服务贸易外文文献翻译2013年3000多字

众筹商业模式外文文献翻译最新译文字数3000多字The concept of crowdfunding has gained significant n in recent years as a new business model for raising funds。

This paper explores the origin and general history of development of crowdfunding。

The model involves a trinity of the raise of the people。

intermediary agencies。

and investors。

The structure and process of the model are analyzed from a logical point of view。

based on the value discovery。

value matching。

and value for three levels。

The theoretical analysis of the business model highlights its potential to promote entrepreneurship and n。

However。

as a new business model。

crowdfunding is still in its infancy and requires further n and n。

Legal risks also exist in the process of practice and must be carefully studied and guarded against.Keywords: Crowd funding。

Business model。

Value logic2 Background and history of crowdfundingCrowdfunding has its roots in the concept of crowdsourcing。

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字Credit risk management is a XXX business。

financing ns。

payment and settlement。

and other XXX。

credit XXX risk factor for commercial banks。

XXX such as life risk and uncertainty.Effective credit risk management is essential for commercial banks to minimize the impact of credit losses。

This involves identifying and assessing potential risks。

XXX strategies。

XXX。

By doing so。

commercial banks XXX the potential for credit losses.One of the key components of credit risk management iscredit analysis。

This involves evaluating the orthiness of borrowers to determine the likelihood of default。

Credit analysis XXX's financial history。

credit score。

collateral。

XXX credit analysis。

commercial banks can make informed lending ns and minimize the risk of default.Another important aspect of credit risk management is credit XXX can also help commercial banks XXX.In n。

服务贸易毕业论⽂范⽂3篇服务贸易发展毕业论⽂⼀、关于服务贸易的概念西⽅学者对服务贸易概念的探讨是从“服务”本⾝的概念开始的。

早在1977年，霍尔（T.P.Hill）提出了为理论界所公认的服务概念。

霍尔指出：“服务是指⼈或⾪属于⼀定经济单位的物在事先合意的前提下由于其他经济单位的活动所发⽣的变化。

……服务的⽣产和消费同时进⾏，即消费者单位的变化和⽣产者单位的变化同时发⽣，这种变化是同⼀的。

服务⼀旦⽣产出来必须由消费者获得⽽不能储存，这与其物理特性⽆关，⽽只是逻辑上的不可能……。

”80年代中期，巴格⽡蒂（J.N.Bhagwatti）（1984年）及桑普森（G.Sampson）和斯内普（R.Snape）（1985年）相继扩展了霍尔的“服务”概念，他们把服务区分为两类：⼀类为需要物理上接近的服务，另⼀类为不需要物理上接近的服务。

以此为基础，巴格⽡蒂将服务贸易的⽅式分为4种：（1）消费者和⽣产者都不移动的服务贸易；（2）消费者移动到⽣产者所在国进⾏的服务贸易；（3）⽣产者移动到消费者所在国进⾏服务贸易；（4）消费者和⽣产者移动到第三国进⾏的服务贸易。

桑普森和斯内普对服务贸易的分类同巴格⽡蒂基本相同，只是把服务消费者换成服务接收者，并且它既可以是⼈，也可以是物。

与此相类似，1987年，格鲁伯（H.G.Grubel）则直接把服务贸易定义为⼈或物的国际流动。

上述服务贸易的定义抓住了服务贸易的特征，即服务和贸易者的不可分，可以把服务贸易同传统的货物贸易清楚地区别开来。

但是，关于服务贸易的定义，仅仅探讨⾄此是不够的，因为它存在明显的缺陷，即⽆法把服务贸易同⽣产要素的国际流动区分开。

为了克服这⼀缺陷，巴格⽡蒂等⼈把⽣产要素的国际流动区分为暂时流动和永久流动，认为⽣产要素在国际间的暂时流动为服务贸易，⽽⽣产要素的永久流动则不属于服务贸易—资本在国际间的永久流动是国际直接投资，⼈⼒在国际间的永久流动则是国际移民。

中国的学者探讨服务贸易是从90年代开始的。

文献出处: : Mbuthia Mbuthia S, Muthoni C, Muchina S. HOTEL SERVICE QUALITY: PERCEPTIONS AND SATISFACTION AMONG DOMESTIC GUESTS IN KENYA [J]. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Oman Chapter), 2013, 2(8): 22-32.原文HOTEL SERVICE QUALITY: PERCEPTIONS AND SATISFACTIONAMONG DOMESTIC GUESTS IN KENYASusan ；Caroline; StephenINTRODUCTION In Kenya, tourism is the foremost earner of foreign exchange and it contributed to to Ksh Ksh Ksh 100 100 100 billion billion billion of of of the the the GDP GDP GDP in in in 2011. 2011. 2011. According According According to to to Republic Republic Republic of of of Kenya Kenya Kenya (2012), (2012), tourism made a direct contribution to the growth of hotel industry and other related sectors. Hotels on the other hand have to invest in managing their relationships with customers customers and and and maintaining maintaining maintaining quality quality quality to to to ensure ensure ensure that that that customers customers customers whose whose whose loyalty loyalty loyalty is is is in in in the the short term will continue to be loyal in the long term. The growth in tourism is well anticipated anticipated as as as evident evident evident in in in studies studies studies and and and analyses analyses analyses conducted conducted conducted by by by experts experts experts and and and relevant relevant organizations in this industry. Kenya is home to host of five star luxury hotels most of multinational owned or franchised franchised such such such as as as Hilton Hilton Hilton Nairobi, Nairobi, Nairobi, Serena Serena Serena hotels hotels hotels and and and the the the Fairmont. Fairmont. Fairmont. There There There is is is also also also a a wide range of domestic hotels and hospitality enterprises whose service offering not only complements those of world class hotels but also serve the domestics guests or tourists. Domestic Domestic tourism tourism tourism especially especially especially in in in the the the developing developing developing world world world has has has for for for a a a long long long time time time been been viewed viewed as as as inconsequential. inconsequential. inconsequential. Gerosa Gerosa Gerosa (2003) (2003) (2003) states states states that that that domestic domestic domestic tourism tourism tourism is is is "often "often overseen", despite case studies showing a greater impact particularly on the informal sector than international tourism. Domestic tourism in in Kenya has Kenya has however received due due focus focus focus from from from tourism tourism tourism agencies agencies agencies for for for instance instance instance the the the Kenya Kenya Kenya Tourism Tourism Tourism Board Board Board planned planned planned to to use use Ksh50 Ksh50 Ksh50 million million million (around (around (around US$ US$ US$ 690 690 690 000) 000) 000) mainly mainly mainly in in in marketing marketing marketing and and and promoting promoting promoting of of domestic tourism in the country (Kenya News Agency, 2004). One of the ways of assessing the impact of such efforts would be to consider the bed occupancy rates by residents. It can be seen from Fig. 1 below that domestic bed occupancy in Kenya has been on the rise since 2002. Notable also is that there was remarkable remarkable growth growth growth in in in occupancy occupancy occupancy for for for the the the 2007/2008 2007/2008 2007/2008 period period period 26.95% 26.95% 26.95% to to to 42.35%. 42.35%. Meaning Meaning that that that domestic domestic domestic guest guest guest have have have become become become an an an important important important customer customer customer segment segment segment that that warrants warrants attention. attention. attention. On On On the the the other other other hand, hand, hand, growth growth growth rates rates rates notwithstanding notwithstanding notwithstanding inconsistencies inconsistencies are are seen seen seen in in the the decline decline to to 34% 34% 34% in in in 2009 2009 2009 which which again points to to some some some sort sort of inconsistency inconsistency a a a gap gap gap which which which requires requires requires some some some critical critical critical attention attention attention especially especially especially in in in relation relation relation to to service quality a gap this study sought to address. This study study having having appreciated the role role the the the domestic domestic hotel guests play in providing the necessary patronage, would like to make a case for studying perception of quality for the services they experience at this hotels. It is important to realize that the domestic guest may not necessarily attract the same kind of attention and receive similar similar kind kind kind of of of service service service as as as a a a foreign foreign foreign guest guest guest in in in some some some hotels hotels hotels as as as they they they may may may be be be treated treated treated as as undeserving. Tourist class hotels are sometimes referred to as 'hotels for the whites' an undertone undertone that that that may may may affect affect affect negatively negatively negatively the the the quality quality quality of of of service service service offered offered offered to to to the the the domestic domestic guest. If If domestic domestic domestic guests guests guests are are are to to to be be be encouraged encouraged encouraged to to to play play play their their their roles roles roles in in in bridging bridging bridging the the seasonality gap that is the core of the international tourism business model, then they have to perceive the services provided as being worth their money value. This study therefore therefore aimed aimed aimed at at at determining determining determining the the the guest guest guest actual actual actual experience experience experience and and and evaluation evaluation evaluation from from from the the stay hence assess how the hotel performed against perceived quality and the effect on guest satisfaction. LITERATURE REVIEW Service quality Quality concept can be viewed in various perspectives in order to fully appreciate the role it plays in the many parts of business organization especially in the hotel industry. According to Bruhn and Manfred (2006) the concept of service quality emerged as a major challenge for service companies. This is because of the characteristics of services; e specially the especially the encounter of provider a nd customer in and customer in t he the service service process, process, process, service service service quality quality quality is is is a a a more more more complex complex complex construct construct construct than than than product product product quality. quality. Indeed Indeed the the the most most most fundamental fundamental fundamental definition definition definition of of of a a a quality quality quality product product product is is is one one one that that that meets meets meets the the expectations of the customer. In hotel industry, quality is defined simply as product conformation to specifications while meeting the expectations of the customer. Since each each customer customer customer have have have their their their own own own expectations, expectations, expectations, and and and then then then service service service quality quality quality remains remains remains a a subjective subjective matter matter matter that that that befits befits befits objective objective objective assessment assessment assessment through through through understanding understanding understanding of of of various various facets of perception, their measurement and how they relate to satisfaction an issue we shall pursue in this proceeding section. Perceived service quality Several authors through their work have tried to conceptualize perceived service quality with varying illustrations especially in reference to the dimensions applied in their their studies. studies. studies. Gronroos Gronroos Gronroos (1984) (1984) (1984) in in in his his his seminal seminal seminal paper paper paper on on on service service service quality quality quality defined defined defined the the perceived quality of a given service as the result of an evaluation process, in which the consumer compares his expectations with his perception of the service received; in other other words, words, words, he he he places places places the the the perceived perceived perceived service service service and and and the the the expected expected expected service service service opposite opposite opposite one one another. another. In In In the the the same same same study, study, study, two two two factors factors factors that that that consumers consumers consumers consider consider consider when when when evaluating evaluating service quality were identified as functional quality and technical quality. The latter being being the the the process process process of of of service service service delivery delivery delivery and and and the the the former former former is is is what what what consumers consumers consumers actually actually receive from the service. Parasuraman et al. (1988) identified five dimensions in their SERVQUAL model. These were tangible elements which are the physical surrounding of the place where the service is delivered for instance how the table is set or room furnishings, reliability which which is is is seller's seller's seller's capability capability capability to to to supply supply supply the the the promised promised promised outputs outputs outputs at at at the the the stated stated stated level level level and and responsiveness responsiveness determined determined determined as as as capability capability capability to to to respond respond respond to to to and and and satisfy satisfy satisfy the the the customer's customer's wishes. Others are assurance- employees' knowledge, politeness and trustworthiness and empathy- willingness and capability to respond to individual customer desires for example example making making making the the the bed bed bed with with with the the the sheets sheets sheets of of of a a a particular particular particular colour colour colour as as as requested requested requested by by by a a customer. 译文译文肯尼亚国内消费者对酒店服务质量的看法和满意度肯尼亚国内消费者对酒店服务质量的看法和满意度苏珊,卡罗琳,斯蒂芬斯蒂芬引言引言在肯尼亚，旅游是最重要的外汇来源,它在2011年为肯尼亚的国内生产总值贡献了1000亿。

文献出处：Bansal H S, Taylor S F. Cosmetics marketing model research [J] Proceedings of the Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference. Springer International Publishing, 2013: 75-82.原文Cosmetics marketing model researchKumar. PrakashUnderstanding behavior of consumers is a key to the success of business organizations. Marketing personnel are constantly analyzing the patterns of buying behavior and purchase decisions to predict the future trends. Consumer behavior can be explained as the analysis of how, when, what and why people buy. Consumer behavior can be understood as: "The decision process and physical activity individuals engage in when evaluating, acquiring, using, or disposing of goods and services." (Loudon and Della Bitta, 1980). Nowadays, this phenomenon, can also be illustrated in the following way: "activities people undertake when obtaining, consuming, and disposing of products and services" (Blakwell, Minard and Engel, 2001).A study by Voss and Parasuraman (2003) suggests that the purchase preference is primarily determined by price than quality duringpre-purchase evaluation. Given explicit quality information, price had no effect on pre-purchase or post consumption quality perceptions. Instead, post consumption quality evaluations had a favorable impact on price evaluations.Another study by Chernev (1997) analyzed the effect of common features on brand choice and the moderating role of attribute importance. It is argued that when brand attributes differ in importance, with the best value on the most important attribute, thus further polarizing brands’ choice shares. In contrast, when attributes are similar in their importance, common features are likely to have an opposite effect, equalizing brands share.Russo and France (1994), studied the nature of the choice process for commonly purchased non-durables by tracking eye fixations in a laboratory simulation of supermarket shelves. The findings are fully compatible with the general view that the choice process is constructed to adapt to the immediate purchase environment.While describing about shopping orientation, Sinha (2003) reports that Shoppers seek emotional value more than the functional value of shopping. Their orientation is based more on the entertainment value than on the functional value. The orientation is found to be affected primarily by the type of store, the frequency of buying and to some extent by thesocio-economic classification. The retailers need to experiment with a format that attracts both types of shoppers.Research suggests that beauty consciousness among people in general is changing. Vigneron and Johnson (1999) reported that people's needs for appearances and materialism were increasing. That is human beings wanted to satisfy the need to look and feel good. This created a boom in the cosmetic and toiletries sector across the world. Chambers Encyclopedia defines cosmetics as (a)articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or sprayed on, introduced into or other wise applied to the human body or any part there of for cleaning, beautifying, promoting attractive nessor altering the appearance and (b) articles intended for use as a component of such articles.Now variety of cosmetic and toiletries ranging from natural to sophisticated items are available in the market. The pattern and preference of use of these items vary according to different segments of gender, age and socio-economic class. When we review the literature on the cosmetic and toiletry industry, not many studies are available especially about Indian scenario. The present study is an attempt to analyze the purchasing pattern of cosmetic consumers.Cosmetics and Toiletries: Global ScenarioIn 2003, the world market for cosmetics and toiletries (C&T) was valued atUS$201 billion, up4.8% from 2002 (in fixed exchange rate terms). Though mature, hair care maintains its position as the most valuable sector in global cosmetics and toiletries, with global sales amounting toUS$42.4 billion in 2003. (Briney, 2004b). According to Global Cosmetic Industry report(August, 2004) the advanced education provided by brands about the products' ingredients and benefits have made today's consumer more aware of what they're putting on their bodies, and making them more willing to pay.Price & Cosmetic ConsumersThere is high maturity and price competition in established mass market toiletries such as bar soap and toothpaste. Since the average household continues to be highly price sensitive, these popular mass-market products will have the lion’s share of cosmetics and toiletries sales. This will offer high growth prospects of the overall market over the coming years. The cosmetics and toiletries market are also facing competition from other consumer durables (computers, mobile phones, home theatres and automobiles) as well as the housing sector. The drop in interest rates has led to a boom in housing loans and real estate purchases. Being value conscious, there is a limit to the amount that the average consumer will spend on luxury items such as fragrances.Urban & Rural Cosmetic ConsumersSpending on cosmetics and toiletries is relatively small, with rural and suburban areas concentrating on basic toiletries and cosmetics. The purchasing power consumers is increasing thereby shaping the aspirations and lifestyles of consumers, who are upgrading to good value products at affordable prices. The Cosmetic Companies have invested heavily on promoting product visibility among rural folk, which has increased the demand for bar soap, talcum powder, lipstick, tooth powder and hair oil in these areas. This has also increased the demand for essential everyday items like bath and shower products, hair care, oral hygiene and skin care. Anotherstrategy followed by companies to promote cosmetics in rural areas was sachets’ approach. While rural contributed to growth in volume terms, the urban population contributed 69 %of value sales in 2005 especially for sophisticated products. These high-quality added-value niche products include mascara, toners, body wash/shower gel, depillar Tories, sun care and deodorants, amongst others which are unaware to the rural users. Sales are almost completely generated from the urban pockets, concentrated within the key metropolitan areas. Due to Western influences, men's grooming products are used more predominantly in urban population compared to their counterparts in rural areas.Income HouseholdsCosmetics and toiletries have witnessed a growing demand from the low and lower middle-income households. The premium labels are being used in urban areas, whereas regional and national brands in the rural areas, where close to 70% population resides and price determines purchasing decisions.Men & Women Cosmetic UsersBoth male and female consumers form a major segment of buyers of beauty products. women are becoming increasingly more beauty conscious. Reports of Consumer Graphics revealed that in 2003, women aged 15-24 years accounted for 29.8%of all make up sales. The increased purchasing ability of women households helped them to spend more on personal grooming. Colour cosmetics emerged as the fastest growing area of the cosmetics and toiletries market over the review period. Experimentation among teen and young adult women was one reason cited for the increase in makeup use. According to Monteiro (2003), there is a tremendous in crease in the female cosmetic consumers. This is due to increasing number of women becoming the earning members of the family due to their increased level of literacy and growing influence of the media More males are becoming conscious about the way they look and are increasingly looking to grooming products to spruce up their physical appearance. This newfound male grooming consciousness was encouraged by men's active participation in prominent fashion shows, such as the popular Fashion TV channel, and in beauty pageants exclusively for men .The demand for men’s hair care and deodorants has gone up and razors and blades have contributed to the men’s grooming value sales. This particular segment which is at its early stage of its development with a growth of only 6% remains a nascent niche.Female cosmetics consumer psychologyWomen and Cosmetic Born to a pair of enemies. Cosmetics for women, there are a lot of consumers consistently classification, of which, by incentive for consumers to purchase the mental breakdown of the most common method. For enterprises, for now this consumer-driven era, the motivation for consumers to buy different for different marketing strategies on the marketing research company becomes extremely effective. In this context, we can present the women's cosmetics consumers are divided into the following categories: realistic psychology of consumers, consumers seeking psychological security, hi new psychology of consumers, the consumer psychology of beauty, follow the psychology of consumers, the status of consumer psychology who here especially psychological consumer category 7.Realistic psychology of consumers are rational and psychological characteristics of the largest consumer, less vulnerable to the impact of advertising and promotional staff. Making purchasing decisions, attached great importance to product tangible results, often the product of all aspects of information are concerned, try this link is essential to them, on the other hand, their friends around them after use The recommendation is also very concerned about. In this group of people doing consumer research carried out, the first effect is the product must be significant; followed by use of experiential marketing as much as possible so that they come into contact with products and trial products; again is the emphasis on the importance of word of mouth. Specifically, from the following aspects.Seeking the maximum security mental psychological characteristics of consumers is a serious sense of crisis. Usually over the age of 25 middle-aged women, who on the face of particular concern to youth are not afraid, afraid to face aging, strongly through various means to retain the footsteps of years. When their eyes first wrinkles appear, when the first root hair of their head when there is they most want to restore the beauty, pleasure yourself, so that consumers are most vulnerable to the impact of advertising and promotion personnel terrorist demands on their most effective.Women's consumer psychology ——Packaging ColorTo make good use of color brings the experience of women to meet the beauty of the heart. Heart of beauty in everyone, especially female consumers, the beauty of the heart become more prominent. Cosmetics, color design, to consumer groups for different ages of the different color preference, and fully meet their beauty of the heart. Cosmetics for young women, the tone should be fresh, lively and based, in order to fully reflect the vitality of youth and health. Such as the Archer aloe moisturizing cream, and its bright green packaging fresh and clean, full of vitality, vulnerability of young girls of all ages. For middle-aged consumer products, and its color should be stable, elegant style. They require a higher quality product, but also pay more attention to brand consumption. SK-Ⅱ, such as the essence of various products, mainly of Chinese red color, not only reflect traditional Chinese flavor, but also gives people a feeling of elegance, but also a sense of vitality, so that many women believe this product to nourish the skin , keeping the skin young state aspects of performance is outstanding.According to the positioning of product sales levels to select the color, to meet the women's sense of superiority and vanity. The positioning of different brands of cosmetics in different groups, the product price difference, too. Suitable for mass consumer groups, cosmetics, packaging can be used in the same rich colors to meet the needs of consumers of different ages. Products such as large treasure in the packaging of pink, green, blue, purple, black, gold and other colors the ingenious, but the rich colors and clean lines. High-end cosmetics, consumer good economic conditions, mainly women, relatively speaking, they are relatively strong sense of superiority and vanity, color display their products, through the noble, value for money, to meet the psychological needs of this group. Amore products such as shiny, with gold for decoration. In the Chinese perception, there is a supreme golden mean.Gold used the product can fully show the status of high quality and distinguished. Eno products pose selection of crystal violet skin bottles, elegant, noble feeling of natural distribution, so that owners get a larger psychological satisfaction.Pay attention to make the packaging color design to highlight women's personality and values. Moisturizing, whitening cream, foundation and sunscreen and other products can only be basic skin care to meet the needs of female consumers, If you want to highlight the personal charm, make-up is essential. Different psychological make-up to give people different feelings, both pure and lovely, fresh and elegant, you can also fashion sexy, smart intellectual. Therefore, the color cosmetics packaging design not only the United States to give the feeling of female consumers, but also bring their personality and values on the rich associations.译文化妆品营销模式研究了解消费者的行为是一个商业机构成功的关键。

文献出处：Bardhan A, Begley J, Kroll C A, et al. Global Tourism and Real Estate[J] 2008 Industry Studies Conference Paper. 2013,(12): 41-56.原文Global Tourism and Real EstateIntroductionA rapid increase in travel and tourism has been an integral part of the ongoing wave of globalization. Patterns of global economic growth are impacting tourism activity worldwide. With growing affluence in emerging economies, the pool of international travelers is expanding to include visitors from a broader variety of countries. Increasing cross-cultural contacts and greater access to information regarding tourism attractions in hitherto lesser known parts of the world, increasing fascination with the emerging and developing economies, new forms of tourism activity, such as ecotourism, and increased investment in infrastructure further broaden the destinations of travelers.The basic factors of tourism and real estate industry globalizationWhile a number of studies exist on global real estate markets,little has been written on the implications of globalization from the point of view of the US real estate industry. Scholars and analyst identify three main sectors within the broad real estate industry, investment, evelopment,services ,each of which is affected differently by globalization. Even without physical presence, the global economy affects many aspects of the industry, including real estate prices and returns, and the underlying costs of materials. Motivations for globalization of real estate investment include diversification of risk, higher returns, and changing customer demand. Geographic diversification within a single product type raises questions, as there is evidence that both office and residential products move with the globalmarket rather than distinctly by geographic area. A broader mix of real estate products appears to provide diversification benefits in a mix with other types of products in a global portfolio. Research on tourism globalization has largely focused on tourism as an activity or a service, rather than the real estate aspects and implications .Communications technology such as the Internet has expanded access to the international market for small tourism providers. Making use of these technologies has affected human resource demand, adding higher skilled/higher wage jobs to the tourism sector. Researcher describes a range of tourism investment directions that are directly tied to the real estate. Tour operators made direct investment in hotel capacity in the 1960s and 1970s, while other foreign investment has concentrated in hotels in metropolitan areas. Theme park operators, such as Disney and Legoland, have developed internationally. The author also notes "small-scale micro-investments" have been eased by the free flow of capital within the European Union. Overall, these investments are small compared to other aspects of tour ism development, such as management, franchising, and even the globalization of tourism supply chains.Tourism Real Estate--Definitions and MeasurementTourism DefinedAlthough "tourism" is often described as an industry, it does not show up as a single industry or sector, or even as the sum of a set of sectors, in the normal economic accounting for the US economy. Instead, tourism involves portions of more than half a dozen industrial sectors.The World Trade Organization defines tourism as "the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited." This definition focuses on travel as a key aspect of tourism. In addition to travel, the main activities involving tourism include accommodations, food and beverage services, as well as shopping, entertainment, amusement and recreation.Measures of Real Estate Aspects of TourismHistorically, much of tourism development has been tied to new real estate development. Real estate (in the form of building structures) is the single largest component of capital investment in the tourism -related industries. Structures account for between 55 and 60 percent of capital investment in arts, entertainment and recreation industries and in accommodations and food services.More than half of capital investment in the retail sector is also in structures. (The average share of structures in capital investment for all industries is just over 40 percent.) Travel, in contrast, has a much heavier component of investment in equipment, with structures accounting for 15 percent of capital investment. More broadly, the role of real estate-related products and services as an intermediate input varies broadly among tourism-related sectors. Real estate transactions, services, and design activities account for between 10 and 15 percent of intermediate inputs to sightseeing, travel arrangements, hotels and motels, and food services and drinking places, more than one fourth for other accommodations, but less than 5 percent for air transportation.Real Estate and International TourismThe localized nature of real estate is weakening. From land development to design and construction, firms that once focused only on local markets with in a US region are finding demand for their services abroad, diversifying their markets and developing new risk-management techniques. In the context of international tourism, the primary real estate players have historically been global hotel and hospitality chains, international developers of hotels, resorts and vacation communities, and to a somewhat lesser degree of relevance, specialized real estate developers and service providers in the logistical and travel arena, viz. construction, expansion and modernization of airports and other related travel infrastructure. More recently, the tourism demand continues to come from these market segments, but the players are changing as tourism providers focus more on core services, often separating from the real estate aspects of the operation.HotelsGlobalization of tourism is creating new opportunities in accommodations. For US real estate firms involved in hotel real estate, revenues are often as high outside as in the US. Even in the emerging economies experiencing growth in tourism outpacing inventory growth, rates in hotels catering to business and international travelers are at times comparable with rates in major cities in developed countries.Changing structure in the hotel industry is creating segmented opportunities for hotel brands and hotel and property managers--which can be considered akin to specialized real estate services--and property owners. While there is no standard hotel ownership and management structure, in general the largest international hotel companies own multiple brands and franchise the majority of their business worldwide. Few of the top ten international hotel companies own the majority of their hotel real estate assets. Instead, the hotel company provides a brand name and management service, while property ownership is an entirely different operation.InfrastructureInfrastructure is a real estate-related and tourism-related product whose growth in importance is affected by many of the same factors leading to growth in international tourism. Infrastructure can be either a constraint to tourism development and related real estate investments or an opportunity for real estate related investment to overcome these constraints.Infrastructure can be a significant bottle neck to the expansion of international tourism, especially in developing and emerging economies. China has addressed this problem through extensive transportation infrastructure investments--the decision to make these investments has been fairly straightforward due to the country's centralized governmental structure and revenues from expanding economic growth. Countries with more decentralized infrastructure provision systems and/or lower revenues from growth are less able to respond quickly to growing infrastructure needs. Transportation is only one facet of the infrastructure bottleneck problem. In many developing countries, a safe water supply and reliable energy resources are also at issue.Infrastructure opportunities are characterized by both strong demand and fluidity in how it may be financed. In addition to the direct opportunities that may emerge from this for arange of real-estate related firms (such as builders and financial firms), ancillary services, such as retail close to transit hubs, create further opportunities for real estate firms.Changing Structure, Multiple Future PathsBoth the hotel and infrastructure sectors show significant changes over time that affect the level and manner of involvement of real estate firms. Changing ownership structure of hotel companies offer a role for real estate firms that have not previously specialized in hospitality functions, while the increased concentration of brands among larger suppliers opens up the possibility of building long-term customer relations between property owners, managers, and hotel service companies. The need to modernize infrastructure for a growing international travel base opens up many opportunities as well. The following section looks more broadly at both opportunities and constraints and how they may affect the role of real estate firms involved in tourism globalization.Real Estate Competitiveness and OpportunitiesThe preceding review of trends in tourism and in particular the hotel industry highlight a number of factors of importance in considering how tourism globalization may interact with the real estate industry as it, too, globalizes. First we consider how worldwide trends are likely to affect the location of real estate opportunities. Major advantages of US firms in moving into global areas of tourism include their history with the globalizing tourism service providers (such as hotels); access to capital; experience with a variety of investment instruments, professional knowledge, and established management systems. Constraints come from cultural and institutional differences, lack of experience or of a services support network in new markets, differences in property ownership structure, and restrictive regulations related to property ownership and licensing. The combination of rapidly expanding opportunities and uncertain future growth rates make the area of international tourism related real estate development both high return and high risk.ConclusionsKey factors driving the globalization of tourism include the economic growth of emerging economies, the expansion of multinational business and consequent travel through the globe, and the widening communications base that provides information on all parts of the world. This expansion affect s both the tourism industry and the real estate industry, as well as ways that the two interact.As tourism has expanded globally, many of the traditional tourism service providers have changed their business structure to facilitate the expansion into new markets. This has often included a separation of real estate activity from the core travel-related services. This process of fragmentation opens the door to development and investment activities by real estate players. Major international players in both industries are following broader trends in economic growth, investing in high end products throughout the world to serve international travelers as well as an expanding base of middle and upper income travelers in emerging economies. The result has been a tendency for prices in developing areas to become world prices.译文旅游业的全球化与房地产引言全球化背景下，旅游和旅游业正飞速发展，也成为全球化浪潮一部分的。

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世界贸易和国际贸易外文文献及中文翻译World Trade and International TradeIn today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations areself-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, internationalfinance and banking have evolved.For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala)that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives moneyin payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State.Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough ofa particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries. Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries. It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce themdomestically. According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage. It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it still imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity. When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade. When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists. Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessaryimports.International trade is the exchange ofgoods and services produced in one country for goods and services produced in another country. There are several reasons for it.The distribution lf natural resources around the world is somewhat haphazard: some nations possess natural deposits in excess of their own requirements while other nations have none. For example, Britain has large reserves of coal but lacks many minerals such as nickel, copper, aluminum etc, whereas the Arab states have vast oil deposits but little else. In the cultivation of natural products climates whereas others, such as citrus fruits, require a Mediterranean climate. Moreover, some nations are unable to produce sufficient of a particular product to satisfy a large home demand, for example, Britain and wheat. These are the reasons why international trade first began.With the development of manufacturing and technology, there arose another incentive for nations to exchange their products. It was found that it made economic sense for a nation to specialize in certain activities and produce those goods for which it had the most advantages, and to exchange those goods for the products of other nations which and advantages in different fields.This trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage.The theory of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, was developed by David Ricardo, and other economists in the nineteenth century. It points out that trade between countries can be profitable for all,even if one of the countries can produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as there are minor, relative differences in the efficiency of producing a commodity even the poof country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. The paradox is best illustrated by this traditional example: the best lawyer in town is also the best typist in town. Since this lawyer cannotafford to give up precious time from legal and typing matters. But thetypist’s comparative disadvantage is least in typing. Therefore, the typist has a relative comparative advantage in typing.This principle is the basis of specialization into trades and occupations. At the same time, complete specialization may never occur even when it is economically advantageous. For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage. Thebenefits lf specialization may also be affecting by transport costs: goods and raw materials have to be transported around the world and the cost of the transport narrows the limits between which it will prove profitable to trade. Another impediment to the free flow of goods between nations is the possible introduction of artificial barriers to trade, such as tariffs or quotas.In addition to visible trade, which involves the import and export lf goods and merchandise, there is also invisible trade, which involves the exchange of services between nations.Nations such as Greece and Norway have large marine fleets and provide transportation service. This is a kind of invisible trade. When an exporter arranges shipment, he rents space in the cargo compartment or a ship.The prudent exporter purchases insurance for his cargo’s voyage. While at sea, a cargo is vulnerable to many dangers. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize. Great Britain, becauseof the development of Lloyd’s of L ondon, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations’ foreign trade.Some nations possess little in the way of exporter commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winter, the Bahamas attract large numbers of countries, who spend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. Tourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade.Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities.International trade today little resembles European commerce as it existed between the 16th century and the 19th century. Trade in earlier times was conducted largely between a mother country and its colonies. It was conducted according to strict mercantilist principles. The colonies were supposed to supply the mother country with raw materials, and they were expected to buyall finished goods from the mother country. Other forms of trade were forbidden to the colonies, but many of them evaded these restrictions.A result of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century, was the transformation of trade from a colonial exchange into a many sided international institution. Cottage industries gave way to mass production in factories. Railroads and steamships lowered the cost of transportation at the same time that new markets were being sought for the expanding output of goods.The Industrial Revolution also brought an end to mercantilist policies. The laissez-faire attitudes that emerged in their stead permitted businessmen to manufacture what they pleased and to trade freely with other nations. Trade was also stimulated by the growth of banking facilities, insurance companies, and improved commercial shipping and communications.The repeal of the Corn Laws by Great Britain in 1846 ended Britain’s longstanding policy of protectionism. During the 19th century, many European nations made commercial agreements with each other easing their tariff rates. Lower tariffs and the growth of population and industry caused trade to soarin the 19th century.In the 20th century two world wars and a major depression caused severe disturbances in international trade. Nations, sensing a threat to their domestic economies, sought to protect themselves from further disturbances by erecting various barriers to trade.The situation became even worse after Great Britain abandoned the gold standard. The nations that were closely related to Britain, including most of the members of the Commonwealth of gold standard. As the means of makinginternational payments broke down and trade restrictions increased, some countries had to resort to barter to obtain foreign goods.International trade was in such severe straits during the depression that a World Economic Conference was held in 1933. This conference, however, was unable to halt a rash of currency devaluations, tariff increases, and quota arrangements.In 1934, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull persuaded Congress to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. This law authorized the President to negotiate tariff cuts with other nations. The Reciprocal Trade Act providedfor protection of U.S. industries in the event foreign imports increased to such a degree that U.S. businesses were injured. This protection includedperil point and escape clauses under which tariff cuts could by refused of rescinded if a U.S. industry suffered economic hardship. Despite the protectionist clauses in the act, U.S. tariffs were substantially reduced.Shortly before the end of World War Ⅱ, members of the United Nations met at Bratton Woods, N.H. to discuss ways of reducing the financial barriers to international trade. The International Monetary Fund was established as a result of the conference. The fund was designed to encourage the growth of international trade by stabilizing currencies and their rate of foreign exchange.In the early postwar period, more than 20 nations met in Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate tariff reductions. When any two nations reached an agreement to reduce tariffs on a product, the benefits were extended to all participating nations. This was an application of the so-called most favored nation clause.The Geneva tariff agreements were written into the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT also established standards for the conduct of international trade. Fox example, the agreement prohibits nations from placing quotas of limits on imports, except under very special circumstances.After World War Ⅱ a number of free trade areas were formed to solve trade problems on a regional basis. Tariffs on goods moving within these areas were to be abolished. Some of the groups also erected a single tariff on the goods of outsiders coming into their common area. Such groups are called customs unions. The goal of all trade blocs was to merge small political units intolarge geographic entities in which goods could be freely manufactured and sold.A large market area greatly stimulates economic growth and prosperity. These trade blocs are: Benelux, The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECOM), the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM).世界贸易和国际贸易在当今复杂的经济世界个人和国家都不是自给自足。

文献出处：Caruth G D. Critical Factors in Human Resource Outsourcing [J]. Journal of Management Research, 2013, 13(4): 187-195.原文Critical Factors in Human Resource OutsourcingDonald L. Caruth, Stephanie S. Pane Haden and Gail D. CaruthAbstractOutsourcing has infiltrated the world of human resource management in a major way. Over time the number of organizations skilled in performing specific human resource activities has grown to the point where there is now a general provider or a specialist provider organization that can perform almost any human resource management task or activity. This article aims to identify some of the key elements necessary for successful outsourcing. For outsourcing of human resource management activities to be truly effective, companies must understand what can be outsourced as well as what cannot be outsourced. This article presents a hierarchy that identifies the kinds of activities that lend themselves to outsourcing and then it identifies the characteristics that preclude certain functions from being outsourced. Successful outsourcing of human resource activities also demands that organizations know and understand the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing. Another prerequisite for successful outsourcing is to understand what actions are necessary to create a successful ongoing relationship between the company doing the outsourcing and the subcontractor or outsourcing firm.Keywords: Human Resources Outsourcing, HR Outsourcing, Outsourcing Activities, Outsourcing Advantages, Outsourcing Disadvantages, Outsourcing RelationshipsOutsourcing has become a common practice in human resource management. A simple definition of outsourcing identifies the process as contracting with an outside party to perform functions that could be in-house (Potkany, 2008; Shen, 2005). Anoutside party hired to perform one human resource function or several firms hired to perform one or more functions are examples of single-source and multi-source outsourcing, respectively (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Outsourcing has infiltrated the world of human resource management in a major way and is a growing trend today (Choudrie, Grey, &Selamat, 2009; Galanaki &Papalexandris, 2007). In a recent study, Ketter (2007) determined that 91 percent of U.S. companies have begun to prepare for opportunities to outsource by standardizing many of their HR functions. As outsourcing has emerged, the role of human resource management has evolved. What are the future trends for outsourcing human resource activities? According to the SHRM 2004-2005 Workplace Forecast: A Strategic Outlook, 550 human resource professionals are predicting more human resource outsourcing in the future due to technology and the sluggish US economy.According to Klaas (2008), 78% of large American firms outsource functions. In 2002, it was estimated that the outsourcing of just US employee benefits administration alone was a $27-billion industry (Shen, 2005) and two-thirds of companies world-wide outsource, at a minimum, one business function (Elmuti, 2003). "The potential exists for continued growth in outsourcing among North American firms" (Klaas, 2008, 1512).The current trend, according to Cooke, Shen, and McBride (2005), is for businesses to outsource only part of their human resource function instead of turning over the entire department of human resources to a third-party provider. The HR functions that are most apt to be fully outsourced are employee assistance and counseling programs, flexible spending account administration, and background and criminal checks (e.g., Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, &Wright, 2010). Human resource management outsourcing organizations can now perform practically any human resource management activity (Caruth &Caruth, 2010). Organizations are expecting to reduce costs and are looking to the outsourcing of some of human resource management functions as a way of reducing those costs. "HR's most frequently outsourced functions now are background checks, payroll, and health and pension plan administration" ("What Lies Ahead," 2004, p. 14).The starting point in outsourcing human resource activities effectively is to understand what can and cannot be outsourced (Handley &Benton, 2009). There are certain HR activities that, depending on the company, should generally never be outsourced. Activities related to the strategic decision making and requiring specific management knowledge and activities that require confidentiality should rarely be outsourced. Serious problems may occur if the determination between what should and should not be outsourced is not made. Examples of such serious problems include poor decisions being made, confidentiality potentially being breeched, work may possibly not get done correctly or not get completed in a timely fashion, money being spent unnecessarily, as well as a host of other problems.A second requirement for successful outsourcing of human resource activities is to understand the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing (Caruth &Caruth, 2010). A third prerequisite for prosperous outsourcing ventures is to create an effective relationship between the outsourcer and the subcontractor performing the work (Handley &Benton, 2009). These three critical factors are examined in this article.ACTIVITIES THAT SHOULD AND SHOULD NOT BE OUTSOURCED It is helpful to think about specific HR activities and their potential for outsourcing in more broad and general terms. Nearly all HR activities can be grouped into one of seven categories and arranged in a hierarchy that illustrates each category's potential for successful outsourcing (e.g., Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Human Resource Activities: The Outsourcing Hierarchy. There can be little doubt that outsourcing human resource activities is a growing trend offering substantial benefits to the organizations using it. The literature is rife with piece-meal cases of specific examples of activities that can be successfully outsourced. What appears to be missing from all that has been written about outsourcing is a general scheme or framework of all human resource activities, differentiating those activities that have a greater potential for outsourcing from those that do not and providing a rationale for the difference in outsourcing potential. This article seeks to rectify this omission by first identifying seven distinct levels of human resource activities andthen arranging them in a hierarchy ranging from activities with the greatest outsourcing potential to those activities with the lowest potential for outsourcing. It is hoped that this framework will provide general guidance to organizations considering the outsourcing of human resource activities.For purposes of this article, all human resource activities are divided deductively into seven hierarchical categories, arranged in ascending order of the importance of the activities to the strategy, competitiveness, and success of the organization, as follows: (1) ancillary activities, (2) routine activities, (3) activities containing the potential for achieving economies of scale, (4) activities requiring specialized knowledge, (5) activities requiring broad organizational knowledge, (6) activities requiring high confidentiality, and (7) activities requiring specific management decisions (Caruth &Caruth, 2010). Each of these activities is described below.Level 1: Ancillary Activities (AA)Ancillary activities are those tasks assigned to the human resource department that are not necessarily human resource tasks. They are activities that must be performed by the organization but not necessarily by the human resource department. Typical ancillary activities are food service, campus maintenance, and janitorial services. While the performance of these activities is important to the organization, the activities are not specifically related to human resource management (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Level 2: Routine Activities (RA)Routine activities are often important to the human resource department but their nature is such that they can be handled through standardized procedures because there is little or no variance from transaction to transaction or case to case. Benefits administration is an example of a routine activity. Once the procedures are established, processing changes occur infrequently (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Level 3: Economies of Scale (EOS)Economies of scale are operations wherein economies can be achieved by processing larger quantities of items (i.e., the higher the volume processed, the less the unit cost per item or transaction). Processing health care claims, conductingscreening interviews, and administering personnel tests are examples of activities having the potential for achieving some degree of scale economy (Caruth &Caruth, 2010)Level 4: Specialized Knowledge (SK)Some functions within a human resource department require specialized knowledge for their performance. This knowledge may be gained through specific educational requirements, experience, or a combination of the two. The required specialized knowledge may not be needed or required on a full-time basis within a human resource department; it maybe required only as needs arise. To keep such knowledge on the payroll for only occasional use can often be an unnecessary expense. Preparing personnel policy manuals, conducting human resource management research, and presenting training and development programs are examples of activities requiring specialized knowledge (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Level 5: Specific Organizational Knowledge (SOK)Lack of knowledge of an organization's personnel, operational peculiarities, folkways, traditions, and culture can be a factor that limits the outsourcing potential of certain types of human resource activities. Specific organizational knowledge is required to make effective decisions. Human resource planning and succession planning are areas where such organizational knowledge is required, and are therefore less conducive to successful outsourcing efforts. Outplacement, on the other hand, is an activity at this level that is frequently outsourced successfully (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Level 6: Highly Confidential Activities (HCA)Secrecy is required in the performance of some human resource management activities. Layoffs, plant closings, and restructuring are examples of activities that must be kept confidential. These kinds of activities, obviously, have a much lower potential for being outsourced than those that do not have a need for secrecy or confidentiality (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Level 7: Management Decision Activities (MDA)Some human resource management activities require the direct and specificinvolvement from top management. The structure of the human resource department or the direction the human resource function must take are examples of activities that require direction from top management. There is little opportunity for outsourcing decisions that must be made by the executive level of management in an organization (Caruth &Caruth, 2010).Figure 1, The Hierarchy of HR Outsourcing, depicts a graphic representation of the seven levels of human resource department arranged in ascending order of importance. As the hierarchy suggests, the lower the level of human resource activity, the greater the possibility of outsourcing it; the higher the level of activity, the less likely the possibility of outsourcing it. Examples of specific HR activities are provided in correspondence with their representative level in the hierarchy.If outsourcing is to be effective, it is important for organizations to determine what can be outsourced as well as what cannot be outsourced (Boguslauskas &Kvedaraviciene, 2009; Caruth &Caruth, 2010). Some method such as the classification proposed in this article must be used to identify or to distinguish those activities with the greatest outsourcing potential from those activities that should not be outsourced. In other words, outsourcing must be done systematically in order to be done effectively (Caruth &Caruth, 2010; Shen, 2005).THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OUTSOURCING Another precursor to the successful implementation of HR outsourcing is the thorough understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing (Caruth &Caruth, 2010). While the potential value of outsourcing might entice any organizational leader to utilize the strategy, outsourcing often inevitably poses some detrimental side effects. In order to accurately weigh the benefits against the drawbacks of outsourcing, both variables must be fully considered.译文人力资源外包的关键因素唐纳德.卡鲁斯, 斯蒂芬妮.潘恩哈登, 盖尔.卡鲁思摘要外包已经作为一种主要方式渗透到世界人力资源管理中。

3000字外文翻译篇一：3000字英文翻译Bolt Supporting of Large-Span Soft Rockway inShaqu CollieryAbstract The instability of trapezoidal I-steel support is analysed for the compound roof of main coal seam in Shaqu Colliery, and the mechanism of bolt supporting is studied. A scheme of bolt supporting has been given and put into practice,remarkable technical and economic benefits have been got.Key words :large-span,compound roof, bolt supporting, mechanism1.IntroductionIn shaqu colliery a large coal mine mining rare coking coal in China, most roadways are laid out in main coal seamroof of coal seam .The soft compound ,which is composed of mudstone and coal seamcontains aboundant beddings and joints. The strength of the roof is so low that its uniaxial-saturated compressive strength is only 10.7 Mpa.RQD value of coal seam and is zero ,and that of mudstone is lower than 10%. There is clay minerals in mudstone, main compositions are interbedded strata of illite and montmorillonite which will swell when soaked by water, The span of preperation roadways and gateways is wider than 4m, and that of some main roadways is over 5m. In shaqu colliery , preperation roadways and gateways were supported by trapezoidal I-steel support, the beams of which were bent and damaged, and the roadways were destroyed seriously within a short period just after excavated. Roofcontrolling of Large-Span Soft Rockways in the coal seam became the key to the production and construction of shaqu colliery.2.supporting status and instability analysis of trapezoidal I-steel supportstrapezoidal I-steel supports were used in drawing roadways,which roof span is 4.0m, floor span is 4.9m, and hight 2.95m and spacing 0.5m. Initial resistance of the supports was almost zero because it was difficult to the support beams contact the roof, even if with high quality of installation. The trapezoidal I-steel supports would not carry load until the displacement of surrounding rock excceded 80-100 mm because the supports increased very slowly. Therefore, right after excavation, the roof would bend and subside severly. Eight hours after excavation, the roof strata would break completely, and then form rock cavity. The weight of caving rock would act on the beams of supports, which forms loose rock pressure.By calculating, the ultimate load-bearing capacity is smaller than roof pressure whether it is uniformal or concentrated, Based on the in-situ observation, inflection value of most roof reached 200-300mm. When paired supports were used, paired beams were still bent and damaged; then midprops were added, they were also destroyed. Many roof beams were stabilized only if 2-3 props had been added. The supports were damaged completely, and most of them could not be reused. The partsection of roadways had become inverted trapezoid, and the available section was far smaller than the designed section. Part of roadways was out of use because it was in the danger of serious caving.3.Mechanism of bolt supportingIts mechanism is to make full use of the self-load-bearing capacity of surrounding rock by bolting, and then make the surrounding rock stabilize by itself. The stability of surrounding rock depends on the equilibrium status of ground pressure, self-load-bearing capacity of surrounding rock and anchoring force of bolts. Ground pressure is to make surrounding rock deform and break; self-load-bearing capacity is the main factor to stablize surrounding rock. Anchoring force of bolts can notchange the equilibrium status of the three because it is very small, compared with ground pressure and self-load-bearing capacity. And its function is to change the decreasing regularity of self-load-bearing capacity versus the deformation of surrounding rock, and balance self-load-bearing capacity against ground pressure early.Roof pressure is the pressure acting on the roof beams when I-steel supports are used to control the roof. When roof is supported by bolts, the roof pressure change to be the pressure acting on the rock within the bolting range because this part of rock is change into self-bearing body. According to the characteristics of the roof of coal seamscan be divided into six substrata. , bolts strataWhen the value of roof subsidence is zero, roof pressure is in-situ stress; then roof pressure decreases with the increase of roof subsidence. The variation of roof pressure is analyzed by FLAC, The results are shown as curve 1 in Fig.1. Wheoof subsidence reaches 19 mm, the first roof substratum begins to bearing tensile stress, then losts self-load-bearing capacity, and roof pressure decreases to 0.67Mpa. When roof subsidence reaches 40 mm, the second substratum loses self-load-bearing capacity, and roof pressure decreases to 0.16Mpa. When roof subsidence reaches 100 mm, the fourth substratum loses self-load-bearing capacity, and roof pressure decreases to0.08Mpa. In the initial stage of roof subsidence, roof pressure decreases rapidly, and in the later stage of roof subsidence, roof pressure decreases slowly and then has an increasing trend.The self-load-bearing capacity of the roof without bolting is calculated upon the theory of laminated beam, the result are shown as curve 2 in Fig.1. When roof subsidence is zero, the self-load-bearing capacity is at its utmost value 0.0625Mpa; when roof subsidence is 100mm,roof strata have broken, most of self-load-bearing capacity has lost, and the residual self-load-bearing capacity is only 0.0375Mpa.Theself-load-bearing capacity of the roof with bolting is calculated upon the theory of combined beam, the result are shown as curve 3 in Fig.1. When roof subsidence is zero, the self-load-bearing capacity is at its utmostvalue 0.4Mpa; when the roof subsidence reaches 40mm the self-load-bearing capacity decreases to 0.225Mpa,and when roof subsidence reaches 100mm, the self-load-bearing capacity decreases to 0.1Mpa .As shown in Fin. 1, the self-load-bearing capacity of roof strata without bolting is lower than roof pressure during the whole course of roof subsiding, so roof strata cave inevitably. When bolted, roof strata is changed from laminated beam into combined beam ,and the selr-load-bearing capacity increases markedly. When roof subsidence reaches 44mm, the self-load-bearing capacity exceeds roof pressure, then roof strata stabilized by itself.4 Anchoring technologyBased on the above study of bolting mechanism, large setting resistance, high speed of resistance and high final resistance are the key technology to the large-spon soft rock roadway before roof strata detaching, which includes: (1)to improve the setting resistance increasing and achieve high speed of resistance increasing, to make the real working properties of bolts coordinate self-load-bearing properties of roof strata , which enables to make full use of the self-load-bearing capacity of roof strata; (2)to raise bolting reliability, and solve the difficult problems that anchoring force between bolts and soft rock is small and easy to lose.4.1 Bloting scheme篇二：本科论文 3000字外文翻译附录A3 Image Enhancement in the Spatial DomainThe principal objective of enhancement is to process an image so that the result is more suitable than the original image for a specific application. The word specific is important, because it establishes at the outset than the techniques discussed in this chapter are very much problem oriented. Thus, for example, a method that is quite useful for enhancing X-ray images may not necessarily be the best approach for enhancing pictures of Mars transmitted by a space probe. Regardless of the method used .However, image enhancement is one of the most interesting and visually appealing areas of image processing.Image enhancement approaches fall into two broad categories: spatial domain methods and frequency domain methods. The term spatial domain refers to the image plane itself, and approaches in this category are based on direct manipulation of pixels in an image. Fourier transform of an image. Spatial methods are covered in this chapter, and frequency domain enhancement is discussed in Chapter 4.Enhancement techniques based on various combinations of methods from these two categories are not unusual. We note also that many of the fundamental techniques introduced in this chapter in the context of enhancement are used in subsequent chapters for a variety of other image processing applications.There is no general theory of image enhancement. When an image is processed for visual interpretation, the viewer is the ultimate judge of how well a particular method works. Visual evaluation of image quality is a highly is highly subjective process, thus making the definition of a “good image” an elusive standard by which to compare algorithm performance. When the problem is one of processing images for machine perception, the evaluation task is somewhat easier. For example, in dealing with a character recognition application, and leaving aside other issues such as computational requirements, the best image processingmethod would be the one yielding the best machine recognition results. However, even in situations when aclear-cut criterion of performance can be imposed on the problem, a certain amount of trial and error usually is required before a particular image enhancement approach is selected.3.1 BackgroundAs indicated previously, the term spatial domain refers to the aggregate of pixels composing an image. Spatial domain methods are procedures that operate directly on these pixels. Spatial domain processes will be denotes by the expressiong?x,y??T?f(x,y)? (3.1-1)where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an operator on f, defined over some neighborhood of (x, y). In addition, T can operate on a set of input images, such as performing the pixel-by-pixel sum of K images for noise reduction, as discussed in Section 3.4.2.The principal approach in defining a neighborhood about a point (x, y) is to use a square or rectangular subimage area centered at (x, y).The center of the subimage is moved from pixel to starting, say, at the top left corner. The operator T is applied at each location (x, y) to yield the output, g, at that location. The process utilizes only the pixels in the area of the image spanned by the neighborhood. Although other neighborhood shapes, such as approximations to a circle, sometimes are used, square and rectangular arrays are by far the most predominant because of their ease of implementation.The simplest from of T is when the neighborhood is of size 1×1 (that is, a single pixel). In this case, g depends only on the value of f at (x, y), and T becomes a gray-level (also called an intensity or mapping) transformation function of the forms?T(r) (3.1-2)where, for simplicity in notation, r and s are variables denoting, respectively, the grey level of f(x, y) and g(x, y)at any point (x, y).Some fairly simple, yet powerful, processing approaches can be formulates with gray-level transformations. Because enhancement at any point in an image depends only on the grey level at that point, techniques in this category often are referred to as point processing.Larger neighborhoods allow considerably more flexibility. The general approach is to use a function of the values of f in a predefined neighborhood of (x, y) to determine the value of g at (x, y). One of the principal approaches in this formulation is based on the use of so-called masks (also referred to as filters, kernels, templates, or windows). Basically, a mask is a small (say, 3×3) 2-Darray, in which the values of the mask coefficients determine the nature of the type of approach often are referred to as mask processing or filtering. These concepts are discussed in Section 3.5.3.2 Some Basic Gray Level TransformationsWe begin the study of image enhancement techniques by discussing gray-level transformation functions. These are among the simplest of all image enhancement techniques. The values of pixels, before and after processing, will be denoted by r and s, respectively. As indicated in the previous section, these values are related by an expression of the from s = T(r), where T is a transformation that maps a pixel value r into a pixel value s. Since we are dealing with digital quantities, values of the transformation function typically are stored in a one-dimensional array and the mappings from r to s are implemented via table lookups. For an 8-bit environment, a lookup table containing the values of T will have 256 entries.As an introduction to gray-level transformations, which shows threebasic types of functions used frequently for image enhancement: linear (negative and identity transformations), logarithmic (log and inverse-log transformations), and power-law (nth power and nth root transformations). The identity function is the trivial case in which out put intensities are identical to input intensities. It is included in the graph only for completeness.3.2.1 Image NegativesThe negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1]is obtained by using the negative transformation show shown, which is given by the expressions?L?1?r(3.2-1)Reversing the intensity levels of an image in this manner produces the equivalent of a photographic negative. This type of processing is particularly suited for enhancing white or grey detail embedded in dark regions of an image, especiallywhen the black areas are dominant in size.3.2.2 Log TransformationsThe general from of the log transformation iss?clog(1?r) (3.2-2)Where c is a constant, and it is ass umed that r ≥0 .The shape of the log curve transformation maps a narrow range of low gray-level values in the input image into a wider range of output levels. The opposite is true of higher values of input levels. We would use a transformation of this type to expand the values of dark pixels in an image while compressing the higher-level values. The opposite is true of the inverse log transformation.Any curve having the general shape of the log functions would accomplish this spreading/compressing of gray levels in an image. In fact, the power-law transformations discussed in the next section are much moreversatile for this purpose than the log transformation. However, the log function has the important characteristic that it compresses the dynamic range of image characteristics of spectra. It is not unusual to encounter spectrum values that range from 0 to 106 or higher. While processing numbers such as these presents no problems for a computer, image display systems generally will not be able to reproduce faithfully such a wide range of intensity values .The net effect is that a significant degree of detail will be lost in the display of a typical Fourier spectrum.3.2.3 Power-Law TransformationsPower-Law transformations have the basic froms?cr? (3.2-3)Where c and y are positive constants .Sometimes Eq. (3.2-3) is written asto account for an offset (that is, a measurable output when the input is zero). However, offsets typically are an issue of display calibration and as a result they are normally ignored in Eq. (3.2-3). Plots of s versus r for various values of y are shown in Fig.3.6. As in the case of the log transformation, power-law curves with fractional values of y map a narrow range of dark input values into a wider range of output values, with the opposite being true for higher values of input levels. Unlike the log function, however, we notice here a family of possible transformation curves obtained simply by varying y. As expected, we see in Fig.3.6 that curves generated with values of y＞1 have exactly the opposite effect as those generated with values of y＜1. Finally, we note that Eq.(3.2-3) reduces to the identity transformation when c = y = 1.A variety of devices used for image capture, printing, and display respond according to as gamma[hence our use of this symbol in Eq.(3.2-3)].The process used to correct this power-law response phenomena is called gamma correction.Gamma correction is important if displaying an image accurately ona computer screen is of concern. Images that are not corrected properly can look either bleached out, or, what is more likely, too dark. Trying to reproduce colors accurately also requires some knowledge of gamma correction because varying the value of gamma correcting changes not only the brightness, but also the ratios of red to green to blue. Gamma correction has become increasingly important in the past few years, as use of digital images for commercial purposes over the Internet has increased. It is not Internet has increased. It is not unusual that images created for a popular Web site will be viewed by millions of people, the majority of whom will have different monitors and/or monitor settings. Some computer systems even have partial gamma correction built in. Also, current image standards do not contain the value of gamma with which an image was created, thus complicating the issue further. Given these constraints, a reasonable approach when storing images in a Web site is to preprocess the images with a gamma that represents in a Web site is to preprocess the images with a gamma that represents an “average” of the types of monitors and computer systems that one expects in the open market at any given point in time.3.2.4 Piecewise-Linear Transformation FunctionsA complementary approach to the methods discussed in the previous three sections is to use piecewise linear functions. The principal advantage of piecewise linear functions over the types of functions we have discussed thus far is that the form of piecewise functions can be arbitrarily complex. In fact, as we will see shortly, a practical implementation of some important transformations can be formulated only 篇三：3000字外文文献翻译模板学年论文（外文文献翻译）英文题目 Financial structure and development 译文题目金融结构与金融发展姓名学号所在学院管理学院专业班级指导教师日期 20xx 年 6 月 28 日目录文献名：作者：文献来源：原文 (1)译文 (10)原文：（可以保留文献的原有格式）译文：（需要有页眉为：20xx级会计专业学年论文）11。

4.中国服务贸易的发展 在WTO对服务贸易统计数字，其他商业服务贸易是在运输服务贸易的定义，旅游服务贸易在服务贸易，中国的国际收支平衡（国际收支平衡表）的对比可以发现，在WTO统计

其他商业服务贸易，包括国际收支平衡表的通信服务，建设服务，保险服务，金融服务，计算机和信息服务，特许权使用费和许可费，咨询服务，广告服务，视听服务，和国际收支表中没有提到其他商务服务10。此外，国际收支表，这是不是在其他商业服务提到，其他的知识，技术密集型的新服务。近年来，在服务的新兴贸易快速增长，世界服务贸易总额的比重增加；世界经济中发挥着越来越重要的作用，而是服务贸易未来的发展方向。

自2000以来，中国有各种各样的其他商业服务贸易快速增长，但增长很不稳定。通信服务，例如，在2000的出口增长率，和128.28%的2001，下降到79.85%，显示出了很大的波动。不只是沟通服务，建设服务，保险服务，金融服务，计算机和信息服务，特许权使用费和许可费，咨询服务，广告和促销服务，电影和音像服务，和防喷器放在首位，没有提到的出口增长的商业服务，UPS与起伏。我们的知识，新兴的技术密集型服务贸易出口有两个特点：第一，以更快的速度增长，并呈现出良好的发展势头；第二，虽然增长速度较快，但相比于非常传统的服务贸易，国内和国际形势等相关因素的高度脆弱，有更大的不确定性。

出口增长率类似于进口增长率也表现出高但不稳定的生长特性。主要原因是：第一，随着中国经济的快速发展，中国的外交知识和技术密集型的服务和产品，尤其是金融服务，保险服务，计算机和信息服务，广告和促销服务，与生产密切相关的生产服务，快速增长的需求，我们的服务是suchservices供应是有限的，而我们的新服务，进口增速更快的生产。第二，出口和新兴的服务行业，类似于中国的新兴服务行业的进口也受到国际国内因素的影响，使进口的新服务业挥发性。

从其他服务贸易占很大比例的中国服务贸易出口的角度来看，自2000以来，除了前面的桌子在防喷器和其它商业服务未提及的项目，其他商业服务出口占我国虽然在其他服务出口呈现出上升趋势的贸易比重，但不到10%的比例。特别值得注意的是，近年来，咨询服务出口占中国服务贸易出口从2.31%增加到2000至11.09%，2009的比例，已成为旅游服务，交通服务和防喷器在桌子前没有提到中国的第四大出口产业服务贸易后，其他商业服务。这表明，在最近几年。国家的国际竞争力的咨询服务的增加，与国外行业的差距正在逐步缩小。然而，相比能更好地反映知识，技术内容，如保险服务，金融服务，特许权使用费和许可费，电影视听服务，服务业占中国服务贸易出口的比重不超过1%。因此，与传统的服务相比，中国服务贸易出口份额的新的服务仍然很小，中国服务贸易出口仍以资源密集型和资本密集型的传统，在服务贸易出口广泛的方式，与发达国家相比还有很大的差距。

商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。

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The article also examines the impact of regulatory requirements on credit risk management practices and the role of corporate governance in ensuring effective risk management。

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the article emphasizes the need for banks to adopt a comprehensive and proactive approach to credit risk management in order to maintain financial stability and avoid costly losses.In today's increasingly complex financial environment。

effective credit risk management is essential for the long-term success of commercial banks。

Banks face numerous challenges in managing credit risk。

英文文献：The application of e-commerce for SMEsA great advantage of e-commerce is not only suitable for use in large enterprises, but also very beneficial to many small and medium enterprises. Relative to large enterprises, small and medium enterprises of human, financial, information technology, weak and small and medium enterprises to apply e-commerce is a new topic to be studied. Typically, the use of e-commerce has four types: information access, personal communication, shopping services, virtual enterprises.As e-commerce is a complex system engineering, it will use many new technologies, but the most important thing is the following: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), bar codes, e-mail, Internet, WorldWideWeb, product data exchange and electronic form. The benefits of e-commerce use by SMEsFor small and medium sized e-commerce can give them to bring many new opportunities and challenges facing SMEs it can solve many difficulties and problems. The arrival of Internet for SMEs to open up a broader market space. As the information in the enterprise's competitive edge competitive play an increasingly important role, with e-commerce, information on SMEs and big business competition. Overall, the impact of electronic commerce for small and medium enterprises can be divided into the following areas: 1. Global markets, the competitiveness of SMEs traditional market can be strengthened; SMEs have more opportunities to sell the products to various countries and regions worldwide. 2. Market supply chain suppliers to provide design and engineering services required will increase; manufacturers will outsource more non-core businesses; customers will need more electronic communication for use in orders, billing and other business, when large customers that request, which will have a big impact the supply chain; customers will require their suppliers to provide more inventory management services, such as data warehouse and order management; manufacturers will continue to reduce the total number of suppliers; supply chain links between the companies will more closely. 3. Internal operations and process control with greater use of networked information technology and system integration technology, the company will improve communications and collaboration; will use more automated manufacturing technology for integrating external data and internal operations to provide greater opportunities, such as EDI and MRP systems integration; enterprises will reduce the number of employees, but will increase the workload of each employee; business operationsand management costs will be reduced.4. Customer service providers will try to shorten the manufacturing of new products and services of their available time; manufacturers will try to minimize the price; product quality will be greater attention; suppliers will find a need for faster and better to provide order status information (such as the production date); businesses will pay more attention to the product after-sales service; information and telecommunications services, competition will intensify between; available to manufacturers of information and the types of telecommunications services will increase; The new e-commerce products and services will appear; human resources and work structure; computer's role in the enterprise will become more important; small company in training employees to use computers, the more difficult than those of large companies. 5. Information as business assets, the information itself will become an important marketable commodities (such as databases); company data in decision-making will play an important role; through networking, manufacturers will have more and better opportunities to access more widely useful in commercial and technical information. 6. Small business prospects and timely use of the network can access the latest business trends information to guide their production and sales. Determine the feasibility of e-commerce technology When SMEs decide to use e-commerce, it is necessary to meet these business needs to determine the technical feasibility of the various e-business initiatives. A basic principle is to use the most it can increase the operational capacity of e-commerce technology. Here are the most suitable technology for each number of e-commerce applications, can be used for small and medium enterprises in the choice of reference. 1.EDI the structured data into other Yingyong in (such as the use of customer orders to install the product); when the transaction volume can reduce costs; allow the trading of many Butong Huoban (such as customers, suppliers, manufacturers, etc.) trade between easier.2. Barcodes quickly determine and identify the merchandise; to determine the identity and integration into other applications and databases.3. E-mail to individuals or groups to provide free inquiry and exchange; need to send some simple information sharing to all members of the enterprise; by additional document (attachment) to share complex information; to make long-distance collaboration faster and more convenient.4.WorldWideWeb published information about the company to achieve the purpose of publicity companies; from a large number of data sources to retrieve information; e-commerce to buy / sell goods or services; collaboration between multiple users or information sharing.5. Product data exchange needs to be timely productinformation sent to trading partners; distance together with partners in product design.6. Spreadsheet better way to format a norm concerning the management of data; when it comes to many different tasks simultaneously can track the entire process; artificial input data with data on the machine itself is integrated with; by integration of WWW and the implementation of internal systems to facilitate electronic commerce.Several issues should be notedRelative to large enterprises, small and medium enterprises in human, financial, information technology, weaker, and therefore the process of implementing e-commerce there are some issues warrant particular attention, even small enterprises need on the e-commerce system level of view, this process is very important.When companies feel the need of enterprise systems from anywhere in the process started e-commerce can make use of existing commercial enterprises or technology, you can also e-business from scratch for system-level planning and design. If the enterprise may resolve how to deal with excess inventory when the thought of starting e-commerce, while another company might choose through the implementation of e-commerce strategies to improve customer service levels. This is the advantage of a flexible small and medium enterprises, and large enterprises is different, in order to conduct e-commerce system-level on the need for comprehensive planning. For small and medium terms, system-level programs can also be achieved at various stages of e-commerce start. Even if some companies have implemented e-commerce systems can also be quickly modified.For e-commerce may return to the business benefits to be in the business consequences and evaluate the technical feasibility of both. These two aspects will affect the implementation of e-business attitude and determination. One pair of their competition in the market its ability to company not necessarily can do it well the new e-commerce technology,While the other wants to use the new e-commerce tools to expand their competitive advantage of companies, the pace of implementation of e-commerce may be larger.Because electronic commerce is a systematic project, required before the decision to use it make sure to do so can give enterprises the greatest benefits and minimum adverse effects, most important is to ensure the implementation of e-commerce can bring to the moreenterprise of interest returns.中文翻译：中小企业如何应用电子商务电子商务的一个很大的优点是它不仅适合于大企业使用，而且对众多的中小企业也非常有利。

体验营销外文文献翻译2014年译文3000多字XXX quality。

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which refers to the sum of all experiences a customer has with a company or brand。

XXX een the customer and the brand.3 XXXXXX sensory marketing。

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XXX showcase the brand。

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XXX are used to promote the brand to their followers.4 THE XXXXXX。

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companies XXX are not just buying products or services。

税收服务问题研究国内外文献综述目录税收服务问题研究国内外文献综述 (1)1 国外研究现状 (1)2 国内研究现状 (2)3 文献总评 (3)参考文献 (3)1 国外研究现状税收服务的基本理论是，国外对税收制度的理论研究要比中国快得多。

17世纪中叶，英国古典统计学家威廉·佩蒂（税制）在其《税收》一书中提出，税收应遵循税收公平、税收类型决策、税收便利决策和税收成本最小化四项原则。

后两项原则需要降低行政成本，以提高税收质量和效率。

1986年，英国政府宣布了《纳税人权利宪章》。

20世纪80年代，新公共管理理论成为政府改革的一种思潮。

其核心思想是将市场机制引入公共管理，强调政府、社会和市场的关系，弱化政府职能，鼓励公共管理社会化。

美国登哈特夫妇（2010）也对新公共管理理论有了进一步的理解。

政府不能站在公民的对立面。

想要管理公民，作为服务提供者，他们需要及时了解公民的需求。

在优化纳税服务方面，美国Devriesetal(2013)对政府工作绩效评价方面研究了税务机关和纳税人的关系，他认为做好纳税服务工作，必须要加强纳税服务体系的建设，税务部门要想得到纳税的认可，必须加强服务，满足纳税人实际需求。

Nabila Nisha（2016）在研究过程中强调，电子政务快速发展的同时，发达国家已经建立起独立的电子税务局，对部分较为落后的地区来说，体系还不够完善，尤其是孟加拉国之类的发展中国家。

在她看来，电子化申报的便利方式更能够满足纳税人的基本要求。

越来越多纳税人希望能够通过互联网的便捷渠道来解决税务申报过程中出现的各种问题。

通过研究相关的因素，该学者发现网络安全需求和创新绩效等各个部分都能够影响到税务具体建设情况，也是影响纳税人满意度的重要因素。

他的研究还指出，电子政务服务的具体落实必须要建立在前期分析的基础之上，只有这样才能够提供更好的规划和实施意见。

Hall，Joshua C（2018）提到美国有着丰富的地方政府税收历史和良好的规定。

文献出处：Yousefi, A., & Liu, M. (2013). The Impact of Technical Barriers to Trade: The Cases of Trade Between China, Japan, Korea, and the US. In Innovation in the High-Tech Economy (pp. 23-34). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.译文The Impact of Technical Barriers to Trade: The Cases of TradeBetween China, Japan, Korea, and the USAyoub YousefiIntroductionThe technical barrier to trade (TBT) is a relatively new technique raised during the last decades, which has influenced the trade flow worldwide (Bao and Qiu 2011). It is one form of the non-tariff trade barriers (NTBs), which differs from the traditional ones that it mainly includes standards and technical regulations. World Trade Organization (WTO) took it into an effect in the year of 1995. TBT varies from country to country in terms of the magnitude and product coverage. For example, it might come with the form of safety and labeling. In fact, it can be a tool to promote trade but can also be a protection as well. Additionally, the Developing Countries and Developed Countries have different reactions to this measure. This essay is aimed to find out the effects for both types of countries in the manufacturing area with the help of gravity model.T his essay is inspired by the article “How do technical barriers to trade influence trade flows”. Instead of the general trade flows, this study collects data on one industry, which is manufacture and extends the scope of the years to 2011. At the same time, unlike the previous article chosen all members in WTO, China, Japan, Korea and US are chosen as the object countries, because they have strong connections. China and US are the biggest trade partners of each other in terms of manufactured goods. Another reason is that Japan, Korea, and China are very close geographically, and Japan is an important and the most developed country in Asia. With the analysis of the TBT notifications and the trade flows of those countries, therewould be a reasonable conclusion of the impact of TBT on the developing country and the developed countries.Sources of Data and Summary StatisticsAll the data between China and US starts from the year 1984 to the year 2011. For China and Japan, the time range of data is from year 1984 to 2011 as well. For the export from China to Korea, the data is valid from year 1992 to year 2011. Data of Korea exporting to China is valid from year 1989 to year 2011.As the part of TBT notifications, they are collected from the TBT information system of WTO and added on to get the sub number for each year.As the control variable, real GDP (based on year of 2000 in US dollars) for China, Japan, and US are collected from the World Bank.As mentioned above, the manufacturing trade flow of China, Japan, Korea, and U.S. should be included. In that case, the data of the manufacturing trade flow were obtained from the WTO commodity trade statistics and database from the year 1984 to the year 2011 between Japan and China, as well as US and China. The trade value of manufacture from Korea to China is collected from 1989 to 2011 since there is no historical data before 1989. At the same time, the trade value from China exports to Korea is valid from the year of 1992 to the year of 2011.Fig. 1 The trade value from China export to Korea (1992–2010)Table 1 The regression results of China exports to KoreaAs is shown in Fig. 1, from 1992 to 2011, the export value from China to Korea is increasing constantly, especially sharply after year 2000. It does fallen a bit on 2009 possibly because of the global financial crisis, but the value goes up after that (Table 1).From the E-Views regression result showing above, the probability of log(1 +TBT_korea) is 0.0846, which means that it can be 90 % sure that the coefficient is significant, and TBT of Korea can influence the trade flow from China export to Korea. However, it is not reasonable since the coefficient is a positive number. Generally, the TBT would not stimulate other countries’ export.Fig. 2 The trade value from Korea to China (1990–2010)Table 2 The regression results of Korea exports to ChinaHowever, the influence is positive. There are two potential reasons for this. One is that the amount of observations is not big enough, and there might be a bias. The other possible reason is that Korea’s notifications can influence all of the partners that Korea has, and China might did not export the goods that were influenced by these notifications during those years (Fig. 2).The trade value from Korea export to China also has a trend of going up, and also has a small decrease around the year of 2009. However, the absolute value is smaller than the one of China exporting to Korea. The regression table comes asfollowing (Table 2).The Impact of Technical Barriers to Trade: The Cases of Trade Between China. . .Fig. 3 The trade value from China export to US (1984–2010) From the results above, the probability of the key variable log (1+TBT_China) is 0.0903, which is smaller than 0.1. This number indicates that we can be 90 % sure that the TBT notification of China would influence the export value of Korea. Since the coefficient is −0.277276, the TBT of China does have a negative effect on the Korea’s export. This result is reasonable. For the variable of the real GDP of Korea, the probability is 0.0164, and we can be 95 % sure that this variable has positive influence on the export value of Korea. However, the GDP of China does not have significant influence on Korea’s export value because the probability 0.5521 is bigger than 0.1. Looking at the adjusted R-squared; it is 0.953275, which argues that the model fits the data well (Fig. 3).The value is increasing slowly before the year of 2000, and goes up quickly after that. Although there is a tiny fall in the year of 2009 because of the financial crisis, the value is increasing very fast in general (Table 3).The probability log(1+TBT_US) is 0.0328 and the coefficient is 0.019259. This shows that there is a slightly positive effect of TBT instead of a negative one in the example of exporting from China to US. This is not supposed to be happen. One ofthe reasonable explanations might be that the number of the variables is not big enough to give sufficient result, and another explanation is that China has trade surplus during these years so that TBTs are not strong enough to influence the trade values. In addition, China joined WTO in the year of 2001, this benefits China exporting manufacture products to its biggest trade partner US as well (Fig. 4, Table 4).Table 3 The regression results of China exports to USFig. 4 The trade value from US export to China (1984–2010) The probability of the log(1+TBT_China) is 0.0349, which means it is 95 % surethat the coefficient −0.382740 is significant. Consequently, the TBT of China has a negative influence on the export of US. The positive economy index of China would stimulate the export from US to China, whereas the US GDP does not have a significant influence. The adjusted R-squared 0.867589 is close to 1, which indicates good fitness of the model to the data (Fig. 5).The Impact of Technical Barriers to Trade: The Cases of Trade Between China. . .Table 4 The regression results of US exports to ChinaFig. 5 The trade value from China export to Japan (1984–2010) The export value from China to Japan is increasing slowly before 2002, and is increasing sharply after then with a tiny fall in the year 2009 (Table 5).The probability of the log(1+TBT_Japan) is 0.3209, which shows that the coefficient is not significant. In other words, the TBT of Japan might does not have an influence on the export of China to Japan. A possible explanation is that these two countries are too close geographically and Japan needs the manufacturing goods very much so that the notifications would not be a key factor of the change of the trade value (Fig. 6).Table 5 The regression results of China exports to JapanFig. 6 The trade value from Japan export to China (1984–2010) The value is very small before year 1991 and goes up lightly and fluctuates between the year 1992 and 2002. Then the value goes up quickly except the fall on 2009 because of the financial crisis (Table 6).The probability of the log (1+TBT_China) is 0.0926, which shows that the coefficient is significant. Therefore it is safe to say that the TBT of China has a negative influence on the export of Japan to China. This result is reasonable.Table 6 The regression results of Japan exports to ChinaPolicy ImplicationsAs we can see from the example of US exporting to China, Japan exporting to China, along with Korea exporting to China, the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) has a negative influence on the exporting trade values. As a huge economy playing a crucial part in the bilateral trade of manufacture, China definitely should be care of the policies which it is implementing. There is opposite results too as which have been showed above. The most possible reason for all of them is that the numbers of the variables are not big enough, which can influence the regression result. Additionally, the industry and the countries have been picked are very special. Bilateral trades of manufacturing trades between China and the other three countries are of great importance and particular enough so that the manufacturing industry cannot stand for the other industries. Though we see opposite examples, the opposite results also come with the imperfect fits between the model and the data, which means we should pay more attention on the ones that proving the negative influence on the importing countries’ TBT notifications on its partner. The time period in this paper is not that long, but the long-term effect of the TBT can be somehow predicted from the results. As a consequence, as a non-tariff trade barrier, it should be reduced in rising up in order to avoid more negative on the trade values as well as other potential bad effects for all the governments trading in the international markets. Of course, this paper is byno means complete. Further researches should be extended with more industries and countries along with a longer time period.译文技术贸易壁垒对中国、日本、韩国以及美国之间贸易的影响阿尤布·尤瑟夫引言技术性贸易壁垒(TBT)是一种相对较新的技术，在过去的几十年不断被提高，致使它对全球的贸易往来有很大的影响(包和邱2011)。