会计专业英文文献

File Management of Computerized AccountantXavier Bonus【Abstract】With the development of computerized accounting,the management of accounting files has changed as well. The manual accounting methods used in records management don’t meet computerize d accounting’s needs any more.Therefore, we need to improve computerized accounting files management, so as to speed up the accounting records management's information building to fit in with the new requirements of computerization.We also need to make a good record of computerized financial files to improve financial records management and to serve the enterprise's development better.【Key words】Accounting computerization The management of Accounting Archives Construction of Archives Electronic financial archivesComputerized accounting refers to the application to information technology in accounting, which uses computer to replace manual bookkeeping, reimbursement, and using information technology to analyze accounting matters. Computerized ac counting increases accounting files’ accuracy, standardization and efficiency, meanwhile reduces the burden of accountants, so they can have a better participation in management decision-making unit, strengthening financial management. Strengthening the accounting records management information is the need of computerized accounting reform and the modern times, it is inevitable, and the accounting development direction. Manage and use corporate financial accounting work file is an important prerequisite to the higher development of accounting work. In the traditional manual accounting environment, the subject matrix, debit and credit ,thebalance sheet, and related analysis of the financial statements are all required to calculate totals manually, making the financial staff workload, but also easily lead to the calculation of data error. In the computerized accounting environment, simply input the original data transfer mechanism or through an external system credentials and financial software in the computer under the guidance of accounting entries by the audit certificate, modify, confirm complete printout automatically by a computer, subjects summary, loan balance work done automatically by computer, at the same time it can generate accounting reports as required, which greatly reduces the workload for finance staff, but also avoid such work in computing the total error.As we all know, traditional accounting file is accounting documents, account booksandaccounting statements and other accounting-speci fíe material, it is to record and reflect the important historical and economic evidence of the business. These historical data and evidence with a strict balance, timing, and seriousness, not free to tamper with. In the enterprise information construction process, the expansion of the scope of financial security and management requirements increase, an urgent need to change the accounting file management tools and management performance improvement. Construction of electronic financial records, financial records to achieve network management, improve enterprise financial records management is the inevitable choice.The implementation of computerized accounting enterprises at all levels after a number attached to the computer because of its magnetic media data and documents, all the daily work of financial officers and accounting data calendar year access to all the computer to complete, followed accounting records to give a lot of new features. This practice, according to the work summarized Accounting file has the following notable features.First, compared to the traditional financial records, computerized accounting records storage areas and areas of expansion.Second, the traditional accounting files with intuitive visualization, and stored in the magnetic media on the accounting records must be in a particular computer hardware and software system environment before use. Accounting records of the calls that need a certain hardware and software environment.Third, computerized accounting records of the carrier is not only the output by printing the paper in the traditional sense, more important is the magnetic media or CD. Custody of the computerized accounting records accounting information not only information carriers, as the paper and more importantly, magnetic media or CD.Fourth, the electronic financial records to facilitate the calculation, analysis, fast access tothe desired result. If the electronic financial records online, through the exchange of computer operations and networks, not only meets the conditions of daily queries, statistical analysis, production data report, the need to carry out data exchange, to file sharing of information resources, paperless and convenient access to the purpose of saving the office costs and avoid reading the original file due to frequent wear and tear brought about, is also beneficial to professional management, easy integration of a unified file resources, greatly improve the efficiency and quality of work.Fifth, the electronic financial records easy to amend, copy and reset, easy error correction, carry and transfer.As mentioned above, the electronic financial records or financial records of information has many advantages, but there are enough side. If a system-dependent, that requires a certainhardware and software environment to support, only to open under certain conditions, do not have direct visibility of traditional archives, but also has easily been damaged, traces of the characteristics of difficult investigation, while they are also quality by the carrier, carrier storage environment, storage of information carriers conditions of validity, that the computerized accounting records to the security, integrity demanding. The longer the implementation of computerized accounting records and financial software version number of the more accounting records that need scientific management. Therefore, even if the implementation of financial records management information, the archive also needs to implement the so-called "Double",which means a file with the paper and electronic versions simultaneously record.We also use computerized accounting data files are conducive to the design data model management and decision-making; establish a more complete decision support system to achieve the accounting records of the re-use of computerized accounting. In the long-term process of Accounting, with the escalation of the software system, we have access to accounting records have the following two conditions: the access to the version number of the accounting records and accounting electric current consistent version of the system operator, this time only the files you need access to the system through computer software, access to the file (or data recovery) functions into the access to lines can be; the access to the accounting records of the version number and the current version number of computerized accounting system is inconsistent, and you only need to install another computer file corresponding to this version of Computing system, and then for access to.Financial records management information is continuously improved to optimize the process, staff has to rely on improving the quality of the file. Building a high-quality cadre of financial records, financial records management information is an important foundation. Financial sector to supplement the computer, communications, microelectronics and other academic backgrounds and technical personnel, to gradually change the structure of existing business workforce professional single case, to meet the information needs of the construction work; strengthening financial records staff, continuing education at different levels phases and in accordance with the principle of business needs for training. Focus on strengthening financial management personnel file information technology training and application of new technologies, new equipment, new methods of training to enhance their control and use of information technology and means of awareness and skills. Financial records to establish a rational management of performance appraisal evaluation provides information on the financial records management ability, good results in time units and individuals to recognize and encourage everyone to learn the information, and use information. In addition, also on the computer information technology staff must work files, financial management knowledge and skills introduction, to understand the objective laws of the financial records of work, and betterinformation for financial records management to provide technical support.Computerized accounting exits some problems in the file record:Firstly, after the implementation of computerized accounting, stored in the hard drive must be built on a floppy disk backup of accounting data.Under the "Accounting System Management System" and "reporting system management system" provides accounts data and report data by the data administrator to create a backup. Back not less than once per month; backup floppy disk with the file manager handling archiving procedures; used as a backup floppy disk must be well kept; backup floppy disk label should be affixed to protect and seal with a seal or seals; backup disk should be installed in the protection of seals and the box, stored in a safe, clean, heat, moisture, anti-magnetic place, and regularly turn storage; double back under the two sets of backup disk should be stored in different storage locations.Second, the implementation of computerized accounting system data and preserve the media the main security risks exist. The implementation of computerized accounting system data is the main computer. Computer system consists of hardware and software form. Because there is the physical vulnerability of hardware systems, once the hardware system failure or power failureand other non-human cause, will result in the data can not be processed, accounting can not. Data processing, accurate and efficient financial software depends on the quality and performance. Once the software quality problems will affect the accuracy and speed of data processing. Once the program a serious virus, it will seriously jeopardize the safety of the system, if we can not rule out the virus is likely to expand in time loss.Main accounting data stored in computer disk or external floppy, CD-ROM, once the magnetic medium due to heat, moisture meant loss and other reasons are damaged, save the accounting data will be lost, if not related to backup, then, will the accounting Computing system causing serious damage, seriously affecting the company's accounting. Magnetic media to store information on magnetic signals, if the data have been maliciously modified without leaving any traces. Therefore, we should also the entire computer system security and stability to do some work, such as computer virus prevention.Third, computing the need of expert management of accounting file. Accounting system implementation of the main "people", but no matter how good software quality, how to improve rules and regulations as the main body of Computerized Accounting System Implementation "person" can not play a role, there is a system not to perform, or even malicious modify the software program, modify the data in the database, illegally obtained a password, will not be tolerated. Therefore, managers should pay attention to the file selection and training of staff, enhanced staff files the standard of professional ethics and business standards to electronic dataprocessing accounting records management system, the main integrity. This requires the computerized accounting system to deal with business arising from the various books, reports, documents should be managed by hand, and to develop appropriate management system.Fourth, strengthening the computerized accounting system, management and maintenance of the network environment. Network security indicators include data security, access control, and identity recognition. Login using the password management and control of online financial data systems to read; only use the firewall, computerized accounting systems and external quarantine area to visit the link between the outside limits of accounting information systems through the firewall, unauthorized access to the database; use of data encryption, echo inspection techniques for network management in order to prevent the shading problems, equipment failures leading to data loss, and criminals of illegal interception of financial data theft and other security risks, protect the computerized accounting system, the safe operation of the network environment.With computer technology and network technology continues to evolve, the file management information to replace the traditional manual work is inevitable. At present, the file management information system has been developing in various enterprises, government departments widely. Strengthen and improve the computerized accounting records management will be the work of various enterprises in the financial and business management in the whole must be taken into account, financial records management directly affects the enterprise's management and efficiency. We believe that with computerized accounting development, computerized accounting records management work will become better and better.The original source: International Journal of Accounting and Information Management 2008.7。

会计准那么外文文献及翻译-财务会计专业(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Buschhüter M, Striegel A. IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets[M]// Kommentar Internationale Rechnungslegung IFRS. Gabler, 2021:955-974.英文原文Accounting Standard (AS) 37Contingent Liabilities and Contingent AssetsBuschhüter M, Striegel AThis International Accounting Standard was approved by the IASC Board in July 1998 and became effective for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 July 1999.Introduction1. IAS 37 prescribes the accounting and disclosure for all provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, except:(a) those resulting from financial instruments that are carried at fair value;(b) those resulting from executory contracts, except where the contract is onerous. Executory contracts are contracts under which neither party has performed any of its obligations or both parties have partially performed their obligations to an equal extent;(c) those arising in insurance enterprises from contracts with policyholders;(d) those covered by another International Accounting Standard. Provisions2. The Standard defines provisions as liabilities of uncertain timing or amount. A provision should be recognised when, and only when:(a) an enterprise has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a past event; (b) it is probable (i.e. more likely than not) that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation;(c) a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation. The Standard notes that it is only in extremely rare cases that a reliable estimate will not be possible.3. The Standard defines a constructive obligation as an obligation that derives from an enterprise's actions where:(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current statement, the enterprise has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; (b) as a result, the enterprise has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will discharge those responsibilities.4. In rare cases, for example in a law suit, it may not be clear whether an enterprise has a present obligation. In these cases, a past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that a present obligation exists at thebalance sheet date. An enterprise recognises a provision for that present obligation if the other recognition criteria described above are met. If it is more likely than not that no present obligation exists, the enterprise discloses a contingent liability, unless the possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.5. The amount recognized as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditu required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date, in other words, the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time.6. The Standard requires that an enterprise should, in measuring a provision: (a) take risks and uncertainties into account. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or a deliberate overstatement of liabilities;(b) discount the provisions, where the effect of the time value of money is material, using a pre-tax discount rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and those risks specific to the liability that have not been reflected in the best estimate of the expenditure. Where discounting is used, the increase in the provision due to the passage of time is recognised as an interest expense;(c) take future events, such as changes in the law and technological changes, into account where there is sufficient objective evidence thatthey will occur; and(d) not take gains from the expected disposal of assets into account, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision.7. An enterprise may expect reimbursement of some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). An enterprise should:(a) recognise a reimbursement when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision; and(b) recognise the reimbursement as a separate asset. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement. 8. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted reflect thecurrent best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provisioshould be reversed.9. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.Provisions - Specific Applications10. The Standard explains how the general recognition and measurement requirements for provisions should be applied in three specific cases: future operating losses; onerous contracts; and restructurings. Contingent Liabilities11. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent liability. , unless the12. A contingent liability is disclosed, as required by paragraph 86possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.13. Where an enterprise is jointly and severally liable for an obligation, the part of tobligation that is expected to be met by other parties is treated as a contingentThe enterprise recognises a provision for the part of the obligation for which an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is probable, except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made.14. Contingent liabilities may develop in a way not initially expected. Therefore, theare assessed continually to determine whether an outflow of resources embodying probable. If it becomes probable that an outflow of economic benefits has become future economic benefits will be required for an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability, a provision is recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change in probability occurs (except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made).Contingent Assets15. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent asset.16. Contingent assets usually arise from unplanned or other unexpected events that give rise to the possibility of an inflow of economic benefits to the enterprise. An example is a claim that an enterprise is pursuing through legal processes, where the outcome is uncertain. 17. Contingent assets are not recognised in financial statements since this may result in the recognition of income that may never be realised. However, when the realisation of income is virtually certain, then the related asset is not a contingent asset and its recognition is appropriate. 18. A contingent asset is disclosed, as required by paragraph 89 economic benefits is probable.19. Contingent assets are assessed continually to ensure that developments are appropriately reflected in the financial statements. If it has become virtually certain that an inflow of economic benefits will arise, the asset and the related income are recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change occurs. If an inflow of economic benefits has become probable, an enterprise discloses the contingent asset.Measurement20. The amount recognised as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date.21. The best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation is the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time. It will often be impossible or prohibitively expensive to settle or transfer an obligation at the balance sheet date. However, the estimate of the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle or transfer the obligation gives the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date. 22. The estimates of outcome and financial effect are determined by the judgement of the management of the enterprise, supplemented by experience of similar transactions and, in some cases, reports from independent experts. The evidence considered23. Uncertainties surrounding the amount to be recognised as a provision are dealt with by various means according to the circumstances. Where the provision being measured involves a large population of items, the obligation is estimated by weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities. The name for thistatistical method of estimation is 'expected value'. The provision will therefore be different depending on whether the probability of a loss of a given amount is, for example, 60 per cent or 90 per cent. Where there is a continuous range of possible outcomes, and each point in that range is as likely as any other, the mid-point of thrange is used. 24. Where a single obligation is beingmeasured, the individual most likely outcome may be the best estimate of the liability. However, even in such a case, the enterprise considers other possible outcomes. Where other possible outcomes are either mostly higher or mostly lower than the most likely outcome, the best estimate will be a higher or lower amount. For example, if an enterprise has to rectify a serious fault in a major plant that it has constructed for a customer, the individual most likely outcome may be for the repair to succeed at the first attempt at a cost of1,000, but a provision for a larger amount is made if there is a significant chance that further attempts will be necessary.25. The provision is measured before tax, as the tax consequences of the provision, , Income Taxes. and changes in it, are dealt with under IAS 12,Income Taxes.Risks and Uncertainties26. The risks and uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and the best estimate of a circumstances should be taken into account in reachin the best estmeate of a provision.27. Risk describes variability of outcome. A risk adjustment may increase the amount at which a liability is measured. Caution is needed in making judgements under conditions of uncertainty, so that income or assets are not overstated and expenses or liabilities are not understated. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or adeliberate overstatement of liabilities. For example, if the projected costs of a particularly adverse outcome are estimated on a prudent basis, that outcome is not then deliberately treated as more probable than is realistically the case. Care is needed to avoid duplicating adjustments for risk and uncertainty with consequent overstatement of a provision. Present Value28. Where the effect of the time value of money is material, the amount ofa provision should be the present value of the expenditures expected to be required to settle the obligation.29. The discount rate (or rates) should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the liability. The discount rate(s) should not reflect risks for which future cash flow estimates have been adjusted. Future Events 30. Future events that may affect the amount required to settle an obligation should be reflected in the amount of a provision where there is sufficient objective evidence that they will occur.31. Expected future events may be particularly important in measuring provisions. For example, an enterprise may believe that the cost of cleaning up a site at the end of its life will be reduced by future changes in technology. The amount recognised reflects a reasonable expectation of technically qualified, objective observers, taking account of all available evidence as to the technology that will be available at the time of theclean-up. Thus it is appropriate to include, for example, expected cost reductions associated with increased experience in applying existing technology or the expected cost of applying existing technology to a larger or more complex clean-up operation than has previously been carried out. However, an enterprise does not anticipate the new technology for cleaning up unless it is supported by development of a completel sufficient objective evidence.32. The effect of possible new legislation is taken into consideration in measuring an existing obligation when sufficient objective evidence exists that the legislation is virtually certain to beenacted. The variety of circumstances that arise in practice makes it impossible to specify a single event that will provide sufficient, objective evidence in every case. Evidence is required both of what legislation will demand and of whether it is virtually certain to be enacted and implemented in due course. In many cases sufficient objective evidence will not exist until the new legislation is enacted.Expected Disposal of Assets33. Gains from the expected disposal of assets should not be taken into account in measuring a provision.34. Gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken into account in measuring a provision, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision. Instead, an enterprise recognisesgains on expected disposals of assets at the time specified by the International Accounting Standard dealing with the assets concerned. Reimbursements35. Where some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision is expected to be reimbursed by another party, the reimbursement should be recognised when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The reimbursement should be treated as a separate asset. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision.36. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.37. Sometimes, an enterprise is able to look to another party to pay part or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). The other party may either reimburse amounts paid by the enterprise or pay the amounts directly.38. In most cases the enterprise will remain liable for the whole of the amount in question so that the enterprise would have to settle the full amount if the third party failed to pay for any reason. In this situation, a provision is recognised for the full amount of the liability, and a separate asset for the expected reimbursement is recognised when it is virtuallycertain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the liability.39. In some cases, the enterprise will not be liable for the costs in question if the third party fails to pay. In such a case the enterprise has no liability for those costs and they are not included in the provision.40. As noted in paragraph 29,severally liable is a contingent liability to the extent that it is expected that the obligation will be settled by the other parties.Changes in Provisions41. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted to reflect the current best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provision should be reversed.42. Where discounting is used, the carrying amount of a provision increases in each period to reflect the passage of time. This increase is recognised as borrowing cost.Use of Provisions43. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.44. Only expenditures that relate to the original provision are set against it. Setting expenditures against a provision that was originally recognised for another purpose would conceal the impact of two different events.Future Operating Losses45. Provisions should not be recognised for future operating losses.46. Future operating losses do not meet the definition of a liability in paragraph 10.the general recognition criteria set out for provisions in paragraph 1447. An expectation of future operating losses is an indication that certain assets of the operation may be impaired. An enterprise tests these assets for impairment under IAS 36, Impairment of Assets.Onerous Contracts48. If an enterprise has a contract that is onerous, the present obligation under the contract should be recognised and measured as a provision. 49. Many contracts (for example, some routine purchase orders) can be cancelled without paying compensation to the other party, and therefore there is no obligation. Other contracts establish both rights and obligations for each of the contracting parties. Where events make such a contract onerous, the contract falls within the scope of this Standard and a liability exists which is recognised. Executory contracts that are not onerous fall outside the scope of this Standard. 50. This Standard defines an onerous contract as a contract in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it. The unavoidable costs under a contract reflect the least net cost of exiting from the contract, which is the lower ofthe cost of fulfilling it and any compensation or penalties arising from failure to fulfil it.51. Before a separate provision for an onerous contract is established, an enterprise recognises any impairment loss that has occurred on assets dedicated to that contract(see IAS 36, Impairment of Assets). Restructuring52. The following are examples of events that may fall under the definition of restructuring: (a) sale or termination of a line of business; (b) the closure of business locations in a country or region or the relocation of business activities from one country or region to another; (c) changes in management structure, for example, eliminating a layer of management; (d) fundamental reorganisations that have a material effect on the nature and focus of the enterprise's operations.53. A provision for restructuring costs is recognised only when the general recognition are met. Paragraphs 72-83 set out how criteria for provisions set out in paragraph 14the general recognition criteria apply to restructurings.54. A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when an enterprise:(a) has a detailed formal plan for the restructuring identifying at least: (i) the business or part of a business concerned;(ii) the principal locations affected;(iii) the location, function, and approximate number of employees whowill be compensated for terminating their services;(iv) the expenditures that will be undertaken;(v) when the plan will be implemented;(b) has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main features to those affected by it. . Evidence that an enterprise has started to implement a restructuring plan would be provided, 55for example, by dismantling plant or selling assets or by the public announcement of the main features of the plan. A public announcement of a detailed plan to restructure constitutes a constructive obligation to restructure only if it is made in such a way and in sufficient detail (i.e. setting out the main features of the plan) that it gives rise to valid expectations in other parties such as customers, suppliers and employees (or their representatives) that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring.56. For a plan to be sufficient to give rise to a constructive obligation when communicated to those affected by it, its implementation needs to be planned to begin as soon as possible and to be completed in a timeframe that makes significant changes to the plan unlikely. If it is expected that there will be a long delay before the restructuring begins or that the restructuring will take an unreasonably long time, it is unlikely that the plan will raise a valid expectation on the part of others that theenterprise is at present committed to restructuring, because the timeframe allows opportunities for the enterprise to change its plans.57. A management or board decision to restructure taken before the balance sheet date does not give rise to a constructive obligation at the balance sheet date unless the enterprise has, before the balance sheet date:(a) started to implement the restructuring plan;(b) announced the main features of the restructuring plan to those affected by it in a sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring. In some cases, an enterprise starts to implement a restructuring plan, or announces its main features to those affected, only after the balance sheet date. Disclosure may be , Events After the Balance Sheet Date, if the restructuring is of required under IAS 10 such importance that its non-disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the financial statements to make proper evaluations and decisions.58. Although a constructive obligation is not created solely by a management decision, an obligation may result from other earlier events together with such a decision. For example, negotiations with employee representatives for termination payments, or with purchasers for the sale of an operation, may have been concluded subject only to board approval. Once that approval has been obtained and communicated to the other parties, the enterprise has a constructive obligation to restructure, if theconditions of paragraph 72 are met.. 59. In some countries, the ultimate authority is vested in a board whose membership gement (e.g. employees) includes representatives of interests other than those of managment.or notification to such representatives may be necessary before the board decision is taken. Because a decision by such a board involves communication to these representatives, it may result in a constructive obligation to restructure.60. No obligation arises for the sale of an operation until the enterprise is committed to the sale, i.e. there is a binding sale agreement.61. Even when an enterprise has taken a decision to sell an operation and announced that decision publicly, it cannot be committed to the sale until a purchaser has been identified and there is a binding sale agreement. Until there is a binding sale agreement, the enterprise will be able to change its mind and indeed will have to take another course of action if a purchaser cannot be found on acceptable terms. When the sale of an operation is envisaged as part of a restructuring, the assets of the operation , Impairment of Assets. When a sale is only are reviewed for impairme-ent under IAS 36part of a restructuring, a constructive obligation can arise for the other parts of the restructuring before a binding sale agreement exists.62. A restructuring provision should include only the direct expenditures arising form the restrict-uring,which are those that are both:(a) necessarily entailed by the restructuring; and(b) not associated with the ongoing activities of the enterprise.63. A restructuring provision does not include such costs as:(a) retraining or relocating continuing staff;(b) marketing; or(c) investment in new systems and distribution networks.These expenditures relate to the future conduct of the business and are not liabilities for restructuring at the balance sheet date. Such expenditures are recognised on the same basis as if they arose independently of a restructuring.64. Identifiable future operating losses up to the date of a restructuring are not included in a provision, unless they relate to an onerous contract as defined in paragraph 10. , gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken65. As required by paragraph 51into account in measuring a restructuring provision, even if the sale of assets is envisaged as part of the restructuring.Disclosure66. For each class of provision, an enterprise should disclose:(a) the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period;(b) additional provisions made in the period, including increases toexisting provisions; (c) amounts used (i.e. incurred and charged against the provision) during the period; (d) unused amounts reversed during the period; and(e) the increase during the period in the discounted amount arising from the passage of time and the effect of any change in the discount rate. Comparative information is not required67. An enterprise should disclose the following for each class of provision:(a) a brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected timing of any resulting outflows of economic benefits;(b) an indication of the uncertainties about the amount or timing of those outflows. Where necessary to provide adequate information, an enterprise should disclose the major assumptions made concerning future events, as addressed in paragraph 48(c) the amount of any expected reimbursement, stating the amount of any asset that has been recognised for that expected reimbursement.68. Unless the possibility of any outflow in settlement is remote, an enterprise should disclose for each class of contingent liability at the balance sheet date a brief description of the nature of the contingent liability and, where practicable:;(a) an estimate of its financial effect, measured under paragraphs 36(b) an indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of any outflow; (c) the possibility of any reimbursement.69. In determining which provisions or contingent liabilities may be aggregated to form a class, it is necessary to consider whether the nature of the items is sufficiently similar for a single statement about them to fulfil the requirements of paragraphs 85(a)and (b) and 86(a) and (b). Thus, it may be appropriate to treat as a single class of provision amounts relating to warranties of different products, but it would not be appropriate to treat as a single class amounts relating to normal warranties and amounts that are subject to legal proceedings.70. Where a provision and a contingent liability arise from the same set of -86 in a circumstances, an enterprise makes the disclosures required by paragraphs 84 that shows the link between the provision and the contingent liability.71. Where an inflow of economic benefits is probable, an enterprise should disclose a brief description of the nature of the contingent assets at the balance sheet date, and, where practicable, an estimate of their financial effect, measured using the principles set out for provisions in paragraphs 3672. It is important that disclosures for contingent assets avoid giving misleading ndications of the likelihood of income arising.73 In extremely rare cases, disclosure of some or all of the information required by paragraphs 84-89 can be expected to prejudice seriously the position of the enterprise a dispute with other parties on the subject matterof the provision, contingent or contingent asset. In such cases, an enterprise need not disclose the information, but should disclose the general nature of the dispute, together with the fact that, and reason why, the information has not been disclosed. Transitional Provisions74. The effect of adopting this Standard on its effective date (or earlier) should be reported as an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings for the period in which the Standard is first adopted. Enterprises are encouraged, but not required, to adjust the opening balance of retained earnings for the earliest period presented and to restate comparative information. If comparative information is not restated, this fact should be disclosed. , Net Profit or Loss for the75. The Standard requires a different treatment from IAS 8requires Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies. IAS 8comparative information to be restated (benchmark treatment) or additional pro forma comparative information on a restated basis to be disclosed (allowed alternative reatment) unless it is impracticable to do so.。

Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usef uln ess of finan cial stateme nts. I nternatio nal Finan cial Report ingSta ndards (IFRS) was fun dame ntally flawed by fair value acco un ti ng and asset-impairme nt acco un ti ng. Accordi ng to legal theory and acco unting theory, accounting data must have legal evidenee as its source document. The conventional “ mixed attribute ” accounting system should be replacedby a “segregated ” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in finan cial stateme nts. The proposed optimiz ing method will sig nifica ntly enhance the reliability and usef uln ess of finan cial stateme nts.I. . INTRODUCTIONBased on intern ati on al-acco untin g-c on verge nee approach, the Mi nistryof Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the Intern ati onal Finan cial Report ing Sta ndards (here in after referred to as“the International Standards ” ) for referenee. The EnterpriseAccounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively.The objective of acco un ti ng reformatio n follow in g-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advaneed theory for referenee, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thoroughevaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards,this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of acco unting regulati ons.II. OPTIMIZATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTATIONAs an importa nt man ageme nt activity, acco unting should make use ofin formatio n systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic managementand macro-economic regulation at the sametime. Optimization of financialstatements system should try to take all aspectsof the dema nds of the finan cial stateme nts in both macro and micro levelinto acco unt.Why do compa nies n eed to prepare finan cial stateme nts? Whose dema nds should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questi ons are basic issues we should con sider on the optimizati on of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evide nee are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". Fromthe perspective of "private in terest", security inv estors and finan cial regulatory authorities hope that financial statements reflect changes ofmarket prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is theorigin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statementscan be compatible with these two differe nt views and bala nee the public in terest and private in terest? To solve this problem, we desig n a new bala nee sheet and an in come stateme nt.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are in troduced into Chi na's acco unting practices from intern ati onalaccounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives en riched the un dersta nding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and sta ndard-setters are also aware that Intern ati onal Stan dards are still in the process of develop ing .The purpose of propos ing new formats of finan cial stateme nts in this paper is to push forward the acco un ti ng reform into a deeper level on the basis of intern ati onal conv erge nee.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the finan cial stateme nts are able to main tai n their stability?It is n ecessary to mobilize the in itiatives of both supply-side anddemand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial stateme nts couldmeet the dema nds of the macro-ec ono mic regulati on and bus in ess admi nistratio n, and whether they are popular with millio ns of acco untan ts.Acco untants are resp on siblefor prepari ng finan cialstateme nts and auditors are resp on sible for audit ing. They will ben efit from the impleme ntati on of the new finan cial stateme nts.Firstly, for the acco untan ts, un der the isolated desig n of historicalcost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Acco unting process will not n eed assets impairme nt and fair value any Ion ger. Acco un ti ng books will not record impairme nt and appreciati on of assets any Ion ger, for the historical cost acco unting is comprehe nsively impleme nted. Fair value in formati on will be recorded in accordanee with assessment only at the balanee sheet date and only in the annual finan cial stateme nts. Historical cost acco unting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustme nt. Acco untants will not n eed to calculate the deferred in come tax expe nse any Ion ger, and the profit-after-tax inthe solid line table is ack no wledged by the Compa nyLaw, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not n eed to record the fair value in formatio n n eeded by security in vestors in the acco un ti ng books; in stead, they only n eed to list thefair value in formati on at the bala nee sheet date. In additi on, becausethe data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of acco untants can be well con trolled.Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced,and the auditors ' review process will be greatly simplified. The in depe ndent auditors will not have to bear the con siderable legal risk for the dotted-li ne table they audit, because the risk of fair value in formati on has bee n prompted as "not supported by legal evide nces".Acco untants and auditors can quickly adapt to this finan cial stateme nts system, without the n eed of trai ning. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve managementefficiency. Surveys showthat the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of acco unting and audit ing have bee n substa ntially reduced, therefore, the total expe nses for audit ing and evaluati on will not exceed curre nt level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and dema nd-side,the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of finan cial stateme nts, without in crease the burde n of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core con cept of fair value is to make finan cial stateme nts reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the curre nt Intern atio nal Stan dards do not impleme nt thisconcept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. Chi na's acco un ti ng academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already in troduced a mixed-attributes model intocorporate finan cial stateme nts.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we canbala nee public in terests and private in terests and can redesig n the finan cial stateme nts system with enhancing man ageme nt efficie ncy and impleme nting higher-level laws as mai n objective. By prese nti ng fair value and historical cost in one set of finan cial stateme nts at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books accord ing to domestic laws, but also meet the dema nd from finan cial regulatory authorities and security inv estorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial stateme nts system which not only meets the domestic n eeds, but also conv erges with the Intern ati onal Stan dards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

管理会计参考文献英文References for Management Accounting.1. Brimson, J. A., & Antos, D. L. (2015). Managementand cost accounting (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.This textbook provides a comprehensive overview of management accounting principles and practices. It covers a wide range of topics, including cost behavior, cost-volume-profit analysis, budgeting, and performance evaluation. The authors present a clear and concise explanation of these concepts, making it an ideal reference for students and practitioners alike.2. Horngren, C. T., Datar, S. M., & Rajan, M. V. (2015). Cost accounting: A managerial emphasis (16th ed.). Pearson Education.This book is another excellent resource for understanding the fundamentals of management accounting. Itfocuses on the application of cost accounting techniques in decision-making, planning, and control. The authors present real-world examples and cases to illustrate the practical relevance of these concepts.3. Kaplan, R. S., & Norton, D. P. (2017). The balanced scorecard: Translating strategy into action (4th ed.). Harvard Business Review Press.This book introduces the balanced scorecard framework, which is a strategic planning and management system that helps organizations align their activities with their strategic goals. It provides a comprehensive guide to implementing the balanced scorecard approach, including step-by-step instructions and real-world examples.4. Johnson, H. T., & Kaplan, R. S. (2017). Relevance lost: The rise and fall of management accounting. Harvard Business Review Press.This book critically examines the current state of management accounting and its relevance in today's businessenvironment. The authors argue that traditional management accounting practices are outdated and no longer sufficient to support strategic decision-making. They propose a new approach to management accounting that is more focused on providing relevant and actionable information to decision-makers.5. Drury, C. (2018). Management and cost accounting (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.This textbook is designed to introduce students to the principles and practices of management accounting. It covers a range of topics, including cost classification, budgeting, standard costing, and performance evaluation. The author presents a clear and accessible writing style that makes the material easy to understand.6. Atkinson, A. A., Banker, R. D., Potter, G., & Srivastava, A. (2018). Management accounting (16th ed.). Prentice Hall.This book offers a comprehensive overview of managementaccounting theory and practice. It covers a wide range of topics, including cost behavior, cost-volume-profit analysis, budgeting, performance evaluation, and decision-making. The authors provide a balance of theoretical concepts and practical applications, making it a useful resource for both students and practitioners.7. Horvath, M. A. (2019). Cost management: A strategic emphasis (6th ed.). Pearson Education.This textbook focuses on the strategic aspects of cost management in organizations. It explores the role of cost management in supporting strategic decision-making, planning, and control. The author presents a range of cost management techniques and tools, including activity-based costing, target costing, and life cycle costing.8. Brownell, P. (2020). Strategic management accounting: An integrated approach. McGraw-Hill Education.This book takes a strategic approach to management accounting, emphasizing its role in supportingorganizational strategy and competitive advantage. It covers a range of topics, including strategic costing, budgeting, performance evaluation, and decision-making. The author provides a comprehensive framework for integrating management accounting into the strategic planning and management process.These references provide a diverse range of perspectives on management accounting, covering both theoretical concepts and practical applications. They are suitable for use in academic settings as well as for professionals seeking to enhance their knowledge and skills in this field.。

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL AUDIT IN SAUDI ARABIA: AN INSTITUTIONAL THEORY PERSPECTIVEThe value of the internal audit functionPrevious studies have utilized a variety of approaches to determine appropriate criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of the internal audit function. For example, considered the degree of compliance with standards as one of the factors which affects internal audit performance. A 1988 research report from the IIA-United Kingdom（IIA-UK，1988）focused on the perceptions of both senior management and external auditors of the value of the internal audit function. The study identified the difficulty of measuring the value of services provided as a major obstacle to such an evaluation. Profitability, cost standards and the effectiveness of resource utilization were identified as measures of the value of services. In its recommendations it highlighted the need to ensure that internal audit work complies with SPPIA.In the US, Albrecht et al.(1988)studied the roles and benefits of the internal audit function and developed a framework for the purpose of evaluating internal audit effectiveness. They found that there were four areas that the directors of internal audit departments could develop to enhance effectiveness: an appropriate corporate environment, top management support, high quality internal audit staff and high quality internal audit work. The authors stressed that management and auditors should recognize the internal audit function as a value-adding function to the organization. In the UK, Ridley and D’Silva (1997) identified the importance of complying with professional standards as the most important contributor to the internal audit function adding value.Compliance with SPPIAA number of studies have focused specifically on the compliance of internal audit departments with SPPIA. Powell et al.(1992) carried out a global survey of IIA members in 11 countries to investigate whether there was evidence of a world-wide internal audit culture. They found an overall compliance rate of 82% with SPPIA.This high percentage prompted the authors to suggest that SPPIA provided evidence of the internationalization of the internal audit profession.A number of studies have focused on the SPPIA standard concerned with independence.Clark et al.(1981) found that the independence of the internal audit department and the level of authority to which internal audit staff report were the two most important criteria influencing the objectivity of their work. Plumlee (1985) focused on potential threats to internal auditor objectivity, particularly whether participation in the design of an internal control system influenced judgements as to the quality and effectiveness of that system. Plumlee found that such design involvement produced bias that could ultimately threaten objectivity.The relationship between the internal audit function and company management more generally is clearly an important factor in determining internal auditor objectivity. Harrell et al. (1989) suggested that perceptions of the views and desires of management could influence the activities and judgement of internal auditors. Also, they found that internal auditors who were members of the IIA were less likely to succumb to such pressure.Ponemon (1991) examined the question of whether or not internal auditors will report sensitive issues uncovered during the course of their work. He concluded that the three factors affecting internal auditor objectivity were their social position in the organization, their relationship with management and the existence of a communication channel to report wrongdoing.Internal audit research in Saudi ArabiaTo date there has been relatively little research about internal audit in the Saudi Arabian corporate sector, exceptions, however, are Asairy (1993)and Woodworth and Said (1996). Asairy (1993)sought to evaluate the effectiveness of internal audit departments in Saudi joint-stock companies. He studied departments in 38 companies using questionnaire responses from the directors of internal audit departments, senior company management, and external auditors. The result of this study revealed that one significant factor in the perceived success of internal audit was its independence from other corporate activities. The service provided by the internal audit department was affected by the support it received from the management, other employees andexternal auditors. The education, training, experience and professional qualifications of the internal auditors influenced the effectiveness of internal audit. On the basis of his study, Asairy (1993) recommended that all joint-stock companies, should have an internal audit function, and that internal auditing should be taught as a separate course in Saudi Universities.Woodworth and Said (1996)sought to ascertain the views of internal auditors in Saudi Arabia as to whether there were differences in the reaction of auditees to specific internal audit situations according to the nationality of the auditee. Based on 34 questionnaire responses from members of the IIA Dhahran chapter, they found there were no significant differences between the different nationalities. The internal auditors did not modify their audit conduct according to the nationality of the auditee and cultural dimensions did not have a significant impact on the results of the audit.Given the importance of complying with SPPIA, the professional and academic literature emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the internal audit department and the rest of the organization in determining the success or otherwise of internal audit departments (Mints,1972;Flesher,1996;Ridley & Chambers,1998 and Moeller & Witt,1999). This literature focuses on the need for co-operation and teamwork between the auditor and auditee if internal auditing is to be effective.Bethea (1992) suggests that the need for good human relations’ skills is important because internal auditing creates negative perceptions and negative attitudes. These issues are particularly important in a multicultural business environment such as Saudi Arabia where there are significant differences in the cultural and educational background of the auditors and auditees Woodworth and Said (1996).ResultsReasons for not having an internal audit departmentOf the 92 company interviews examining the reasons why companies do not have an internal audit function, the most frequent response from 52 companies (57%) was that reliance on the external auditor enabled the company to obtain the benefits that might be obtained from internal audit. Typically, interviewees argued that the external auditor is better, more efficient and saves money. Interviews with theexternal auditors revealed that client companies could not distinguish clearly between the work and roles of internal and external audit. For example, one external auditor said,there is a misperception of what the external auditor does, they think the external auditor does everything for the company and must discover any problem.Having said this, one external auditor doubted that an internal audit function would add value in all circumstances. When referring to the internal control system he stated,as long as they are happy with the final output, I think the internal audit function will not add value. External auditing eventually will highlight any significant internal control weakness.The second most frequent reason mentioned by interviewees (23 firms, 25%) for not operating an internal audit department was the cost/benefit trade-off. Specifically, 17 firms considered that the small size of the company and the limited nature of its activities meant that it would not be efficient for them to have an internal audit department. The external auditors interviewed were of the opinion that the readily identifiable costs as compared with the more difficult to measure benefits was a factor contributing to this decision.A number of other reasons were given by interviewees for not having an internal audit department. As a consequence of the high costs of conducting internal audit activities, 14 firms used employees who were not within a separate internal audit department to carry out internal audit duties. Eight companies did not think there was a need for internal audit because they believed their internal control systems were sufficient to obviate the need for internal audit. Five companies did not think that internal audit was an important activity and three felt that their type of the business did not require internal audit. Three respondents mentioned that they did not operate an internal audit department because professional people could not be found to run the department, and six companies did not provide a reason for not having an internal audit department. In 10 companies an internal audit department had been established but was no longer operating because of difficulties in recruiting qualified personneland changes in the organization structure. Having said this, eight companies without an internal audit department were planning to establish one in the future.The independence of internal audit departmentsCommentators and standard setters identify independence as being a key attribute of the internal audit department. From the questionnaire responses 60 (77%) of the internal audit departments stated that there was a written document defining the purpose, authority and responsibility of the department. In nearly all instances where there was such a document the terms of reference of the internal audit department had been agreed by senior management (93%), the document identified the role of the internal audit department in the organization, and its rights of access to individuals, records and assets (97%), and the document set out the scope of internal auditing (90%). Respondents were asked to assess the extent to which the relevant document was consistent with the specific requirements of SPPIA. In those departments where such a document existed 27 (45%) claimed full compliance with SPPIA, 23 (38%) considered their document to be partially consistent with SPPIA. In more thanone-third of the departments surveyed either no such document existed (n=18, 23%) or the respondent was not aware whether or not the document complied with SPPIA (n=10, 13%).SPPIA suggests that independence is enhanced when t he organization’s board of directors concurs with the appointment or removal of the director of the internal audit department, and that the director of the internal audit department is responsible to an individual of suitable seniority within the organization. It is noticeable that in 47 companies (60%) their responsibilities with regard to appointment, removal and the receipt of reports lay with non-senior management, normally a general manager. SPPIA recommends that the director of the internal audit department should have direct communication with the board of directors to ensure that the department is independent, and provides a means for the director of internal auditing and the board of directors to keep each other informed on issues of mutual interest. The interviews with directors of internal audit departments showed that departments tended to report to general managers rather than the board of directors. Further evidence of the lack ofaccess to the board of directors was provided by the questionnaire responses showing that in almost half the companies, members of the internal audit department have never attended board meetings and in only two companies did attendance take place regularly.Unrestricted access to documentation and unfettered powers of enquiry are important aspects of the independence and effectiveness of internal audit. The questionnaire responses revealed that 34 (44%) internal audit directors considered that they did not have full access to all necessary information. Furthermore, a significant minority (n=11, 14%) did not believe they were free, in all instances, to report faults, frauds, wrongdoing or mistakes. A slightly higher number (n=17, 22%) considered that the internal audit function did not always receive consistent support from senior management.SPPIA identifies that involvement in the design, installation and operating of systems is likely to impair internal auditor objectivity. Respondents were asked how often management requested the assistance of the internal audit department in the performance of non-audit duties. In 37 internal audit departments (47%) surveyed such requests were made sometimes, often or always, and only 27 (35%) departments never participated in these non-audit activities. The interviews revealed that in some organizations internal audit staff was used regularly to cover for staff shortages in other departments.。

会计学外文经典文献摘要：一、引言1.会计学的重要性2.外文经典文献的意义二、会计学外文经典文献概述1.文献分类2.重要学术观点与贡献三、代表性外文经典文献解析1.文献一：《会计学原理》2.文献二：《财务会计理论》3.文献三：《管理会计》四、我国会计学外文经典文献的研究现状1.研究概况2.研究热点与趋势五、外文经典文献对我国会计学研究的启示1.理论体系建设2.研究方法与技术3.实践应用与创新六、结论1.外文经典文献在会计学领域的价值2.我国会计学研究的未来发展正文：一、引言会计学作为一门重要的经济管理学科，其理论体系和实践应用在全球范围内得到了广泛认可。

外文经典文献在会计学领域的研究成果丰富，为我国会计学研究提供了宝贵的理论依据和实践经验。

本文将对会计学外文经典文献进行梳理，以期为我国会计学研究提供参考。

二、会计学外文经典文献概述1.文献分类会计学外文经典文献主要包括财务会计、管理会计、审计、税收等方面的著作。

这些文献涵盖了会计学的理论体系、方法论、实践应用等各个方面。

2.重要学术观点与贡献在外文经典文献中，许多学者提出了具有影响力的学术观点，如会计要素、会计等式、财务报表分析、现金流量预测等。

这些观点为会计学理论体系的构建奠定了基础，并对实际应用产生了深远影响。

三、代表性外文经典文献解析1.文献一：《会计学原理》这本书是由美国会计学家佩顿（Paton）和利特尔顿（Littleton）共同撰写的。

该书系统地阐述了会计学的基本原理和方法，强调了会计信息的真实性和可靠性。

这本书对我国会计学研究的理论体系建设具有重要的指导意义。

2.文献二：《财务会计理论》该书由美国学者布里曼（Bromwich）和瓦茨（Watts）合著。

该书对财务会计理论进行了全面梳理，对会计准则、会计信息质量、会计假设等方面进行了深入探讨。

这本书对我国会计学研究具有很高的参考价值。

3.文献三：《管理会计》这本书是由英国学者亨德里克森（Hendrickson）所著。

会计学科百篇文献导读引言会计学是一门研究经济活动中资产、负债和所有者权益的记录与报告的学科。

在会计学的研究领域，有许多重要的文献对会计学的发展和实践做出了重要贡献。

本文将介绍一百篇具有代表性的会计学文献，这些文献覆盖了会计学的各个方面，包括财务会计、管理会计、审计和国际会计等。

财务会计篇1.Relevance Lost: The Rise and Fall of Management Accounting - 这本书由H. Thomas Johnson和Robert S. Kaplan合著，揭示了管理会计的发展历程，并呼吁对其进行重新定位。

2.Positive Accounting Theory - Ross L. Watts和Jerold L. Zimmerman提出了正式会计理论，强调了会计行为与经济环境的关系。

3.Conservatism Principle in Accounting - 这篇文章作者为Ray Ball和Phillip Brown，研究了会计中的保守主义原则对财务报告的影响。

4.Earnings Management and Earnings Quality - Charles M.C. Lee、KevinK.L. Wang和Karen H. Zhang综述了盈余管理和盈余质量的研究进展。

5.Fair Value Accounting: A Status Report - 这篇综述文章作者为Stephen H. Penman，系统地总结了公允价值会计的现状及争议。

管理会计篇1.Activity-Based Costing - Robert S. Kaplan和Robin Cooper提出了基于活动的成本核算方法，并介绍了其在实践中的应用。

2.Balanced Scorecard - David Norton和Robert Kaplan共同发表了这篇文章，提出了平衡计分卡的概念，将战略与绩效评估结合起来。

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文资料外文翻译文献Title:Future of SME finance（Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and thereforeaccess to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems,etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, bu t will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will easethe burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guaranteessystems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also d epend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。

【英文教学参考书】⑴AICPA,1994,"Improving Business Reporting:A Customs Focus".⑵FASB,2001,"Improving Business Reporting:Insights into Enhancing Voluntary Disclosures".⑶Storey and Teague,1995,"Foundation of Accounting Theory and Policy",The Dryden Press.⑷Previts and Merino,1979,"A History of Accounting in American",John Wilet&Son Press.⑸Scott,1997,"Financial Accounting Theory",Prentice-Hall Publishing Company..⑺Upton,2001,"Business and Financial Reporting,Challenges from The New Economy",FASB.⑻Zeff and Dharan,1994,"Readings and Notes on Financial Accounting:Issues and Controversies", McGraw-Hill Company.外文经典文献：Watts , Ross , and Jerold L. Zimmerman. Toward a Positive Theory of Determination of Accounting standards .The Accounting review (Jan 1978)Watts , Ross , and Jerold L. Zimmerman. Positive Accounting Theory: A Ten Year Perspective. The Accounting review (Jan 1990)Sorter , George H. An Event Approach to Basic Accounting Theory . The Accounting review (Jan 1969)Wallman,1995.9,1996.6,1996.12,1997.6,"The Future of Accounting and Financial Reporting " (I ,II,III,IV),Accounting Horizon.Jenson ,M.C. , and W.H. Meckling . Theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure . Journal of financial economics (Oct .1976)Robert sprouse “developing a concept framework for financial reporting” Accounting Review, 1988(12) Schuetze ,,Walter P.”what is an Asset ?” Accountinghorizons,1993(9)Samuelson ,Richard A. ,”The concept of Assets in Accounting Theory” Accounting horizons,1996(9)AAA ,”American Accounting Association on Accounting and Auditing Measurement:1989-1990” Accounting Horizons 1991(9)L.Todd Johnson and Kimberley R.Petrone “Is Goodwill an Asset?” Accounting Horizons1998(9)Linsmeier, Thomas J. and Boatsman ,Ja mes R. ,”AAA’s financial accounting standard response to IASC ED60 intangible assets” Accounting Horizons 1998(9)Linsmeier, Thomas J. and Boatsman,JamesR.”Response to IASC ExposureDraft ,’Provisions,Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets’ ” Accoun ting Horizons1998(6)L.Todd Johnson and Robert. Swieringa “derivatives, hedging and comprehensive income” Accounting Horizons 1996(11)Stephen A. .Zeff ,”The Rise of Economics Concequences”, The Journal of Accountancy 1978(12)David Solomons “the FASB’s Conceptual Framework:An Evaluation ” The Journal of Accountancy 1986(6)Paul Miller , “Conceptual Framework:Myths or Realities” The Journal of Accountancy 1985(3)Part I Financial Accounting TheorySuggested Bedtime Readings:1. C.J. Lee, Lecture Note on Accounting and Capital Market2. R. Watts and J. Zimmerman: Positive Accounting Theory3. W. Beaver: Revolution of Financial ReportingAlthough these three books are relatively "low-tech" in comparison with the reading assignments, but they provide much useful institutional background to the course. Moreover, these books give a good survey of accounting literature, especially in the empirical area.1. Financial Information and Asset Market Equilibrium*Grossman, S. and J. Stiglitz, "On the Impossibility of Informationally EfficientMarkets," American Economic Review (1980), 393-408.*Diamond, D. and R. Verrecchia, "Information Aggregation in a Noisy Rational Expectations Economy," Journal of Financial Economics, (1981), 221-35.*Milgrom, P. "Good News and Bad News: Representation Theorems and Applications," Bell Journal of Economics, (1981): 380-91.Grinblatt, M. and S. Ross, "Market Power in a Securities Market with Endogenous Information," Quarterly Journal of Economics, (1985), 1143-67.2. Financial Disclosure* Verrecchia, R. "Discretionary Disclosure," Journal of Accounting and Economics (1983),179-94.2Dye, R., "Proprietary and Nonproprietary Disclosure," Journal of Business, 59 (1986), 331-66.Dye, R., "Mandatory Versus Voluntary Disclosures: The Cases of Financial and Real Externalities," Accounting Review, (1990), 1-24.Bhushan, R., "Collection of Information About Public Traded Firms: Theory and Evidence," Journal of Economics and Accounting, (1989), 183-206.Diamond, D. "Optimal Release of Information by Firms," Journal of Economic Theory (1985), 1071-94.Verrecchia, R. "Information Quality and Discretionary Disclosure," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 1990.Trueman, B. "Theories of Earnings-announcement Timing," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 13 (1990), 1-17.Joh, G. and C. J. Lee "Timing of Financial Disclosure in Oligopolies," mimeo.* Joh, G. and C. J. Lee "Stock Market Reactions to Accounting Information in Oligopoly," Journal of Business, 1992.Darrough, M.N. and N.M. Stoughton, "Financial Disclosure Policy in an Entry Game," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1990), 219-243.Wagenhofer, A. "Voluntary Disclosure with a Strategic Opponent," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 12 (1990), 341-363.Chang, C. and C.J. Lee, "Information Acquisition as a Business Strategy," Southern Economic Journal, 1992.Chang, C. and C.J. Lee, "Optimal Pricing Strategy in Marketing Research Consulting," International Economic Review, May 1994.Chang, C. and C.J. Lee, "Selling Proprietary Information to Rivaling Clients," mimeo.3. Earnings Manipulation and Accounting Choice* Watts, R. and J. Zimmerman,"Toward a Positive Theory of the Determination ofAccounting Standards," Accounting Review, January 1978, pp.112-34.*Healy, P.M. "The Effect of Bonus Schemes on Accounting Decisions" Journal of Accounting and Economics, April 1985, 85-108.*Chen, K. and C.J. Lee, "Executive Bonus Plans and Accounting Trade-off: The Case of the 3Oil and Gas Industry, 1985-86," Accounting Review, January, 1995.*Lee, C.J. and D. Hsieh, "Choice of Inventory Accounting Methods: A Test of Alternative Hypotheses," Journal of Accounting Research, Autumn 1985.*Lee, C.J. and C.R. Petruzzi, "Inventory Accounting Switch and Uncertainty", Journal of Accounting Research, Autumn 1989.*Chau, D. and C.J. Lee, “Big Bath and Dress Up in the Process of Chapter 11 Restructuring,” working paper.*Aharony, J., C.J. Lee, and T.J. Wong, “Financial Packaging of IPO Firms in China” Journal of Accounting Research, Spring 2000.Gu, Z. and C.J. Lee, “How Widespread is Earnings Management? A Measurement Based on Seasonal Heteroscedasticity.” working paperGu, Z. and C.J. Lee, “Cross-sectional Heteroscedasticity of Accounting Accruals,” working paper.Holthausen, R.W. and R.W. Leftwich, "The Economic Consequences of Accounting Choice: Implications of Costly Contracting and Monitoring," Journal of Accounting and Economics, August 1983, PP. 77-118.Moyer, S.E. "Capital Adequacy Ratio Regulations and Accounting Choices in Commercial banks," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1990), 123-154.Blacconiere, W.G., R.M. Bowen, S.E. Sefcik, and C.H. Stinson, "Determinants of the Use of Regulatory Accounting Principles by Savings and Loans," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1991) 167-202.Hand, J.R.M. and P.J. Hughes, and S.E. Sefcik, "Insubstance Defeasances," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1990), 47-89.Duke, J.C. and H.G. Hunt III, "An Empirical Examination of Debt Covenant Restrictions and Accounting-Related Debt Proxies," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 12 (1990), 45-64.Malmquist, D.H., "Efficient Contracting and the Choice of Accounting Method in the Oil and Gas Industry," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 12 (1990), 173-207.Holthausen, R.W., "Accounting Method Choice: Opportunistic Behavior, Efficient Contracting, and Information Perspectives," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 12 (1990), 207-218.Watts, R. L. and J. L. Zimmerman, Positive Accounting Theory, Prentice Hall, 1985, Chapters 7-15.44. Measurement and Valuation Role of Accounting*Ball, R. and P. Brown, “Empirical Evaluation of Accounting Income Numbers,” Journal of Accounting Research, 1968.*Lee, C.J. and A. Li, “Risk, Contrarian Strategies, and Analysts’ Over-reaction: A Study of B/M and E/P Anomaly in Cross-sectional Returns.” Working Paper.Lee, C.J. "Inventory Accounting and Earnings/Price Ratios: A Puzzle," Contemporary Accounting Research, Fall, 1988.Chen, K. and C.J. Lee, "Accounting Measurement of Economic Performance and Tobin's q Theory," Journal of Accounting, Auditing, and Finance, Spring, 1995.Gu, Z. and C.J. Lee, "Co-integration and Test of Present Value Model: A Revisit," mimeo.Ghosh, A. and C.J. Lee, "Accounting Information and Market Valuation of Takeover Premium," Financial Management, Forthcoming* Joh, G. and C. J. Lee "Stock Market Reactions to Accounting Information in Oligopoly," Journal of Business, 1992.Part II Managerial Accounting5. Agency Theory*Holmstrom, B. "Moral Hazard and Observability," Bell Journal of Economics, (1979), 74-91Rogerson, "The First Order Approach to Principal-Agent Problems," Econometrica, March 1985.*Jesen, M. and W. Meckling, "Theory of the Firm, Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure," Journal of Financial Economcs, (1976), 305-60.*Grossman, S. and O. Hart, "An Analysis of the Principal-Agent Problem," Econometrica, (1983), 7-46.Holmstrom, B. "Moral Hazard in Teams," Bell Journal of Economics, (1982), 224-40.Milgrom, P. and J. Roberts, "Relying on the Information of Interested Parties," The Rand Journal of Economics, (1986), 18-32.Malcomson, J. "Rank-order Contract for a Principal with Many Agents," Review of Eonomic Studies, (1986), 807-817.Lambert, R. "Long-term Contracts and Moral Hazard," Bell Journal of Economics, (1983),5.441-452.Malcomson, J. and F. Spinnewyn, "The Multiperiod Principal-Agent Problem," Review of Economic Studies, (1988), 391-408.6. Theory of Firm and Organization*Coase, R.H. "The Nature of the Firm," Economica, (1937), 386-405.*Alchian, A.A. "Uncertainty, Evolution and Economic Theory," Journal of Political Economy,(1950), 211-21.*Alchian, A.A. and H. Demsetz, "Production, Information Costs and Economic Organization," American Economic Review, (1972), 777-795.* Sah, R. and J. Stiglitz, "The Architecture of Economic Systems: Hierarchies and Polyarchies," American Economic Review (1986), 716-727Aoki, M. "Horizontal vs. Vertical Information Structure of the Firm," American Economic Review (1986), 971-983.Tirole, J. "Hierarchies and Bureaucracies," Journal of Law, Economics and Organization (1986), 181-214.Christensen, J. "Communication in Agencies," Bell Journal of Economics, (1981), 661-674.Grossman, S. and O. Hart, "The Costs and Benefits of Ownership: A Theory of Vertical and Horizontal Integration," Journal of Political Economy, (1986), 691-719.Mookherjee, D. "Optimal Incentive Schemes with Many Agents," Review of Economic Studies (1984), 433-46.Demski, J. and D. Sappington, "Optimal Incentives with Multiple Agents," Journal of Economic Theory (1984), 152-71.Holmstrom, B. and J. Tirole, "The Theory of the Firm," in Handbook of Industrial Organization, 1990.Williamson, O. Markets and Hierarchies, 1975Williamson, O. The Economic Institution of Capitalism, 1985, Ch.6, 9, 11.7. Accounting and Internal Control*Demski, J. and D. Sappington, "Hierarchical Structure and Responsibility Accounting," Journal of Accounting Research, 1989.6*Coase, R.H., "Accounting and the Theory of Firm," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1990), 3-13.Jordan, J., "The Economics of Accounting Information Systems," American Economic Review, 1989.Antle, R. and J. Fellingham, "Resource Rationing and Oganizational Slack in aTwo-Period Model," Journal of Accounting Research, (1990) 1-24.Demski, J., J. Patell, and M. Wolfson, "Decentralized Choice of Monitoring Systems," Accounting Review, (1984), 16-34.Penno, M. "Accounting Systems, Participation in Budgeting, and Performance Evaluation," Accounting Review, (1990), 303-314.Melumed, N.D. and S. Reichelstein, "Centralized vesus Delegation and the Value of Communication," Journal of Accounting Research, (1987 Supplement), 1-21.8. Field Studies of Management Accounting*Baiman, S., D.F. Larcker, and M.V. Rajan, "Organizational Design for Business Units," Journal of Accounting Research, 33 (Autumn 1995): 205-231.Lee, C.J. “Financial Restructuring of State-owned Enterprises in China: The Case of Shanghai Sunve Co.” Accounting, Organization and Society, fo rthcoming.Part 3. Auditing and Accounting Regulation9. Role of Auditing*R.A. Dye, B.V. Balachandran, and R.P. Magee, "Contingent Fees for Audit Firms," Journal of Accounting Research, (1990), 239-266.*L. DeAngelo, "Auditor Independence, 'Low Balling,' and Disclosure Regulation," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1981), 113-27.*Lee, C.J. and Z. Gu, " Low Balling, Legal Liability and Auditor Independence,” Accounting Review, 1998.Magee, R.P. and M. Tseng, "Audit Pricing and Independence," Accounting Review, (1990), 315-336.Datar, S., G.A. Feltham, and J.S. Hughes, "The Role of Audits and Audit Quality in Valuing New Issues," Journal of Accounting and Economics, (1991), 3-50.7Penno, M. "Auditing for Performance Evaluation," Accounting Review, (1990),520-536.Melumad, N.D. and L. Thoman, "On Auditors and the Courts in an Adverse Selection Setting," Journal of Accounting Research, (1990) 77-120.Baiman, S., J.H. Evans III, and N.J. Nagarajan, "Collusion in Auditing," Journal of Accounting Research, (1991), 1-18.10. Financial Accounting Standards*Dye, R. and R.E. Verrecchia, "Discretion vs. Uniformity: Choices Among GAAP," Accounting Review, July 1995, 389-415.Farrell, J. and G. Saloner, "Standardization, Compatibility, and Innovation," Rand Journal of Economics. 16 (Spring 1985): 70-83.*Lev, B. "Toward a Theory of Equitable and Efficient Accounting Policy," Accounting Review, January 1988.11. The Market of CPAs*Dye, R. "Incorporation and the Audit Market," Journal of Accounting and Economics, 19 (1995): 75-114.*Lee, C.J., C. Liu, and T. Wang, “The 150 Hours Rule,” Journal of Accounting and Economics, 1999.Liu, C., C.J. Lee, and T. Wang, “Human Capital, Auditor Independence, and Legal Liability,” working paper.Riodan, M. and D. Sappington, "Information, Incentives, and Organizational Mode,"Quarterly Journal of Economics, 102 (1987): 243-264.*Gigler, F. and M. Penno, "Imperfect Competition in Audit Markets and its Effects on the Demand for Audit-Related Services," Accounting Review, 70 (April 1995):317-336.。