɪ'ɒgrəfɪ] n. 自传；自传文学[ 复数 autobiographies ] we don’t have to speculate because the President tells us himself in his autobiography,Dreams from My Father.不必猜测，因为这位总统在自传中已经告诉了我们——《来自父亲的梦想》。

memoir['memwɑː]n. 回忆录；研究报告；自传；实录Until I read his memoir, I had no idea how difficultthe pressure-packed years had been for him, or how hard hehad been on himself, and me.直到我后来读了他的回忆录，才知道被压力重重包围的这些年他是多么艰难，而且他对自己和对我的要求是多么严格。

anthropologist[,ænθrə'pɒlədʒɪst]n. 人类学家；人类学者This is something I learned as an anthropologist–people loveto tell their stories.这是我作为一名人类学家所理解的----人们喜欢讲述自己的故事。

perspective n. 观点；远景；透视图adj. 透视的There is much that might be said about friendships.They allow us to seeourselves from the perspective of another.关于友谊的说法可能有很多种，这使得我们能从别人的观点里看到我们自己。

The concert of utility效用概念Economists first began to analyze consumer behavior over a century ago when it was fashionable in psychological circles, to assert that much of human behavior could be explained by people’s desire to realize as much “pleasure” and to avoid as much “pain” as possible. The pleasure-pain doctrine was quickly borrowed by economists and applied to the sphere of consumer expenditures in what became the first systematic theory of motivated consumer behavior; the basic economic thesis was that rational consumers would ,quite intentionally ,manage their purchases of goods and services so as to realize the greatest possibleamountofoveralltotal“satisfaction”.Eco nomistslabeledthewant-satisfying power of goods and services as “utility”.经济学家最开始研究消费者行为学是在一个多世纪前当心理学界流行一种说法：人们的很多行为可以解释为人们为了尽可能获得更多的幸福、规避更多的痛苦而做的努力。

Unit 1 Self-introductionLesson 1-1: Letters of self-introductionYou are a number of the ‘Pen pals’ club at the school. The blub often receives letters from students of various countries. In those letters the writers all introduce themselves. They want to ask for pen pals. Now the director of the club is putting them up on the school bulletin board. You may choose your pen pal there. What will effect you decision? It can be age, gender, or interests. Read the letters below and choose the one you are interest in.‗I am a Finnish girl, and I an 19. I want to write to a pleasant Chinese student who can speak English. I also study English at school. What I like to do most after class is cooking, swimming, and collecting stamps. Please write to : PO Box 135, 00382 Helsinki, Finland.‘‗I am a Japanese boy, and I am 18 years old. I have English lesson at school and I like them very much. I would like a pen pal who is also leaning English so that we could exchange letters in English. My hobbies are pop music, football, and coin collecting. We can talk about our hobbies in our letters. Please write to me at this address: PO box 138, Tokyo, Japan.‘―I am Charlie Smith of the United States, and I am a college student. We have many subjects in our school, but I li ke Chinese best, and I think I‘m do ing pretty well in it. Moreover, I like Chinese language so much that I practice it even after class on my own. Now I am looking for a pen pal form Chinese so that we can write letters in Chinese. Perhaps we can exchange visits some day.I love travelling and I hope to see China with my own eyes some day. Write to me and tell anything and everything about your country. I am eager to hear all about it .‖New wordsIntroduction [,ɪntrə'dʌkʃən]n.介绍Pal [pæl]n.朋友(口),伙伴Club[klʌb] n. 俱乐部Various ['vɛəriəs]a.不同的,多方面的;各种各样的Introduce[,ɪntrə'dju:s]vt. 介绍;传入;引进Director [di'rektə]n.负责人,主管;理事Bulletin ['bulitin]n.公告;布告Board[bɔ:d] n.木板Affect[ə'fekt] vt.影响Decision[di'siʒən] n.决定;裁决Gender ['dʒendə]n.性别Interest['intrist] n.兴趣;利益;利息vt.使(某人)感兴趣Collect[kə'lekt] vt .收集,收藏Exchange[iks'tʃeindʒ]vt .交换,互换;交流Hobby ['hɔbi]n. 业余爱好Coin[kɔin] n. 硬币Address[ə'dres] n. 地址Subject['sʌbdʒikt] n. 学科,科目;主题Pretty ['priti]ad. 相当a.非常,Moreover[mɔ:'rəuvə]ad.而且,此外Practice['præktis]v. 练习n. 实践Eager['i:ɡə] a.热切的,渴望的,迫切的Exercise['eksəsaiz] v.PHRASES AND EXPRESSIONSpen pal 笔友ask fo r 要求,请求put up 张贴bulletin board公告栏;布告牌be interested in对…感兴趣PO box 邮政信箱would lik e想要pop music 流行音乐talk abou t 谈论do well 学得好;成功;做得好so … that (表示目的)为的是,以便;(表示结果)如此…以至于…,结果on one‘s own单独地,靠自己地;独自some day/ someday将来有一天,总有一天be eager to do sth. 热切期望做某事,渴望做某事,急切想做某事Look forward to doing热切希望Expect[iks'pekt]vt. 期望so … that (表示目的)为的是,以便;(表示结果)如此…以至于…,结果Proper namesFinnish ['finiʃ]adj. 芬兰的/人的/语的n.芬兰语Helsinki['helsiŋki]n. 赫尔辛基Finland['fɪnlənd]n. 芬兰Tokyo ['təukjəu]n. 东京Charlie smith['tʃɑ:lɪ][smɪθ]查理.史密斯United states 美国Other wordsComprehension [,kɔmpri'henʃən]n.理解Comprehensible[,kɔmprɪ'hensəbəl] a.理解的Decisive [di'saisiv]adj.决定性的Decision [di'siʒən]n.决定Decide [di'said]v.决定Passage ['pæsidʒ]n. 信息Passenger['pæsindʒə]n乘客Director[di'rektə]n.责任人Direct [di'rekt] vt管理,指导Choice [tʃɔis]n.选择Choose[tʃu:z]vt. & vi. 选择Collection[kə'lekʃən]n收集Collect [kə'lekt]vt.收集Trend [trend]n趋势Consumer[kən'sju:mə]n消费者Consume[kən'sju:m]vt消费/耗Consumable[kən'sju:məbl]adj.n消费的, 消费appropriate[ə'prəupriit]adj适当的, [ə'prəuprieit]n挪用sales department销售部envelop[en'veləp]vt.包围, 笼罩, 包住envelope['envələup]n.信封toss [tɔs]vt. & vi.抛起扔; 投; 抛；(使)摇荡; 使颠簸Lesson 1-2 Introducing OneselfTo introduce oneself is to give information about oneself. This information usually includes your name, date and palace of birth, address, phone number, education, work experience, interests, hobbies and so forth. In this way you let others know who you are. When you do the self-introduction, you sometime concentrate only on one event, person, place, or experience in order to show a certain aspect of your life. Look at the following example of self-introduction.Good morning, everyone! This is our first lesson and I‘d like to introduce myself to you. My name is David Hume. Just call me David, please. I am form United States, and I wasborn into a teacher family. My father was a primary school art teacher. I was only boy among seven children in my family. That was enough to make me important, but my father loved me especially, because he knew his son was going to an artist. When I was small, I used to spend hours by myself drawing lovely small animals. If my mother sent me out to play in the square, I would go on drawing in the dust under the trees. One of my favorite models was my younger sister Linda. My father did not have much word to do at the school, so he was able to teach me in his spare time. In 2002, I graduate in art form Boston university. You know the story form there, I think. I love china and I love Chinese people. That is why I am here.New wordsInformation [,ɪnfə'meiʃən]n.信息,消息;情报Include[in'klu:d] vt.包括,包含Education [,edju:'keiʃən]n.教育Experience[iks'piəriəns] n.经历;经验,阅历vt.经历Aspect['æspekt] n.方面Following['fɔləuiŋ] a.下列的,接着的Primary ['praiməri] a.初级的;最初的Art [ɑ:t]n.美术;艺术Especially[is'peʃəli] ad.特别地Artist ['ɑ:tist]n.画家;艺术家Square [skwɛə]n.楼间空地;广场Dust [dʌst]n.尘土;灰尘Favorite .[ˈfeivərit]a.特别喜爱的n.特别喜爱的人或物Model ['mɔdəl]n.模特儿;模型Spare [spɛə] a.空闲的,多余的Graduate['ɡrædjueit]v.毕业['ɡrædjuit]arj.n.University [,ju:ni'və:siti]n.综合性大学concentrate['kɔnsəntreit]vt. & vi.专心于; 注意；集中, 聚集vt.浓缩forth[fɔ:θ]adv.向前, 往外Phrases and expressionsWork experience工作经验and so forth等等;诸如此类etc. and so as, etc.[it'setrə]et ceterain this way以这种方式concentrate on sth. 全神贯注于某事,专心致志于某事in order to为了,方便introduce oneself to sb.把自己介绍给别人be born into 出生于(家庭)used to do sth. 过去习惯/常做某事by oneself on one‘s ow n 单独地send(sb.) out让(某人)出去;派出,送出go on doing sth. 继续(不断)做某事graduate in … form …从….(学校)…(专业)毕业graduation 毕业Proper namesDavid hume['deivid] [hju:m]大卫.休姆Linda ['lində]琳达Boston['bɔstən]n波士顿Boston university波士顿大学OtherDrop out of school辍学seriously['sɪərɪəslɪ]adv.严重地;危险地;认真地;严肃地;真的(表示吃惊)；说真的；<非正>很;非常Christmas['krisməs]n.圣诞节proper ['prɔpə]adj.适合的; 适当的; 适用的;恰当的；遵守规则的; 正确的；严格意义的;固有特有的preposition[,prepə'ziʃən]n.介词be suppose to doNouns [naun] n.1.名词Elect [i'lekt]vt.(进行)选举, 推举；选择, 决定(做某事) 推选courage['kʌridʒ]n.勇气, 胆量fruit[fru:t]n.成果, 结果；水果; 果实equipment[i'kwipmənt]n.设备furniture['fə:nitʃə]n.家具committee[kə'miti]n.委员会communicate[kə'mju:nikeit]vt. & vi.传达/播,通知withcommunion[kə'mju:njən]n.交流,友谊communist[ˈkɔmjunist]arj.n.共产主义者,…的communitarian[kəˈmju:niˈtɛəriən]n共产主义/成员的community[kə'mju:niti]n.社会communize['kɔmjunaiz]v.使公有化proverb['prɔvəb]n.谚语,从所周的人或物inaccurate[ɪn'ækjərɪt]adj.不准确的situation[,sitju'eiʃən]n.环境,趋势bracket ['brækit]n.括弧框架,括号vt放入…括号government['ɡʌvənmənt]n.政府italicize[i'tælisaiz]vt.用斜体字排字,在字下划横线survive [sə'vaiv]vi.幸存,活下来vt.比…活得长, 经历…之后还存在survivor [sə'vaivə]n.幸存者;残存者;生还者survival[sə'vaivəl]n.幸存, 生存；残存的人[物]; 遗物; 遗风secretary['sekrətəri]n.秘书；书记；部长, 大臣airport['ɛəpɔ:t]n.航空站, 机场, 航空港why[hwai]adv.为什么int.呵唷, 哎呀, 嗨yeah['jeə]adv.( yes的俗音)；(用于表示对后说的话不相信)task[tɑ:sk]n.工作; 任务; 差事Michael smithNancy churchPhil wattsLinda brownBritainUnit 2 Meeting and introducing peopleLesson 2-1 Meeting and greeting customsPeople follow some customs in social situation. A younger person is usually introduced to an older one; a man is introduced to a woman; a guest to the host or hostess, and a person go a group. When making an introduction, we should mention the name of the person we respect first. When introducing a man and a woman, we should mention the woman‘s name first(unless the man is very old of very famous). When introducing two men of two women, we should put the older person‘s name first. If both are the same age, it is not important which the name comes first.People nod, smile and usually shake hands when they introduced to each other. In a business situation, men always shake hands with one another. But women do not often shake hands when they meet for the first time.Here are some different meeting and greeting customs around the world:In Chile, people usually shake hands when they meet for the first time. When two women first meet, they sometime kiss each other on the cheek. Women also greet both male and female friend with a kiss. Chilean men give their friends warm hugs or sometime kiss women on the cheek.Finns greet each other with a firm handshake. Hugs and kiss are only for close friends and family.People in the United States shake hands when they are first introduced. Friends and family numbers often hug and kiss on the cheek when they meet each other. In these situation, menkiss women but not other men.British people rarely keep hold of your hands for very long then they shake hands. But in many other countries in the world it is not polite to let go off hand to soon. Unfortunately, this makes many people think the British people are not friendly.New wordsGreet [ɡri:t]vt.问候,向…致意Custom ['kʌstəm]n.习惯,风俗Follow['fɔləu] vt.遵从;跟随Social ['səuʃəl]a.社交的;社会的;爱交际的Situation[,sitju'eiʃən]n.场合;形势occasionHost [həust] n.主人,主持人vt.主办;担任…的主持Guest [ɡest] n.来客,vt款待vi作客Hostess ['həʊstɪs]n.女主人;女房东Mention['menʃən]vt.&n.提及,说起Motion['məuʃən]vt.(向…)打手势, 示意n.(物体的)运动；手势Respect[ris'pekt] vt.&n敬重,尊敬Unless[ʌn'les] conj.除非….Nod[nɔd] v.&n.点头Shake[ʃeik] v.&n.shook,shaken 摇动,摇Different ['difərənt]a.不同的,有区别的Cheek[tʃi:k] n.脸颊,脸蛋儿Hug[hʌɡ] v &n.hugged, hugged 拥抱Firm[fə:m] a.有力的;牢固的;坚决的Handshake['hænd,ʃeɪk]n.握手Rarely['rɛəli]ad.很少地,罕有的Polite[pə'lait]a.有礼貌的;客气的Unfortunately[,ʌn'fɔ:tʃənitli] ad.不幸地Phrases and expressionssocial situation社交场合occasion[ə'keiʒən]n.shake hands (with)与…握手one another互相each otheraround the world在世界范围内,在世界各地keep hold of握住for long长久地;长期地(多用于否定及疑问句)let go off 松开,放开Proper namesChile['tʃili]n.智利Chilean['tʃiliən]n.智利人,智利的Finn [fin]n.芬兰人Others wordsmanners['mænə]n.方式, 方法；态度；礼貌, 规矩；(人或物的)种类opinion[ə'pinjən]n.观点attitude['ætitju:d]n.态度, 看法；姿态, 姿势affair [ə'fɛə]n.发生的事情; 大事; 事件；事务, 事态event[i'vent]n.事件, 大事；运动项目privacy ['praivəsi]n.隐私extra['ekstrə]adj.额外的interrupt[,ɪntə'rʌpt]vt. & vi.打断keep hold ofinjure['indʒə]vt.受外伤suitable['sju:təbl]adj.适宜的necessary['nesisəri]adj.需要n.translate [træns'leit]vt. & vi.转换Lesson 2-2 Meeting and making friends on campusWhat con you do when you find yourself in the school without enough friends? You can try to meet and make friends on campus! It is not difficult task. There are several methods to master, and you may find it easy when you try them out.You can start by looking around at people in your classes, dorms and dining halls. You will see them very often. An easy way to start a conversation is to talk about everyone is interested in. For example, before of after classes, ask, ―did you get the assignment for next week?‖ or ― what did you think of the professor‘s theory of …?‖ This helps you start a conversation. Be sure to introduce yourself before the end of the conversation.If your campus has other dining places, such as a café of a small restaurant, them there will be more opportunitie s for meeting people. After you‘ve introduced yourself and talked about class, it‘s the perfect time to ask the other person to join you for a cup of coffee of dinner in one of these places. Once you are at the table, if should be easier to talk about where you‘re form, what your major is , what you think of the class, whether it is easy or hard, etc. It will be much easier to suggest meeting again in other places.There are many other places where you will see people over and over again. Join a club,interest group of sports team. This means joining a community, and it is also a good way to meet people. You can get a job writing for the school newspaper. Read the newspaper of go online to look for social events.Attend concerts and cultural events. All these help one meet people with common interests in a relaxed setting.New wordsCampus ['kæmpəs]n..n校园task[tɑ:sk] n.任务;工作method['meθəd] n.方法master['mɑ:stə]vt.撑握,精通n.主人；男教师; 院长；大师adj.精通的dorm[dɔ:m] n. dormitory['dɔ:mitri] n.宿舍;寝室conversation [,kɔnvə'seiʃən]n会话assignment [ə'sainmənt]n分配的..作业;任务theory['θiəri] n理论;学说café n 咖啡馆,小餐馆opportunity[,ɔpə'tju:niti] n良机,机会perfect['pə:fikt] a.完美的,无瑕的,级好的[pə'fekt]vt.使…完美; 改善once[wʌns] conj.一旦Major ['meidʒə]n a.专业Subject ['sʌbdʒikt]n.项目,科目[səb'dʒekt]vt.使服从, 征服, 制伏Suggest [sə'dʒest]vt建议Community[kə'mju:niti] n.团体;社区Event [i'vent]n.大事;事件Cultural['kʌltʃərəl]a.文化的;与文化有关的Common ['kɔmən]a.共同的,公共的;常见的__普遍的;一般的Relaxed [rɪ'lækst]a.轻松的;不拘束的Setting ['setiŋ]n环境,背景backgroundPhrases and expressionsMake friends with sb.与.交友on campus在校园里try out 试验look around/round寻找;到外看be sure to do sth. 一定/务必做某事,口语Such as =for example例如,像-用于举例join sb. For sth.与某人一起-做某事;加入whether … or …是… 还是…over and over (again)再三地,重复地interest group兴趣小组go online 上网hold a conversationlook for寻找(某人或某物)look up向上看; 抬头看;查找seek[si:k]vt. & vi.寻找; 探寻vi.企图; 试图vt.请求, 征求; 求教Other wordsideal[ai'diəl]adj理想的mainly['meɪnli:]adv.主要地direct[di'rekt] director[di'rektə]n.主管;负责人;理事employ[im'plɔi] employer[im'plɔiə]n. 雇主employee[,emplɔi'i:]n.雇员calculate['kælkjuleit] calculator['kælkjuleitə]n.计算器/者translate [træns'leit] translation[træns'leiʃən]n.译者;翻译器invent [in'vent] vt. inventor[ɪn'ventə]n.发明家articles 冠词pronouns['prəunaun]n.名词movie['mu:vi]n.电影award[ə'wɔ:d]vt.n.奖wounded[ˈwu:ndɪd]adj.伤员的practice makes perfect 熟能生巧statue of liberty自由女神像['stætju:] n.雕像, 塑像['libəti]n.自由, 自主；〈正式〉许可权looking-glass =mirror镜子indefinite[in'definit]adj.无限期的；不明确的prize[praiz]n奖vt.珍视, 珍惜soccer['sɔkə]n.英式足球mechanical[mi'kænikəl]adj.机械的engineering[,endʒi'niəriŋ]n.工程学mechanics[mɪ'kænɪks]n.机械学electrical[i'lektrikəl]adj.电的quotation[kwəu'teiʃən]n.报价Unit 3 FamiliesLesson 3-1 Types of FamiliesGreat changes have taken place in the types of families over the last 100 years. In the past, parents, their children, and their children‘s children often lived together in a big family. Such a big family is called an extended family. In some places, the type of family even included relative by marriage, who are called in-law s, as well a s the sons and daughter of brothers and sisters, in other words, nephews and niece s.Nowaday s in many countries, the extended family is no longer very common. Instead, only two generation s, parents and children, live together. This is called a nuclear family, There are some reasons for that.First of all, young are becoming independent financially. Therefore, they are unwilling to depend on their parents. Secondly, these days the youth want to have their own privacy. Thirdly, children are supposed to become more independent and responsible, and develop a closer relationship with their parents.However, in the United States, the number of the nuclear family is also decreasing because of the influence s of some factor s such as divorce. As a result , there is an increasing number of single-parent familie s, or families with only a mother or only a father. In addition another kind of family is appear ing, which is called a blend ed family. This is a family in which two persons remarry. These two persons both once got divorced. But have children. In the new family, they make both groups of children live together.There is another type of family with double income but no kids, namely DINK. DINK family chooses not to have children for many different reasons. One of the reasons is that more and more young couples don‘t want to take too many responsibility. They just want more freedom for themselves.New wordsType [taip]n.类型v打字Extend[iks'tend]v. 扩充,延伸;延长Spread [spred]v.伸开spray[sprei]vt. & vi.喷n.浪花, 飞沫；喷雾Expand [iks'pænd]v 扩大,发展Relative['relətiv] n.亲戚Marriage ['mæridʒ]n.婚姻,结婚in-law ['ɪn,lɔ:]n.姻亲,亲家nephew['nefju:] n.侄子,外甥niece[ni:s]n.侄女,外甥女nowadays['nauədeiz]ad.现今,现在instead[in'sted] ad.取而代之,代替generation[,dʒenə'reiʃən] n.一代人;世代nuclear['nju:kliə]a.核心的;原子核的reason['ri:zən] n.原因,理由independent[,ɪndi'pendənt] a.独立的;不受约束的financially[faɪˈnænʃəlɪ] ad.经济上,财政上therefore ['ðɛəfɔ:]ad.因此unwilling [ʌn'wɪlɪŋ]a.不愿意的,勉强的depend[di'pend]vi.依靠,依赖Privacy ['praivəsi]n.独处而不受干扰的善,不受干扰的自由;个人权利,隐私Suppose[sə'pəuz]vt.认定;料想;假定conj.如果Responsible[ri'spɔnsəbl]a.有责任的,负责任的Develop [di'veləp]v.(使)发展,开发;生长Relationship[ri'leiʃənʃip] n.关系,关联However[hau'evə] ad.然而,但是Decrease [di:'kri:s]v减少['di: kri:s] n.减少,减少之量Influence['influəns]n.影响,作用vt影响Factor['fæktə] n.因素Divorce [di'vɔ:s]n.与…离婚Increase['inkri:s] n 增加[in'kri:s]v增大Reduce[ri'dju:s] v 减,减少Appear[ə'piə] v.出现;看来link v.显得, 似乎Blend[blend]vt.混合n.混合物Remarry [,ri:'mærɪ]v.再婚Double ['dʌbl] v.双重的,两倍的Double a. v.使加倍Income ['inkəm]n.收入,所得Namely ['neimli]ad.即,也就是Couple ['kʌpl]n.夫妻;一对,一双Responsibility [ri,spɔnsə'biliti]n.责任Freedom ['fri:dəm] n.自由,自主Phrases and expressionstake place 发生extended family近亲在内的大家庭as well as 和,以及in other words换言之no longer 不再nuclear family核心家庭first of all 顺序的首先be unwilling to do sth.不乐意做某事depend on 依赖,依靠be supposed to do sth.应该,被期望或要求做某事because of因为,由于as a result 结果single-parent family单亲家庭in addition 此外,另外take responsibility (for)为…负责任because of +nbecause 从句Lesson 3-2 Who can bridge the generation gap?—Grandparents!As grandparents, we are include in our family‘s daily lives. However, we are the ones that can bridge that generation gap in the family. Even though it is not an easy role for us to play, it is an important one, for we are more experienced in life, and more open-minded to what‘s happening in our families.Today‘s grandchildren, for example 12 and 13 years olds, are like 17 and 18 year olds. Wow, that is pretty terrible—and yet it can be pretty wonderful if they are guide d the correct way. It is important for us to be at hand and keep those lines of communication open.In my particular family, five kids and six grandchildren, my life definitely seems to be an ongoing soap opera. As a senior, I have learned to become more flexible and have become an important part in taking care of my grandchildren.My 18-year-old granddaughter had a huge difficultly in communicating with her mother and father. Thank goodness I keep an open door. I call ed a family meeting with her mother and did. Together, we work ed things out. It definitely helped that my children and grandchildren realize d that I would always be fare to both sides.As senior, we should not play any serious role. B ut remember, ―parenting‖ never stops. Believe me , I still get up, get out, and have a life. But we can never give up what we have worked so hard to protect–―the family.‖New wordsBridge[bridʒ]vt架起…桥梁Daily['deili]a.日常的Gap[ɡæp]n.差距;缺口Role[rəul]n.角色;作用Experienced[ɪk'spɪəri:ənst]adj.有经验的,老练的open-minded['əʊpən'maɪndɪd]adj无偏见的;愿意接受新思想的yet[jet]conj.然而,但是adv.还, 尚, 仍然；已经；甚至, 更guide[ɡaid]vt.引导;指导n.指导者；向导, 导游communication[kə,mju:ni'keiʃən]n.交流;通讯,联络particular[pə'tikjulə]adj特定地;特殊地definitely['definitli]adv.肯定地;明确地ongoing['ɔn,gəʊɪŋ]adj.正在进行的soap[səup]n.肥皂opera['ɔpərə]n.歌剧,剧senior['si:njə]adj.n年长的;长辈a.较年长的,(地位,级别)较高的flexible['fleksəbl]adj.灵活的,易弯曲的huge[hju:dʒ]ad巨大的,宠大的jcommunicate[kə'mju:nikeit]vt. & vi.沟通,交流cause[kɔ:z]n.原因,起因vt.成为…的原因; 导致；引起call[kɔ:l]vt. & vi.宣布召开,召集realize['riəlaiz]vt.认识到,体会到;实现fair[fɛə]adj.公平的,公正的serious['siəriəs]adj.严肃的;认真的,严重的;重大的protect[prə'tekt]vt.保护,保卫Phrases and expressionseven thought/if即使,尽管play a … role 扮演…角色at hand接近的,在身边line of communication沟通渠道soap opera肥皂剧,连续剧communicate with sb.与…沟通thank goodness谢天谢地work out弄懂某事,找出答案;理解solve[sɔlv]vt.处理be fair to 对…公平get up起床get out外出起动(参观,会友等)give up放弃even thought/if即使,尽管have difficulty (in ) doing sthOthers wordsfocus['fəukəs]vt. & vi.(使)集中, (使)聚集；调整(镜头, 眼睛)焦点[焦距]以便看清n.焦点, 焦距; 中心adjectives['ædʒiktiv]n.形容词adverb['ædvə:b]n.副词deaf[def]adj.聋的；不愿听的, 装聋的leafleather['leðə]n.皮, 皮革brilliant['briljənt]adj.闪光的, 明亮的；光辉的, 辉煌的steel[sti:l]n.钢, 钢铁vt.使坚强, 使坚定silk[silk]n.丝, 绸bright[brait]adj.光亮的, 闪光发光的；鲜艳/亮的；生气勃勃的, 愉快的; 幸福的；聪明的, 伶俐的；前途光明的brick[brik]n.砖, 砖块vt.用砖砌,用砖堵住Spanish-stylereject[ri'dʒekt]vt.拒绝, 谢绝; 驳回；舍弃, 排斥, 退掉['ri:dʒekt]n.被拒货品, 不合格产品probably['prɔbəbli]adv.大概; 或许; 可能gradually[ˈgrædjʊəlɪ] adv.1.逐步地,渐渐地,渐进的reunion[,ri:'ju:niən]n.团聚,团圆cousin['kʌzn]n.堂/表兄弟/姊妹as a matter of fact实际上,不瞒你说You bet.俗—当然/真的/的确Hawaii[hə'wɑ:i:]n.夏威夷Single['siŋɡl]adj.单身Divorced[dɪˈvɔ:st] adj.离婚Separated['sepərit]adj.分居['sepəreit]vt. & vi.分开, 隔离Widowed[ˈwɪdəʊd]adj寡居Unit 4 Home and hometownLesson 4-1 HomeBill and Barri Hamilton didn‘t imagine that they would make their home at an old school house someday. One day they drove to Martindale. It is a small town located in south-west of the U.S.A. They came for a German car. Bill has a business of buying and selling old cars. Then they found the Martindale schoolhouse and fell in love with it. It was for sale and they wanted to buy it. Some local people were worried that their loved schoolhouse would be a lot of different, but the Hamiltons said they felt like its doorkeeper s.At last they bought it. They make the old schoolhouse into their comfortable home. They built a garden and a swimming pool behind the house. They built two kitchen s, three bathroom, four toilet s, four drawing-room s and eight bedroom s inside it. They even had a dancing-hall in the central part of the house and they repair ed the playground. Most importantly, the schoolhouse looks almost the same as it was before.Small-town life, especially living in an old school, might seem an unusual choice for the Hamiltons. So they stared their new country life. Barri Hamilton says she and her husband have made many friends in Martindale. She didn‘t make so many friends in the city though she lived there for 30 years.Buying the school was a ―sensitive thing‖ for some resident s, because so many had been educate d there. ―It‘s important that Bill and I explain to everybody that we feel like thedoorkeepers of this school,‖ Barri says. ―When we are gone, we‘ll leave it in better shape that when we found it.‖New wordsImagine[i'mædʒin]vt.料想;设想suppose[sə'pəuz]vt.料想; 猜想; 以为；假定, 假设conj.如果Locate[ləu'keit]vt. & vi.使坐落于;将(某物)设置在某处Business['biznis]n.买卖,商业,贸易Schoolhouse['sku:l,haʊs]n.校舍Sale[seil]n.出售,销售Local['ləukəl]adj.本地的,地方的Worried[ˈwʌrɪd] adj.担心的,忧虑的Beloved[bi'lʌvd]adj.深受的,亲爱的Doorkeeper['dɔ:,ki:pə]n.看门人Comfortable['kʌmfətəbl]adj.舒适的,舒坦的Kitchen['kitʃin]n.厨房Toilet['tɔilit]n.卫生间,厕所drawing-room客厅,起居室['drɔ:ɪŋ,ru:m]n.绘画, 制图；图画, 图样bedroom['bed,ru:m]n.卧室,房间dancing-hall舞厅central['sentrəl]adj.中间的,中央的repair[ri'pɛə]vt维修,修理n.修理,修理playground['pleiɡraund]n.操场,运动场importantly[im'pɔ:təntli]ad重要的是;自以为了不起地unusual[,ʌn'ju:ʒuəl]adj.不平常的,与众不同的choice[tʃɔis]adj.n选择sensitive['sensitiv]adj.敏感的;灵敏的resident['rezidənt]n.居民adj.educate['edju:keit]vt. & vi教育explain[iks'plein]vt. & vi.解释;说明explanation n.gone[gɔ:n, gɔn]adj.离开的;逝去的shape[ʃeip]n.状态;形状,样子Phrases and expressionsbe located in位于,坐落在fall in love (with sb. Of sth.) 喜欢,爱上(某人/某物)for sale 待售,出卖be worried (about)担心,忧虑feel like sth. / doing sth. 想要某物,想要做某事make … into 使转变为;把…制成swimming pool游泳池the same … as =in the same way与…一样small-town life小镇生活leave sth. in good shape使…保持良好状态Proper namesBill比尔[bɪl] n.比尔(男子名, William 的昵称)Barri hamiltom芭莉.汉密尔顿Martindale马丁德尔(地名)German['dʒɜ:mən]adj.德国(人)的n.德语的;德国人Other wordsprobable['prɔbəbl]adj.很可能的, 大概的; 或有的condition[kən'diʃən]n.条件fresh [freʃ]adj.新鲜的electricity[ilek'trisiti]n.电,电流；热情have difficulty (in ) doing sthmake 制造,制作;使….;赚(挣)钱;铺(床)make friends whithmake…into 将…改变成;将…转变成make one‘s home at/in 把家安在sattle downLesson 4-2 Waterford, My hometownWaterford is the oldest city in Ireland. It‘s walled city and it was built by the Vikings in 853, and was later extended by the Anglo Normans.During the 18th century, the industry of the city developed, most famously its glass industry. Today the port in Waterford is still one of Ireland‘s busiest ports.Waterford is located between Dublin and Cork. One can take a day trip to both of these cities. Get ting to Waterford is easy. You can go there by bus of by train. There is a small airport located just outside the city but there are only a few flight s. A day‘s trip around Waterfod City is very possible on food though buses can be taken.Waterford castle is a beautiful place to visit. It is a huge building on its own island. However, if you can‘t afford to stay for a night, It is a wonderful thing to have afternoon tea there.The new library of Waterford City is a good place for reading of just for relaxing. Also, you may surf the Internet for free there. The City Square is beside it. If you are in Ireland around the beginning of August, make sure you go to Sproi in Waterford. There is one ofIreland‘s greatest street festival s in Sproi, and over 40.000 people attend it . All weekend long there are street parades, concert s and entertainment s. Waterford may be quiet but for this weekend it really comes alive!I‘m look ing forward to greeting you at my hometown.New wordsCentury['sentʃuri]n.世纪Industry['indəstri]n.工业,产业Famously['feiməsli]ad.出名地,久负盛名地Glass[ɡlɑ:s]n.玻璃;玻璃杯Port[pɔ:t]n.港口pot[pɔt]n.罐, 锅, 壶airport ['ɛəpɔ:t]n.n.飞机场flight[flait]n. n.航班;飞行possible['pɔsəbl]a.可能的castle['kɑ:sl]n.n.城堡afford [ə'fɔ:d]v.担负得起,买得起library ['laibrəri]n.图书馆relaxing[ri'læksiŋ]a.使人放松的internet ['intənet]n.互联网august [ɔ:'ɡʌst]adj.n.八月festival ['festəvəl]n.n.庆祝活动;节日attend [ə'tend] v.出席,参加concert ['kɔnsət]n.音乐会entertainment[,entə'teinmənt]n.娱乐;招待quiet ['kwaiət]a.安静的quite[kwait]adv.完全地;整体地;十分地;相当alive[ə'laiv]a.有活力的;活的Phrases and expressionstake a day trip一日游get to 到达,抵达surf the internet上网[sə:f]n.拍岸浪花vi.滑浪, 作冲浪运动for free免费the city square市政广场make sure确保;查明street festival街头庆祝活动come alive活跃起来look forward to sth/doing sth.盼望,期待做某事Proper namesWaterford沃特福特Ireland['aɪələnd]n.爱尔兰Viking维京人['vaikiŋ]n.海盗,北欧海盗,〈口〉斯堪的纳维亚人。

工商管理专业论文的英语翻译On the Network Economy virtualization organization changesPapers Administration Papers - Enterprise Research PapersPost 8:43:00[Paper Keywords] Internet Economy organizational structure change virtual organizations[Abstract] With the development of information technology and the changing pattern of social development, the organizational structure and organization also follow the development of changesto the external environment, in particular the completion of their resources and capabilities to maximize utilization. This article as a basis, the Network Economy virtualization organizationchange issues systematic study first analyzes the characteristics of network economy, then discuss the network economy on the impact of the modern enterprise, the last from several differentsides given the economic environment, the network organizational structure changes trend.For modern enterprises, the competitiveness mainly through technical innovation, market development, risk prevention capabilities manifested and integrated use of these capabilities, based onthe formation of enterprise in the market long-term competitive advantage, so at any given time to enhance the competitiveness of enterprises, their resources and capabilities are required as astarting point for the organizational structure and management model for the carrier, in many ways to take measures in this case, the correct treatment and processing enterprise organizationalchange it is very necessary and innovation, enterprises must not only be a positive organizational innovation, but also a scientific attitude, and strengthen information transfer efficiency,enhance enterprise information collection, collation and use of the ability to make the organizational structure further perfect to be established between the external environment increasinglyclose relations and promote the development of enterprises, while the development of information technology and social development of the changingpattern of the organizational structure andorganization development and change are followed with a view to the external environment, in particular the completion of its own resources and capacities to maximize the utilization, while inthe present case, the network has been an unprecedented development of the economy, the impact on society and business and more profound, it is changing the enterprise human resources andmaterial resources of communication and flow patterns, and the behavior of enterprises - research and development, production, operation and management of such links has had a major impact onpaper as the basis for the network economy under the conditions of organization change issues virtualization conducted a systematic study first analyzes the characteristics of network economy,then discuss the network economy on the impact of the modern enterprise, the last from several different sides, giving the network economic environment changes in organizational structuretrends, the work for achieving organizational innovation of Chinese enterprises have certain practical significance.First, The Characteristics Of The Network EconomyA global feature in the network economy era, often in the form of business organization in the form of joint-stock enterprise management's main duty is to pursue the interest of theshareholders, improve economic efficiency of enterprises. Meanwhile, the management for sustainable development of enterprises , will be in a different country or region recruitment, if thecompany requires a specific talent, companies tend to make every effort to recruit and not pay attention in their country or region. further, corporate shareholder also has the characteristicsof globalization, They tend to come from a different country or region. This is because the shareholders concerned only with their own interests, so when they are optimistic about a company,they will put money into the company and more importantly, when the network economy era, a variety of economic resources on a global scale to get a more reasonable configuration, the globalmarket thus be formed. 2 quickness characteristics as a high-speed economic model, the network economy makes communication between businesses and customers time becomes shorter, so that thepace of life between people becomes more rapid Because of this, thenetwork economy era faster dissemination of information, companies in whichthe external environment is also changingrapidly, enterprises in order to be able to get in this market chance of survival, often changing its organizational structure in a flattened form and adapt the network economy, in which theorganizational structure, the product can be directly between producers and consumers conduct business contacts, convenience imagined. 3 win characteristics in the network economy, the marketcompetition is more intense. exists among enterprises in order to beable to survive in the market and development opportunities, you need tochange the past, strategic model, cooperation oralliances to gain a competitive advantage in the form of merger or split to seek economies of scale or self-help course, most major companies are competing relationship survival mode,enterprises and between enterprises through the production, distribution, exchange and marketing communication and cooperation, enhance the overall strength of the Alliance itself or to achieve"win-win" ultimate goal.Second, The Network Economy On A Modern Enterprise Organizational FormsAnd Modes Of ProductionOne pair of the impact of production methods in the network economy mode, the traditional enterprise production organization has undergone major changes, the virtual vertical integrationmodel has been more and more enterprise applications. This is because,in the network economy, businesses have not only limited to the existence ofthe scale of the size of the enterprise,because in this era of big backdrop, the threshold for enterprises to enter the virtual marketplace has become more and more low, any business canbe web-based, and other enterprises conductbusiness, to the global market to provide products and services, in the process, whether a company has its own production facilities and saleschannels have become less important. two pairs ofthe impact of organizational structure in the network economy mode, the company's organizational structure needs to make the necessary innovation, so as to make the management of the enterprisewith greater efficiency in the organizational structure, the traditional organizational model has been seriously challenged in the information technology and network technology togethersupport, the new non-hierarchical system showing a clear advantage, specifically for the enterprise to the network, flat, flexible and discrete in the direction of becoming, in the process,companies can be means of information and network applications which improve their organizational efficiency. 3 pairs fashion business impact in the network economy, enterprises due to theutilization of the supply chain to manage costs have been significantly reduced. Meanwhile, the enterprise customer relationship management is also therefore reached a new level, a number ofnew entrants into the business, because of geographical conditions and other factors, and ultimately be excluded from the market this end, the need to innovate their revenue streams, the onlyway to redefine their business the nature of the business, reduce costs and improve efficiency.Links to free downloadThird, The Network Structure Of The Economic Environment, The Change Trend Of Business OrganizationA flexible organizational structure in the network economy era, flexible organizational structure of the organization's main purpose is to make full use of resources, enhance the environmentdynamic adaptability. Flexible design needs in accordance with the organizational structure of the two principle, namely centralization and decentralization unity, stability and change ofunity. the former, the key lies between the upper and lower levels can establish effective communication channels to ensure the organization's strategic development goals and organization ofthe Specific activities of the coupling between the organic relationship between the latter, the need to establish Dual Organization, wherein a portion of tissue in order to complete theregular tasks, the other task will have to complete innovative and temporary work. 2 virtual enterprise organizations operate. emergence of virtual enterprise network economy is an importantperformance, but also changes in organizational structure is one of the most direct expression in the virtual mode, the organizational structure need to follow a specific logic evolution andprogress. More typical is the rise of e-commerce, it makes the transaction costs between business organization and coordination to achieve asubstantial reduction in costs, although e-commercetechnology in a way, improved organizational inefficiencies state, however, whether it is technical or management level, this low efficiency or enables organizations to actively participate inmarket transactions in the past, and in the process of setting up the competitive advantage. 3 organizational boundaries, open and virtual of This organizational boundaries, open andvirtualization refers to the organizational structure of the boundary with respect to the external environment in terms of organization, in a dynamic selection and penetration amongOrganizational borders open and make the organizational structure no longer is the company's own category should also include the possibility to associate with external organizations andstrength, these organizations and market forces so that enterprises become bigger part of this organization and the entire socio-economic system has been seamless large-scale systems.organization as a open systems, and through modern information network, to make their systems more easily in some elements of the system with other organizations certain elements combined toform a new function, the formation of new productivity.IV ConclusionIn the network economy, Chinese enterprises should be fully aware of the importance of information technology and e-commerce, they have urgent business in front of all walks of life into justin this case, the need to maximize the development of a strategic height and use of the Internet economy, and as an opportunity to enable enterprises to integrate into the global economy tidedetention, and constantly enhance their competitiveness, which is in the process of economic globalization, Chinese enterprises only and most direct choice of China's enterprises only able tolearn, understand and grasp the basic trend of the future society, adjustment and change their strategic thinking, organizational structure and profit model to a new round of competition andcooperation to achieve leapfrog development.References[1] Chenguang Yong, Zhang Jinlong. The organizational structure of the network economy era Evolution Analysis [J]. China University of Geosciences Social Sciences .2021 7:41 ~ 45[2] Xu water yet. Network Economy organizational structure analysis [J]. Information Development & Economy. 2021 11:209 ~ 211[3] Zhangjing Kun. Network Economy Analysis on the impact of modern enterprise [J]. Economics and Management. 2021 3:10 ~ 13[4] Wen Liping. Network economic environment enterprise development and change [J]. Social Sciences Journal of Colleges of Shanxi. 2021 eleven eighty-two to 84[5] Chang dry, Liu Feng. Analysis of network economic environment the organizational innovation [J]. Beijing Forestry Management Institute. 2021 1:12 ~ 14[6] Paul body. Organizational Innovation and Competitiveness [J]. Economics and Management. 2002 11:8 ~ 10Links to free download感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。

课程汉英对照表工商管理课程汉英对照表 - 工商管理课程汉英对照表——工商管理西方经济学概论 Introduction to Western Economics管理心理学 Psychology of Management管理学原理 Principles of Management Science统计学原理 Principles of Statistics会计学原理 Principles of Aounting管理信息系统 Management Information Systems信息检索 Information Retrieval经济法学 Economic law企业战略 Enterprise Strategy财政学 Public Finance货币银行学 Moary Economics and Banking国际金融 International Finance国际贸易 International Trade生产管理 Productive Management市场营销学 Marketing财务管理 Financial Management管理思想史 History of Management Thought 工业经济管理 Industrial Economy Management 管理会计 Managerial Aounting运筹学 Operations Research税收学 Taxation计划项目评估 Evaluation of Planning items产业经济管理学 Management Theories of Industrial Economy 信息经济学 Information Economics模板,内容仅供参考。

Unit1 A 工商管理概论工商管理特性英语单词business有许多定义。

每个定义相互关联，但又各自不同。

与我们的讨论有关的定义主要有两个。

第一个定义是指作为一种生存手段而从事的任何活动。

第二个定义将工商管理视为人们生活中的重要的活动。

对于美国而言，工商管理既是一种谋生手段，同时又是人们生活的一个中心。

个人和团体既为了经济盈利又为了个人身份的确定和认可而从事工商活动。

工商管理的双重中心意味着其在为个人或人群提供生计的同时又给每个人带来一种身份感。

这两个概念相互交织，几乎不可能将它们区分开来。

然而，基于我们的目的，我们将关注作为谋生手段的工商，把工商看成是将一个或更多人的资产拿来，以商品和服务的形式使其他的人可以得到这些资产以此获得利润的过程。

我们将尽力确定并解释这一定义的不同要素。

工商管理是一个过程。

工商管理是一系列行为、变化，或引起一个结果的功能。

许多人试图将这个过程分为很多过程，其目的是为了更好地理解和管理这些过程（子过程），这样他们就能够影响并控制结果。

现在，我们只需要了解它是一个由各个过程构成的过程，我们既可以单独地理解它们，又可以将它们当作一个整体来理解。

在我们看来，工商活动是一个给为了维持生计而参与其中的那些人返还利润的过程。

工商活动主要是为了获得利润而生产商品和服务。

利润的本质会因所从事的工商的性质不同而不同。

尽管工商对利润的定义略有不同，但是他们为了继续从事工商都必须获得利润。

这就是工商的实质，因为这是维持生计的唯一途径。

根据这个的观点，工商必须维持一定的利润来养活企业和那些依赖工商维持生计的个人。

每个良好的过程都有控制，包括内部控制和外部控制。

对于企业来说，内部控制通过管理得到实现，而外部控制通常通过各个管理机构得以实现。

要使过程得到有效运作，也需要从子过程乃至控制结构提供的反馈。

这个反馈越有效，控制就会越好，这就为企业的成功运作做好了准备。

企业也是系统。

每个系统有投入、过程、产出和结果。

英语翻译工商管理商务英语实务教程（English translation, business management, business English, practical course）单元1为什么学习管理？为什么学管理？学习管理很重要，有两个原因。

首先，我们的社会依靠专门的机构和组织提供我们所需要的商品和服务。

这些组织的引导和指导下的一个或多个人命名为“经理”的决定。

在市场经济中，它是管理者分配社会资源的不同甚至相互竞争的结束。

学习管理有两个重要的原因。

第一，我们的社会取决于各种专门的机构和组织提供我们需要的商品和服务。

这些组织是有一个或多个”管理者”的决定指挥的在市场经济，是管理者分配社会的各种资源给各种各样的而且往往相互竞争终端。

管理人员有责任和责任建造安全或不安全的产品，寻求战争或和平，建造或摧毁城市，或清理或污染环境。

管理者为我们提供工作、收入、生活方式、产品、服务、医疗保健和知识等条件。

很难找到一个既不是经理也不受经理决定影响的人。

管理者有权力也有责任做出安全或者不安全的产品，发动争战或者寻求和平，清理或者污染环境。

管理者为我们就业、收入、生活方式、产品、服务、卫生保健和知识提供必要条件。

很难找到任何一个人既不是一个管理者也不受管理者决策的影响。

第二，没有受过经理培训的个人往往会找到管理职位。

许多人目前正在训练成为教师、会计师、音乐家、售货员、艺术家，医生，或律师会一天谋生作为管理。

他们将管理学校、会计师事务所、管弦乐队、销售组织、博物馆、医院和政府机构。

美国是一个组织社会，它的大约1600万个组织必须有经理。

第二，不是管理者的人也发现他们的职位要运用管理知识。

许多人目前被培训成老师、会计师、音乐家、销售人员、艺术家、医生或律师，他们有朝一日都可能成为管理者。

他们将管理学校、会计师事务所、乐队、销售机构、博物馆、医院甚至政府机构。

美国是一个有组织的社会，它的大约1600万个组织机构必须有管理者。