格式要求4-外文文献翻译封面及内容要求

格式要求4-外文文献翻译封面及内容要求毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译院系：商学系年级专业：08国际商务姓名：石华聪学号：0801022145附件：The Development of Transportation andLogistics in Asia: An Overview指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日Western countries to low-cost Asian developing countries, Asian economies have been growing rapidly and have become the world factory of finished goods. Asia's trade has soared over the past two decades, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in particular recording explosive growth. The PRC' s exports grew at an average of more than 18 percent per year between 1990 and 2007, while the other eight emerging economies among Asia's top-10 exporters recorded export growth of more than 10 percent a year (Brooks and Stone 2010). A business model that is integrated and global, uses direct distribution, and emphasizes shippinghigh-value products from Asian factories directly to worldwide markets has been developed by multinational firms. This integrated model replaces the traditional multiechelon, pushbased intemational distribution model; it also helps to reduce redundant inventories along the global supply chain and speeds up time to market (Su 2007). Due to all these changes, Asia now accounts for about one-fourth of world trade and world gross domestic product (GDP), respectively (World Bank 2006).With about 4.1 billion people in 2009 (PRB 2009), Asia is the most populous region in the world, accounting for 60 percent of populationand representing enormous market opportunities for multinationalfirms. There are around 20 cross-regional free trade agreements (FTAs) at different stages of implementation there. The consolidation of FTAs improves economic welfare compared to the current bilateralism. A broad Pan-Asian agreement (covering goods, services, and trade costs) involving East Asian and South Asian economies is estimated to offer significant improvement to the general welfare through gains to global income of around $261 billion (François, Rana, and Wignaraja 2009). All East and Asian and South Asian members of such an agreement would benefit from closer subregional cooperation. For trade-related infrastructvire, the dominant mode for freight transport between East Asia and South Asia remains ocean transport. This situation is expected to continue in the foreseeable future. The effectiveness of ocean transport and other trade-related infrastructure to respond to growing East Asia-South Asia trade depends on regional ability to maintain high-quality and efficient logistics services at a competitive cost. The need for sea transport has been amplified, especially for time-sensitive goods, due to improvements in technology for containerization and air freight. Air cargo volume has grown rapidly and air cargo involving Asian countries, particularly within Asia, has much higher growth than in the world as a whole. Effective logistics service and intermodalshipping have enabled Asia to trade with more markets, more quickly, and often at lower cost (Brooks and Hummels 2009). However, in spite of their rich opportunities, Asian countries have yet to overcome challenges associated with fulfilling their potential. The availability of infrastructiure and of other trade facilitation services has fallen behind the pace of Asia's economic growth. The underdevelopment of transport and logistics infrastructure and lack of logistics infrastructure connectivity among Asian countries have been major barriers to further trade and economic development there (Armstrong, Drysdale, and Kalirajan 2008; Bhattacharyay and De 2009;Brooks and Stone 2010).The Emerging Features of Trade in AsiaTrade volume within Asia has been rising rapidly since the early 1980s. In 2006 Asia contributed one-fourth of world trade in goods, second in production after Europe (see table 1). As shown in table 2, about 50 percent of Asia's exported goods are moved within the region, which was lower than percentage of intraregion trade in Europe and North America, most likely due to lack ofwell-established FTAs in Asia. In parallel to grovñng intraregional trade, Asia's interregional trade has also grown over time. North America (21.6 percent) and Europe (18.4 percent) have become the two largest non-Asian destinations of Asia's exports (see table 2).The growth of trade on the part of the PRC trade is particularly notable. With a world share of about 9 percent in 2009 (Batson 2010), the PRC is driving Asia's exports intraregionally and interregionally. India's rise in the late 1990s has further fueled Asia's trade.Serving the growing international demand for goods and services after World War II, Asian economies have transformed from industrial production that is labor intensive to production that is capital intensive and technology driven. The changes have been reflected in the product shares of exports. For example, integrated circuits account for the highest share (78.33 percent) in intra-Asia manufacturing exports, whereas the personal and household goods account for the lowest share (20.42 percent).Intra-Asia exports of agricultural and mining products are even lower compared to their exports to the world (Bhattacharyay and De 2009). The nature of Asia's trade is changing and becoming more efficient due to its recent rapid growth. Higher-value, often lighter goods and trade services have gradually replaced bulky commodities, resulting in declining weight-to-value ratios. In particular, the information and communication technology (ICT) revolution has generated increased trade in ICT products and outsourced services, and the application of information technology in many public and private supply chain collaborations, as well as greater migration of highly skilled professionals within and across the regions(Hummels 2009). This change has had a major impact on the distance and destination of trade flows, the locations and fragmentation of production processes, the choice of transport mode, logistics facilities decisions, the harmonization and standardization of customs classifications and inspections, and thedemand for supporting infrastruct\ire. Pan-Asian connectivity and other facilitation efforts would, therefore, play important roles in sustaining Asia's trade growth. The connecti\dty for goods flowing within Asia or between Asia and other regions must be gradually enhanced to ensure reliable, better, and faster movement of cargo. Asia Transport and Logistics DevelopmentRecent studies have shown that globalization has resulted in increased international exchanges of products and services, and the identification and establishment of Asia-wide cross-border transportation network connectivity should now be a major goal (see Brooks 2008a, 2008b; Hummels 2009). Another set of studies in Asia show that countries with geographical proximity could benefit substantially from more trade, provided infrastructure and trade costs are improved (see Brooks 2008b; De 2008a, 2008b; Brooks and Hummels 2009). These studies aU call for effective and integrated transport and logistics networks for enhancing movement of goods and services; Asia has been notorious for fragmented production and economic networks across borders. The ongoing global financial problems make it even more critical for Asian countries to integrate transport and logistics networks to facilitate the growth of regional demands.Asia now faces a new world economy that is very different from theone that prevailed before the 1990s. In toda/s world, falling communication and transport costs—coupled with technological development—have reshaped the comparative advantages of economies (Krugman 1991,1993). However, the current leading position of Asian trade may be replaced if a true Pan-Asian connectivity of its logistics infrastructures is still missing. What Asia needs now is to reestablish a modern "Silk Road." The ancient trade route that stretched from Asia to Europe was, untu the 13th century, among the world's most important cross-border arteries. As trade is once again growing between Asia and the rest of the world, a modern Silk Road must be built for sustainable economic development in Asia (Bhattacharyay and De 2009). Efforts to develop an Asia-wide transport network have been attempted since the 1960s. However, little progress was achieved until the 1980s (UNESCAP 2006). During the 1980s and early 1990s, significant political and economic changes in this region ultimately facilitated the trade and mobility of factors of production in Asia. Subsequently, during the 1990s, an increase in the demand for physical connectivity to support an export-oriented growth strategy and to support a fragmented production network contributed to successful implementation of some transport corridors in the Greater Mekong Subregion and elsewhere in Asia.This infrastructure development suggests the important role of physical connectivity in regional cooperation. Nevertheless, the progress toward full regional connectivity in Asia still lags far behind need(Bhattacharyay and De 2009). Many political, economic, technical, and social factors have contributed to the slow progress of a transport network throughout Asia. Technical factors that hinder Asian transport integration include lack of effective overland official trade outlets and associated facilities (e.g.,India-Bangladesh and PRC-Lao People's Democratic Republic), lack of integrated railway networks (e.g., Myanmar-India and PRC-Vietnam), lack of transit trade (in the whole of Asia with some exceptions), lack of trade facilitation mechanisms (soft infrastructure), and lack of policy measures (especially in the interior part of Asia) (Bhattacharyay and De 2009).In 1992, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) initiated the Asian Land Transport Infrastructure Development (ALTID) project, which aims to expand transport and communication linkages within the region and with other regions. The ALTID project consists of the Trans-Asian Railway (TAR), the Asian Highway (AH), and the facilitation of land transport. In the initial stages of implementation, the ALTID focused on formulating the TAR andAH networks and establishing related standards and requirements. The TAR and AH could become the major building blocks for developing an international, integrated, and intermodal transport system in Asia and beyond (Bhattacharyay and De 2009). The appendix provides an example of how the private sector has taken action to upgrade surface transportation in this region. Increasing port efficiency has reduced the average time that shipments spend in ports and at sea, leading to more frequent shipping and timely delivery. Furthermore, trade routes with high densities enable an effective use of hub-and-spoke design, in which small container vessels feed shipments into a hub, where containers are consolidated into larger and faster container ships for longer hauls. A recent study found that given transport costs accounting for about a 20 percent ad valorem tax equivalent on import prices in East Asia, an increase in port capacity by 10 percent leads to a decrease in across-the-board tariffs by 0.3 to 0.5 percent (Abe and Wilson 2009). In addition, John Wilson, Catherine Mann, and Tsunehiro Otsuki (2003) find that trade among the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum members could expand by US$254 billion, or 21 percent, if each APEC member that is below average in regulatory and customs barriers, port efficiency, and electronic business usage enhanced its capacity just halfway to theAPEC average (Brooks and Stone 2010). Air cargo in Asia has benefited substantially from growth in trade. As mentioned earlier, the weight-to-value ratios of trade have been declining in the past decades (Hummels 2009). This shows that exports in Asia are shifting from bulk shipments toward lighter and higher-value goods, implying an increasing demand for air shipping. Air cargo involving Asia has been leading the growth of world air cargo in the past two decades (ibid.). The international air cargoes of Europe-Asia, North America-Asia, and intra-Asia grew faster than the world average by 1.6 percentage points, 3.4 percentage points, and 6.9 percentage points, respectively (Hummels 2006). The trend in air cargo is consistent with that in trade growth. Several factors have affected the air cargo growth trend involving Asia in the past two decades. For the market between North America and Asia, four elements—economic activity, currency exchange rate, infrastructure improvement, and liberalization of air transport agreements—determine the air cargo volume between these two regions (Boeing 2010).For the intra-Asia air cargo market, the global production chain in Asia is getting mature and provides a sustainable source of growth. Because most countries in Asia are separated by ocean, air cargo is essential to regional development. Unlike U.S. carriers, whichprefer narrow-body aircraft, Asian carriers prefer wide-body passenger aircraft. Wide-body passenger aircraft provides huge capacity, equivalent to 50 weekly medium wide-body freighters in the top-10 pairings of Asian countries that conduct cargo traffic (Boeing 2010), offering sufficient capacity to support air cargo growth. The emerging role of the greater China region has challenged Japan's role within Asia. In the top-10 country pairs (see table 3), the greater China region—including the PRC, Hong Kong, and Taiwan—is involved in 7 out of 10 pairs, whereas Japan is in only 5. It is expected that the regional integration among Greater China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) will continue boosting the air cargo growth within this region. The importance of a high-quality logistics infrastructure varies by commodity, depending on three factors (Arnold 2009). First, there are the importers' scheduling requirements. Timeliness is particularly important to just-in-time supply chains in sectors such as fashion clothing or high-tech products, and to retailers with coordinated national sales programs.The second factor is the shelf life of the commodity, reflecting volatility of demand or physical deterioration. Third is the value of the commodity per shipment unit, for example, twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) or per metric ton. The needs of logistics and supply chain services related to highervalue- added products are growing at a fast pace. Giyen its diversity, Asian trade, particularly Asia trade supply chains, is affected by each of these factors. Soft infrastructure may contribute more than physical infrastructure does to increased trade and its profitability. Bureaucracy, inefficient institutional structures, and policy may result in reduced margins from international trade. Erom 2006 to 2007, most developing Asian countries were actively implementing reforms of their trade policies. Erom 2007 to 2008, Thailand and the Philippines were prominent reformers; during 2008 and 2009 Vietnam and the PRC were. In 2010, 71 percent of East Asian economies reported at least one significant trade facilitation reform (Brooks and Stone 2010). On average, manufacturers in Asia require 11 days to export to their Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development (OECD) counterparts, which is significantly shorter than the approximately 23 days required to export to non-OECD coimtries (table 4) (Brooks and Stone 2010). Logistics services, which connect supply chains across the regionand determine the location of foreign direct investment within the region, are a vital component of Asia's global competitiveness. Improved efficiency in infrastructure service facilitates trade and leads to huge cost savings, equivalent to relocating production thousands of kilometers closer to trading partners. Economies such as those of the PRC, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand have currently built well-developed logistics systems to facilitate international trade. The comparison of logistics performance internationally shows that East Asia performs relatively well compared to other developing regions, such as South Asia, but still lags well behind developed countries (Arvis et al. 2007; Brooks and Stone 2010).Opening up Asia's trade potential is very challenging. Costs for having interrupted road or railway connectivity across the region or for lack of facilitation of border trade can offset gains achieved from trade preferences as proposed under several FTAs and otherarrangements. Therefore, the need for an environment to better enable trade that offers lower trade costs has gained momentum in Asia. However, a favorable regional climate to establish amodern-day Silk Road is lacking. Hence, the agenda of Asian regional cooperation has to go beyond "policy" barriers by including "nonpolicy" barriers. For example, in order to facilitate seamless connectivity in Asia and accelerate the movement of goods and services in Asia and beyond, Asian countries have to integrate the different subregional transport corridors and modes (roads, rails, maritime, and air shipping). Moreover, they have to remove institutional bottlenecks and barriers that are raising costs and lowering regional competitiveness (Bhattacharyay and De 2009).Future DevelopmentAsia has presented itself in the past three decades as a region of fast-growing economies, particularly among those with emerging markets. However, weak regional connectivity has become one of the major barriers constraining the full potential of regional economic integration and growth. A true regional collaboration among Asian countries is very important for establishing Asia-wide economic integration and supply chain connectivity.In order to build a highly integrated Asia, an innovative andcomprehensive approach is needed to address the physical infrastructure issues and nonphysical soft infrastructure issues. Whereas the former includes the airports, seaports, dry ports, roads, rail, inland waterways, maritime transport, and information and communication networks, the latter covers cross-border transit facilitation measures, customs clearance, and other facilitating policies and regulations. Addressing the issues above requires collaborative efforts among Asian countries, bilateral donor agencies, multilateral development banks, UN agencies, intergovernmental organizations, professional associations, and the private sector. Above aU, highlevel commitments and policy direction are crucial for the successful integration of logistics infrastructxires in the Asian region (Bhattacharyay and De 2009). Potentially what can be done and the positive outcomes that result from a well-connected region are many and far reaching. In broader terms, the efficiency gains in an interconnected network for transport (and trade) would lead to more than just easier movement of goods; overall, it would result in higher growth and greater prosperity. In fact, a 1 percentage point increase in the ratio of trade to GDP would lead to a 2 to 3 percent increase in income per capita, while a 10 percent efficiency gain in supply chain connectivity would lift APEC's real GDP by US$21 billionper year and generate thousands of jobs (Centre for International Economics 2009).APEC has consistently made progress in reducing barriers to trade that are "at-the-border" (e.g., tariffs) and "behind-the-border" (e.g., regulatory impediments). In 2009, in order to address the remaining frontier—namely "across-the-border" barriers—APEC launched a supply chain framework to specify what needs to be done to create an integrated supply chain and an interconnected region. The goal is clear: to achieve multimodal connectivity by air, land, and sea; and to facilitate a seamless flow of goods, services, and people throughout the Asia-Pacific (APEC 2010).In collaboration with business, academia, and government sectors, APEC has identified eight critical choke points in Asian supply chains and is focusing on relieving them (APEC 2009). Broadly, they relate to regulatory impediments, customs inefficiencies, and inadequate transport networks and infrastructure. Tackling these bottlenecks requires a coordinated and concerted effort by all APEC members and their alliances. Members of APEC are developing concrete action plans which have already been disclosed in May 2010, and full implementation wiU start in 2011 (APEC 2010).。