A Literature Review of Comprehensible Input in Second Language Classroom

On the Application of Task-based Language Teaching inJunior High SchoolIntroductionNowadays, almost every junior high school student must learn English, so, how do students study English effectively and how do teachers teach English effectually are two major problems both in English teaching and learning. Task-based language teaching is an available method which can help teachers teach English well. Therefore, task-based language teaching was chosen as the research subject by the author. In this thesis, the author introduced some knowledge about task-based language teaching. Firstly, there are some general cognition such as concept, background information, theoretical basis, components and features of task-based language teaching. Secondly, the applying of task-based language teaching in middle school English teaching is other one important point. The second point covers principles and significance of designing tasks, a case study and the problems occurred during process of applying task-based language teaching as well as strategies of solving problems Thirdly, task-based language teaching also distresses ideal and practical effects of performing task-based language teaching and the gaps between these effects. The author collected various information of task-based language teaching via books and internet, and then classified this information. At last, a simple but integrated thesis was completed. The total purpose of this thesis is that how to apply task-based language teaching efficiently and how can it plays a role in teaching effectively.1.Literature review of Task-based Language Teaching1.1 Basic information of TBLT1.1.1 Concept of TBLTTask-based language teaching is an interactive communication activity that teachers design specific teaching tasks, through particular situation, and lead students to take participate in tasks and complete them. Task-based language teachingunderlines students’initiative participation, and communication of information between students and students also between students and teachers.1.1.2 Background information of TBLTTask-based language teaching is one of communicative approach of English teaching skills, but it did not last long. In the 1980s, foreign language teaching researchers and the second language acquisition researchers shifted their focus on learners’ study strategies and field of their cognition procedures. They consider that to let the students to learn the language by completing tasks can provide learners with the situation of language and opportunities of language learning, and promote the process of learning. According to their opinion, language learning not only can provide students with sufficient comprehensible input, but also it required students to complete the task of learning, transmit meaningful information, and committed to the natural, significant communication. Because of the relation between task-based language teaching and communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching get support from theoreticians who study second language acquisition and it gets sufficient attention in the field of applied linguistics. Applied linguists put forward the concept of "task" , and regarded the "task" as the core of task based language teaching, put forward the basic concept of language use into practical significance (task) in classroom teaching mode, is to complete the task of learning. And they also suggest that basic concept of language application should transform into practical classroom teaching, completing learning tasks. The core of tasks is meaning of language instead of form of language. The keynote of tasks comes from reality or imitation of reality instead of language which were simplified in textbooks or written materials.1.1.3 Theoretical basis of TBLTTask-based language teaching isn’t based on one linguistics school, and it was influenced by many theories of linguistics schools, which include structural linguistics, functional linguistics and interactive model of language. Skehan（Skehan, P.A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. AppliedLinguistics1996.17 (1): 38-61.）use the standard of structural linguistics to determine the complicity of language structure in tasks; Berwick（Quoted from Richards, J. and Rogers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. CUP 2002）use functional theory to distinguish the tasks of language education and the tasks of language communication; language acquisition theory emphasis on the interaction of tasks; another master distinguishes interaction and communication. So, task-based language teaching is based on those three theoretical bases. Moreover, the study theory of task-based language teaching mainly based on the points of communicative language teaching that is communication.1.2 Components of TBLT1.2.1 Goals of tasksGoals of task indicate purposes which were reached via students through completing a task. Goals of tasks can be confidence which can cultivate students to speak English freely and solve the problems occurred in communication. And they can be some language skills.1.2.2 Input materials of composing tasksInput materials must be real, and their purposes should depend on true communication in reality. Then students can experience language in real or imitated situation. And these input material can give rise to students’resonance and interest also arouse students desire to attend activities actively.1.2.3 Activities based on input materialsThe project of task-based language teaching design from simple to complex, from easy to difficult, and the latter activity relates with the former activity. Tasks will be formatted from primary stage to advanced stage in the form.1.2.4 Teachers’ and learners’ function in taskUnder teachers’lead, students use their knowledge and skills to complete a communicative project. Students exchange their points about how to study effectively. Through free talk, searching and arranging information, questionnaire and completing projects these forms, students can reach communicative objectives via using target language, then students’ ability of applying English will be cultivated and enhanced.1.3 Features of TBLTFirstly, Task-based language teaching is a new form of communicative approach, and it also redevelops communicative approach.Secondly, Task-based language teaching underline study process, and it brings real language materials in study environment. Task-based language teaching try to let students take participate study process via completing real tasks.Thirdly, Task-based language teaching still underlines cultivating students’communicative ability which was applied in English communication. However, it emphasizes learning social communication through communication, and cultivating students’ comprehensive capability of language applying.Fourthly, Task-based language teaching emphasis on real tasks which were regarded as teaching central activities. What’s more, learners’ own experiences can be important elements in classroom learning. This choice revises reality shortage in teaching activities which based on function.Fifthly, Task-based language teaching requires that teaching activities should beneficial to students to learn language knowledge and develop language skill, meanwhile, it indicates that intracurricular language learning should combine with extracurricular activities. Thus, practical applied capacity of language will be enhanced.2. Application of TBLT in junior high school English teaching2.1 Principles of task design in application of TBLT2.1.1 AuthenticityThe authenticity principle indicates that input materials that apply in tasks should come from reality in tasks design. Meanwhile, the situation of fulfilling tasks and specific activities ought to try their best to contact with reality. Of course, reality only is a relative concept, and authenticity principle of tasks design doesn’t oppose completely fake language materials occurred in classroom tasks. But one point that can’t be suspected is that teachers should try their best to create real environment. For this, students could contact and process real language information that language andskills applied in classroom also can be applied in reality sufficiently.2.1.2 FunctionThe obvious shortage in traditional language practice is that language deviate context and function. Students may realize different language forms, but they may not express meaning and function appropriately via those forms. Functional principle bases on authenticity principle, and distinguishes the relation between language forms and language function. Learners experience the relation between language forms and function as well as the relation between language and context sufficiently in tasks performing. Functional principle strengthens learners’understanding of language appropriateness.2.1.3 ContinuityThe continuity principle relates to the relation between one task and other tasks, and practical steps of tasks in classroom were also involved in it. That is how to reach coherence and fluency of teaching and logic during implementing process of tasks design. Task-based teaching doesn’t indicate that a lesson involves one or two activities, and a series of activities which have no relevance in class isn’t the aim of task-based language teaching. Task-based teaching means that teaching completes or reaches teaching objectives through a group or a series of task performing. In task-based teaching, tasks should be related to each other and their teaching objectives ought to be unified, and their content should be linked. Nunan（Nonan D. Second language teaching and learning[M]Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ,2002）once put forward task-dependency principle, which means tasks present in a series in classroom. Every task bases on former task, and latter task belongs to the former. In this way, tasks of every lesson or unite will consist of a teaching ladder. It can help students reach expected teaching objectives step by step.2.1.4 OperabilityIn task design, operability should be considered in classroom environment. Teaching ought to avoid using complex tasks. When students need, teachers must offer task performing or operation model for them.2.1.5 Practical applicabilityThe design of tasks can’t only pay attention to their forms instead of their effect. Classroom tasks are always obedient to teaching. Therefore, teachers were demanded for devising tasks only because of mission. Task designers try their best to create condition which is benefit for students’ own activities. What’s more, teachers should take advantage of limited time and space to provide students with opportunities of interaction and communication.2.1.6 InterestOne advantage of task-based language teaching is that teachers arouse students’learning motivation sufficiently via interesting classroom communicative activities, so that students take participate in learning of their own accord. Therefore, during the process of task design, one important point that should be taken into account is interest of tasks. Inflexible and repetitive type of tasks decline students’interest of attending tasks, so, the types of tasks should be diversified. More over, origin of interest of tasks couldn’t be ignored. Interest of tasks not only comes from tasks themselves, but also comes from other many aspects, such as people’s participation, frequent communication and interaction, interpersonal communication of task performing, emotional communication, and sense of excitement and achievement of task completing.2.2 Application of TBLT in junior high school---a case studyThe following study and analysis is according to the unit4 how do you get to school, one unite in PEP English textbook for grade eight.2.2.1 CaseAfter learned the knowledge about transportation, teachers can design a task that students have conversations which used the sentence pattern “How do you get to school?” and“Why do you choose…?”, and teachers can provide some choices about transportation for students. Two students form one group. One is questioner, and the other is answerer. They can exchange their characters after one time practice.Scene 1: Lucy’s home is far from school. Her partner Tom asked her how did she get to school everyday and why.Tom: How do you get to school?Lucy: I get to school by bus.Tom: Why do you choose bus?Lucy: Because my home is far from our school and bus is convenient as well as quick. Bus is a nice choice.Tom: Oh, yeah, you are right.Scene 2: Mary’s home is not too far from school. Her partner peter asked her how did she get to school and why.Peter: How do you get to school?Mary: I get to school by bike, and sometimes I walk to school.Peter: Why do you choose bike?Mary: Not only because my home isn’t too far from school, but also bike is environmental friendly.Peter: Oh, why do you get to school on foot?Mary: I think walk is a better way for exercise.2.2.2 Question designBefore class, teachers have designed questions. As in the example above, teachers know that students have learned some knowledge about transportation, so, she design some questions about transportation and then students can collect information through some knowledge that they have learned. In class, students have several minutes to discuss about the information, the discussion is benefit for students to learn new knowledge and enter into learning state quickly. What’s more, it is also in favor of harmonizing the relationship between students and teachers or students and students. As the case, students can know their classmates better via the conversations about how do them get to school. What’s more, students’ability of speaking, analyzing contents, cultivating cultural consciousness was enhanced obviously. As in the example, after collecting information, students should classify and arrange those information, then they should talk with others, which can practice their ability of speaking and analyzing contents.2.2.3 Build a student-centered and harmonious class Student-centered classTaking part in teaching activities can increase communication between students. It is benefit for students to relax their mentality，reduce anxiety and enhance learning efficiency. Every member can express his or her own views, and this can help students contact different and abundant language phenomenon. Students can accumulate and digest those various language materials. As the example in above, students have conversations with their classmates by themselves, which can enhance students’ability and enthusiasm of autonomous learning. What’s more, students feel free to express their own opinions, which can help students become the master of learning. 2.2.4 Enrich the second classTask-based language teaching not only emphasizes enriching teaching in classrooms, but also pays attention to the second classroom which is a necessary replenishment of task-based language teaching. Using books, TVs, internet and other teaching resources to develop various outside activities can surmount limitation of activities in classrooms. Mean over, students’ comprehensive English ability could be strengthened via extending students’ knowledge field. And the second classroom can cultivate students’ability of organization, communication, applying language and creation. The tasks or conversations which were designed by teachers are good ways to practice their ability.2.2.5 Analysis⑴ Advantages:Firstly, there are two scenes in this case, and the scenes describe situation clearly and specifically. Scenes are related to reality, and this is benefit for cultivate students’ability of language applying.Secondly, teaching activities were designed according to language function in this case. The design is correspond to task-based language teaching principles which teach students to do something by language.Thirdly, the design of case can combine language function with language points, and it is easy to operate.⑵ Disadvantages:Firstly, the instructions of task isn’t enough specific. For instance, procedures ofthe task weren’t referred to in description of the task. What’s more, comment of performance of the task was absent.Secondly, although the case can set real scenes for students to cultivate their communicative ability, their ability of analyzing and solving problems can’t be cultivated.⑶ suggestionsDesign of the case is a little easy for grade eight students, so, the design of the case should be increased some details and questions.2.2.6 ExampleAim at problems appeared in the previous case, there is a new design of case as a example of task-based teaching activity.⑴ Task: conversation about how do students get to school⑵ Appropriated grade: grade eight⑶ Form of activity: groups’ activity⑷ Design of scene: If Lily’s home is a little far form her school, and she can choose several transportation such as bike, car, bus, and sometimes she goes to school on feet. Her partners ask her how did she get to school.⑸ Procedures① Arrange taskTeacher: Lily’s home is a little far form her school, and she can choose several transportation such as bike, car, bus, and sometimes she goes to school on feet. Which transportation should Lily choose and why? Please discuss it in groups,3 or 4 students in each group. Choose one student from each group to take notes during the discussion, and prepare for a report about your discussion.② Groups activity3 or4 students in each group, and choose one student from each group to take notes during the discussion, and prepare for a report about your discussion.③ Report presentationAfter discussion, teacher will check several groups which present their discussion for the whole class. When teacher listen students’ report, the teacher shouldwrite down some important points on his blackboard.④ Teacher’s promptThe teacher can give students some prompt and instruction when students discussed or reported. There is one point should be pay attention to is that Chinese prompt can’t be appeared.⑹ ProductionAmy: Lily, how do you get to school?Lily: usually, I get to school by bus or bike, but sometimes I walk to school. If my father has free time, he will drive me to school.Peter: Why do you choose bus or bike?Lily: Because I think bus is convenient, and bike is environmental friendly as well as cheap.Peter: Don’t you think bus is always crowded?Lily: Yeah, you are right, but I often take earlier bus, so, it isn’t too crowded.Smith: When do you walk to school?Lily: Usually, I will choose a fine day, especially in the spring and autumn.Smith: Don’t you think it is tired?Lily: Of course not, in fact, I think it is good for our health.Smith: Yes, you are right.After the analysis of the case, it is clear that how to design a task or how to organize an activity.2.3 Limitation of TBLT and problem solving2.3.1 Problems in applying of TBLT⑴Low efficiency in the classroomLow efficiency in the classroom can’t guarantee the accomplishment of tasks. Task-based language teaching regards students as its center, and learning initiative was controlled by students. However, because of too many students in one class, although tasks were finished by group works, teachers can not take care of students comprehensively and superintend them effectively. It is can’t avoid that when students encounter some difficulties, they used their mother language. So, the time which wasused when students completed takes was difficult to control. As a result, the quality of completing tasks is hard to guarantee.⑵Incompleteness of evaluation criterionThe evaluation criterion of task-based language teaching was mainly according to the degree of completing tasks. Under the condition that main objectives of English learning is that students enter a higher school, if teachers adopt task-based teaching approach, when students enter examinations, communicative ability wasn’t involved in these tests, students only need to be tested by filling blacks and practicing of truth or fault, then teachers, students and patriarch must can’t agree and it impedes performing of teaching. Therefore, reformation of evaluation criterion has to carry out at the same time. Although English curriculum criterion has pointed out clearly that the evaluation systems of English curriculum should reflect the multivariable evaluation systems and diversification of evaluation forms. Evaluation should pay attention to the process of students’ comprehensive language ability and the effect of learning. Through the combination of formative assessment and summative assessment, teachers not only focus on results, but also pay attention to processes. The objective of it is that unifying evaluation of learning processes and learning results.⑶Prepare hard in placeTask-based language teaching needs teachers prepare a number of works in earlier stage. The work can provide necessary datum, teaching aids and situation for arranging and performing of tasks, but this effect needs abundant manpower, material resource earlier work.⑷Tasks hard to organizeThere are some problems that hard to operate which were involved in transforming teaching courses into several tasks. If the transformation is inflexible, task-based teaching will only be a form.⑸Students hard to participateA few students can orient their opposition and participate tasks positively during process of completing tasks. However, there are some students deviate their character and partake inefficiently because of students’limited level and participationconsciousness.⑹Important point hard to graspHow to grasp and reflect some teaching important points is a difficult point in English teaching process. For instance, teachers how to present teaching important points efficiently, and students how to grasp teaching important points and strengthen learning effect during teaching process are difficult.⑺Effect hard to controlBecause of differences between teaching tasks and students’abilities, various students and contents have different effect in task-based language teaching performing. So, the effect is hard to control.2.3.2 Strategies to figure out the problems⑴Sufficient preparations and scientific designAccording to requirement of teaching courses, teachers transform teaching content into tasks. For arranging students’ different characters, teachers must prepare sufficiently. What’s more, students could be divided into groups and participate in discussion. Teachers need pay attention to fraction of coverage of students’participation, and leaders also need arrange those students who aren’t outgoing and good at communicating to join in tasks. In this way, students’consciousness of applying language and showing themselves positively will be enhanced. According to different degree of tasks, teachers provide necessary supplementary materials and aids for students. All these need teachers’spend enough time and energy when they prepare courses, and this is a important premise of performing of task-based language teaching.⑵Arouse students’ interestBased on students’ interest and excitement in adolescence, teachers should lead their students whose characters and types are dissimilar to join in tasks. For instance, most schoolboys are interested in PE, history and political affairs. However, most schoolgirls prefer to music and art. When teachers design teaching tasks and analyze students’ different characters, they can combine the content that have been mentioned in preceding part of the paragraph with relative knowledge, then students will learnmuch from the combination. For those students who have high level and broad knowledge field, when teachers arrange characters for them, some difficult characters should be considered at first. This arrangement may arouse students’changeable consciousness. On the contrary, teachers can arrange some easy characters for those students whose English level isn’t high. According to students’different level, teachers must design and arrange different tasks for them.2.4 Significance of TBLT2.4.1 Enhance interest in learningStudying with interest can enhance learning efficiency and cultivate learning initiative. English as a language, if it deviates teaching whose aim is applying, some students will feel baldness and boring. Task-based language teaching divides purpose of English learning into several small tasks and, then the tasks will be carried out in different steps. In this way, students’interest of attending, performing and experiencing tasks will be aroused as well as students can learn language, feel pleasure, gain success and experience confidence in interest.2.4.2 Broaden the field of knowledgeDuring the process of carrying out tasks, English was transformed into a instrument in many times, and students learn and comprehend grammar and skills by the instrument. The effect of it likes a key, and teachers educate their students to open every gate behind unknown world. During this process, students will contact a large number of social, historical, cultural and economical knowledge and information. The content of the process is abundant and the field is very extensive. Students broaden their sight when they accepted and finished every task.2.4.3 Strengthen applied abilitiesLanguage is an instrument that human beings use it to communicate with others and pass on information. The ultimate purpose of language learning is that people can apply language well. In English task-based teaching, the students’most obvious feeling is that how to complete each task by using English. During the process of completing various tasks, not only do students train their abilities of using language in reality, but also, students’ communicative and cooperative ability also were cultivatedand exercised. These abilities will be the necessary capability when English majors finished their studies and deal with foreign affairs successfully.2.4.4 Promote the educational reformTraditional English teaching model pay too much attention to students’ recitation, reading and transcription, and students’practice of vocabulary, texts and sentences. This way can give rise to discontinuity in English studying, and students can’t apply English comprehensively. So, students can only read English instead of communicating by English. However, task-based language teaching innovate teaching ideas and methods in different degrees. Depends on requirement of new curriculum reform, students are the center of teaching, and students can study in reality and applying. This teaching method is going to be a favorable exploration and creation of English teaching model.3. Production (effect) of task-based language teaching3.1 Ideal productionTeachers try to create a new teaching model and get rid of old teaching model which regarded teachers as center, and teachers occupied most time to impart knowledge for students. Task-based teaching model is a new teaching model that regards students as center. According to requirements of task-based language teaching, students learn knowledge via completing tasks; so, the knowledge can be remembered by students deeply.3.2 Practical productionThe design of tasks is difficult because of students’different ability and performance of tasks in classroom. What’s more, due to too many students, classroom is hard to control; meanwhile, limited time is an insurmountable limitation for tasks completed performance of tasks. Not every student can understand well and deeply, so, different capacity lead to difference of students’ acquaintance.3.3 Reasons of gaps between ideal production and practical productionFirstly, task-based language teaching isn’t perfect in English teaching in our country, and it hasn’t applied for a very long time. In many areas, task-based language。

Chapter Two Literature ReviewBefore a thorough review of literature available on the topic, let’s examine two examples, 1) 爱护文物，人人有责 (The Great Wall, App 1)A: Everybody should protect cultural relics.B: Please help to protect the cultural relics.2) 美景深藏蔚竹庵 (Mount Laoshan, App 2)A: Beautiful sights are hidden in the Weizhu Nunnery.B: For beautiful sight, please come to Weizhu Nunnery.Example 1) is a public sign at Badaling. Example 2) is a public sign in the Mount Laoshan in Qingdao. The first example calls for travelers to protect the cultural relics; the second advices travelers to visit the sight. Version A of both examples may be proper if they are used elsewhere. However in scenic spots, they are not regarded as quite satisfactory. Version As did not arouse enough attention of target readers (foreign travelers). That is they fail to exert the same effect on a target reader as the original (source text) on a source text reader (Chinese traveler). Although version Bs are different from the original in sentence structure and tone, they read more attractive. And they almost have the same functions as that of the source text. According to different purposes, the above two examples can be translated in different ways. English public signs in scenic spots are in the service of target readers. Their reaction should be taken into prime consideration. Translations in functional approach can best serve target readers. So the functional approach to translation is the key theory discussed in this thesis.2.1 Review of the Functional ApproachChristiane Nord defines “functionalism” as follows,Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although what will call Skopostheorie has played a major role in the development of this trend; a number of scholars subscribe to functionalism and draw inspiration from Skopostheorie without calling them anything like “skopos”. We shall thus be looking at functionalism as a broad approach, trying to distinguish between its parts wherever possibleand necessary (Nord, 2001: 1)From what Nord defines in her book, we may understand that functionalism is a broad concept, pooling together a variety of scholars and theirs approaches to translation. Functional approach includes the German school with Katharina Reiss as the founder, British scholar Peter Newmark and his semantic vs. communicative translation as well as American scholar Eugene. A. Nida and his functional equivalence.In the German school the best known names are Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer and Christiane Nord. As founder of Skopostheorie, Reiss first established a general relationship between translation strategies and text functions. Reiss’s student Vermeer put forward the concept of Skopostheorie. He defines that every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Nord, 2001: 12). Later on Nord put forward the rule of “Function plus Loyalty” with regard to the limitation of Skopostheorie and the problems of radical functionalism.Peter Newmark suggests three main textual functions: informative, expressive and vocative. Different text types require different translation strategies. Semantic translation is used for expressive texts; communicative translation is used for informative and vocative texts. Of vocative texts he put forward the focus of translation is the readership. In translating informative and vocative texts, the translator is supposed to produce a version which is readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership both in content and language and he /she is justified to improve the original text if it is poorly translated. (Newmark, 1981: 42) This provides useful guidelines for the translation of public signs, which fall in to the categories of informative and vocative texts.According to Eugene Nida, the governing principle of dynamic equivalence is to “reproduce in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style” (Nida and Taber, 2004: 12) He explains it is essential that the target text functions in the same manner as the source text. The target readers are able to respond to it in substantially the same manner as the source text readers respond to the original text.In the following passages, the German school and Peter Newmark’s theory would bediscussed in detail.2.2 The Functional Approach2.2.1 Katharina Reiss and Her Text Typology TheoryIn 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism developed a model of translation criticism based on the functional relationship between source and target texts. To her target text should be equivalent to source text in terms of conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function. From this point we can see that she still took equivalence as the basis. However, in practice “she knew that real life presents situations where equivalence is not possible and in some cases, not even desired. (Nord, 2001: 9) Especially, when the target is intended to achieve a purpose or function other than that of the original. “In such a situation, she thinks that the functional perspective takes precedence over the normal standards of equivalence. Then translation critic can no longer rely on features derived from source-text analysis but has to judge whether the target text is functional in terms of the translation context”. (Nord, 2001: 9)Reiss is also aware that it is the overall text type, rather than the subdivisions that decide the type of equivalence to be sought and the translation strategy to be followed. If the text function is to provide information, then content must be preserved at all cost, and any “flourishes of style” can safely be sacrificed to that purpose, so that the translation method will be “plain-prose”. When there is a conflict between the functions of the ST and the TT, Reiss uses an “author-adapted” translation method to produce the same or at least a similar effect.She further divides text into three main types as content-focused text, form-focused text and appeal-focused text. Reiss generalizes her typology theory in the following form, (Reiss, 2000: 26)language function representation expression persuasion language dimension logic esthetics dialoguetext type content-focused(informative) form-focused(expressive)appeal-focused(operative)Content-focused text emphasizes content and the form is comparatively less important. When such a text is translated, the original information should be retained as intact as possible and the linguistic form of the translation should be adjusted to the target language conventions. For expressive text, form plays a vital role. Authors of form-focused texts such as literary prose and poetry often employ some formal elements to attain the original aesthetic effect. They should use similar form in translation to produce corresponding impression. The third type is appeal-focused text. This type intends convey information or provoke certain reaction. The translation must undergo certain adaptation to match the target language and the target culture.However there is not a pure informative, expressive or persuasive text. Reiss states that “…a further point should be clarified. If we draw a distinction between content-focused and from-focused text, this is not to imply that content-focused text do not have a form. Just as there can be no form of communication without some kind of content, there can be no kind of content that does not have some form.” (Reiss, 2000: 28) This is quite applicable for C-E translation of public signs which fall somewhere between informative and evocative (operative) text.Reiss’s text typology shed light on C-E translation of public signs. As one of foreign publicity material, public signs are classified as both the informative and evocative (operative) texts. Typology theory is particular valuable for the translators of public signs. They are encouraged to shift from the locking chains imposed by source text. The translators can hold a balance while selecting appropriate strategies to cope with various translation problems.2.2.2 Hans. J. Vermeer and His SkopostheorieSkopos is a Greek word for ‘purpose’. According to Skopostheorie, the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action. (Nord, 2001: 27)Skopostheorie first assumes that translation must be a purposeful human activity. The purpose has three explanations: the translator’s purpose; the communicative purpose of the translated text; and the purpose to reach by exploiting certain special translation method. Usually the communicative purpose is the main purpose of the translated text.Skopostheorie also defines an intratextual coherence and intertextual coherence. Intratextual coherence implies a translation should be acceptable when it is coherent with the norms of the target culture. A communicative interaction can only be regarded successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Nord, 2001: 32) For intertextual coherence, a translation is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. Intertexual coherence should exit between source and target text. (Nord, 2001: 32) Intertextual coherence is considered subordinate to intratextual coherence and both are subordinate to the skopos rule. (Nord, 2001: 33)The theory prescribes a mode of thinking that will allow the translator to explore new approaches to the task of producing a successful target text. The theory particularly emphasizes target-orientation of translation. And it also stresses the translation situation which always determines the translation strategies to be used.This rule is intended to solve the eternal dilemmas of free vs. faithful translation, dynamic vs. formal equivalence, good interpreters vs. slavish translators and so on. It means that the skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed. (Nord, 2001: 29)Skopostheorie bears on C-E translation of public signs. Nord points out that “a text is made meaningful by its receiver and for its receiver.” (Nord, 2001: 31) The reaction of target readers’ should be taken into prime consideration. That is translation of public signs should be target-reader oriented.2.2.3 Christiane Nord and Her “Functions plus Loyalty”Christiane Nord further develops functional theory in the early 1990s and puts forward a rule of “Functions plus Loyalty”.Nord indicates that “My personal version of the functionalist approach stands on two pillars: function plus loyalty. Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. (Nord, 2001: 126). She holds that the translator should be responsible bilaterally for the target reader aswell as the original author. The translator should respect the source text producer and try to adjust the purpose of the target text and the source text author’s intention. The notion of loyalty not only means conveying the content and style of the source text, but also proposes necessary adaptation based on the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text, such as in the case of pragmatic translation. (Chen Xiaowei, 2006: 17) The principle of loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. (Nord, 2001: 126). Thus the loyalty principle reduces the probability of “radical” functionalism. It is also an answer to those critics who argue that the functional approach leaves translators free to do whatever they like with any source text.The combination of function plus loyalty further improved the Skopostheorie. It grants translators some liberty in the translation process to achieve the intended function of the target text. Meanwhile it also keeps them from going far away from the original author’s intention. Moreover, Nord also proposes her documentary and instrumental translation. Documentary translation and instrumental translation are different in their emphasis on the source text and the target text. The former focused on source text, translators try to keep the language features or culture of the source text in the translated version, so this strategy is used with the classic works or serious literature. The latter resembles domestication translation, which produces equivalent effect by cultural adaptation; the target readers generally can not feel the text is a translation. The criterion for judging whether it is documentary or instrumental translation is that “the target audience is supposed to be aware or not they are reading a translation” (Nord, 2001: 50)According to Nord’s theory, translators of Chinese public signs should always bear in mind the priority of target text readers. Public signs should be translated according to the specific target functions. However it does not mean that translators have the right to change the functions at will. Any translation, regardless of its different specific purposes, should be based on the source texts.2.3 Peter Newmark and His Semantic vs. Communicative TranslationPeter Newmark’s major contribution to functionalism is his semantic translation versuscommunicative translation. “Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original” (Newmark: 1981: 39)It is quite obvious that communicative translation focuses on producing similar effect on the target readers. On the contrary, semantic translation remains within the original language convention and culture. He proposes that semantic translation is used for expressive texts and communicative translation for informative and vocative texts. That is in translating expressive texts, the expressive components should be rendered completely, original culture tend to be transferred intact and even badly and/or inaccurately written passages must remain so. However, for informative and vocative texts, the translator should focus on the accuracy of message and the main function of the source text, trying to produce an equivalent effect on target readers.He also proposes that different texts require different translation criteria and methods. He points out that for informative and vocative text the core is the accuracy of information and the readership. Accessibility and comprehensibility of the translation is very important as the reader does not anticipate difficulties or obscurities and would expect a generous transfer of foreign elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary. (Newmark, 1981: 39)Peter Newmark’s theory also shed light on C-E translation of public signs. The translator is supposed to use language forms which read naturally to the target reader and he/she is entitled to improve the original text if it is badly and/or inaccurately written. Public signs should not be translated mechanically without an eye to the effect of the target texts on the target readers. Newmark’s semantic vs. communicative translation share some similarities with Nord’s documentary vs. instrumental translation. Semantic and documentary translations remain with the original linguistic and cultural conventions, while communicative and instrumental translations are target language oriented. But their difference is also quiet obvious. Nord holds that the skopos of the translation determines the choice of translation strategies, while Newmark proposes that the choice of translation methods is determined by the source text. However in translation practice, the methods of translation are not determined by the functionof the source text, but that of the target text. Very frequently the translation involves substantial adaptation of the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text.2.4 Enlightenments of the Functional Approach on C-E Translation of Public SignsAccording to Newmark’s typology (Newmark, 1981: 15), the features of public signs can be summarized from the functionalist point of view in the following graph.Functional analysis of Chinese public sings and English public signsNotes:1. Cpb: Chinese public signs; Epb: English public signs2. Culture, “low” means there are not many culture elements in public signs.3. Politeness, “low” means the public signs which do not read polite.The above graph gives us a general idea of the features of Chinese public signs and English public signs from the functional approach. Chinese public signs and English public signs are both in the service of their respective target readers. For most public signs, the source text and the target text share the same functions, informative, evocative or a combination of the two. There are other public signs: the function of the target text is different from that of the source text. An evocative public sign may be translated into an informative one or vice versa.This is because Chinese and English are different in language conventions and cultural traditions. Chinese public signs and English public signs differ in the ways they appeal to their respective readers. The source text readers (Chinese travelers) are prone to be affected by flowery expressions; while the target readers (foreign travelers) prefer more concrete information.Chinese public signs are therefore more descriptive. The language used is ornate and figurative, containing many flowery expressions like idioms or poems or quotations of famous persons’ remarks. English public signs are more informative. They read simple and concise. The language is plain and factual. When translating Chinese public signs into English, translators are usually required to apply various translation strategies, such as literal or liberal translation or adaptation.The main point of Skopostheorie is: it is the prospective function or skopos of the target text, not the source text that determines the translation process. Translators of public signs should apply various translation strategies in order to produce a version that will arouse the same effect on target text readers as that of the source text does on the source text readers.2.5 SummaryIn this part the writer discusses functional approach and its enlightenments on C-E translation of public signs. Reiss’s typology, Vermeer’s Skopostheorie, Nord’s function plus loyalty and Newmark’s semantic vs. communicative translation are the key theories involved in this chapter. According to the functional approach, it is the intended function of the target text that determines the overall translation process including the selection of translation strategies. The source text can’t be neglected either, as it serves as the main source of information. Translators of public signs should be aware of the status of target text readers. And the translations should always fulfill the need of target readers. The following chapter further explores the features and functions of public signs, giving us an insight on how functional approach applied to C-E translation in this area.Chapter Three A Functional Analysis of Public Signsin Scenic SpotsThe functional approach fits better in public signs translation as discussed in the previous chapter. The definition of a public sign, its categorization and the features are mainly discussed in the following paragraphs from the functional perspective.3.1 Definitions of Public SignsPublic signs are also called public notices, slogans, the languages of public notices, expressions on public signs.According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English1a sign is “a piece of paper, metal etc. in a public place with words or drawings on it that gives people information, warn them not to do something etc. e.g. a road sign, a no-smoking sign.”A Pubic sign can be defined as a piece of paper, metal or billboard in a public place with words or drawings on it that provides information or arouse people’s attention.The counterparts of public signs in Chinese are: 公示语、标志、标示语、告示语、标语、标牌语、标识. The most widely used one is “公示语”.Public signs and other related definitions in Chinese are as follows,1) 标语：用简短的文字写出的具有宣传鼓动作用的口号。

Literature Review on Feedback in EFL Writing: Teacher Feedback and Peer Feedback摘要：写作是一种重要的语言技巧，相比较听力、口语和阅读，写作更能全面的展现学习者的语言精准水平。

所以我们需要对英语写作的教与学投入更多的精力。

然而我们当前的大学英语写作教学收效并非显著。

一方面，老师花费大量的精力和时间去阅读和修改学生的英语写作，但成效颇低；另一方面，学生只是表面肤浅的理解老师的建议及评语或者甚至直接忽视老师给予的纠错反馈。

在一定程度上来看，造成这种现象的原因可以追溯到结果教学法在英语写作教学中的广泛应用而带来的影响。

结果教学法把英语写作过程看成是一个线性的活动，在这一过程中没有课堂活动部分，没有互动。

而与之相对应的过程教学法把写作看成是一个复杂的、相互重叠的认知过程，在这个过程中有学生的积极参与。

反馈作为过程教学法的重要组成部分而引起广泛的关注，它包括：教师反馈、同伴反馈、自我反馈和计算机辅助反馈。

其中，教师反馈和同伴反馈是其主要的两大部分。

在二语学习环境下关于这两种反馈效果的研究很多，但研究结果有所不同，有的研究者认为教师反馈的效果更佳而有的研究更倾向于在写作中使用同伴反馈。

在以往的研究中，研究者们大多只侧重于其中一种反馈方式在大学英语写作教学中的应用，而将两者教学方法结合起来应用的研究不是很多。

因此，本研究尝试将两种反馈应用到大学英语写作教学中并期待通过实证研究能够在不久将来证实其可行性和效度。

关键字：反馈；教师反馈；同伴反馈；外语写作Abstract: As an important language skill, writing can comprehensively present the learners’language proficiency compared with other basic skills such as listening, speaking and reading. Therefore, much attention should be paid to the teaching and learning of English writing. However, at present time, our college English writing instruction seems unsatisfactory. On the one hand, teachers contribute a great deal of time and energy to reading and correcting student’s composition but with low efficiency; on the other hand, students spend less time superficially understanding teacher’s suggestions and comments or even directly neglect teacher’s error correction.To a certain extent, this current situation can be traced back to the prevailing traditional product-oriented approach which assumes writing as a liner process, in which there is no students’ interaction within writing activities. On the contrary, the process-oriented approach assumes writing as a cognitive process, with which students can actively participant in writing activities. Feedback, an indispensable part of process-oriented approach of writing, has attracted great attention, which mainly encompasses teacher feedback and peer feedback. In ESL context, many studies on the effects of two types of feedback has been done. Nevertheless, the results of them varied greatly in these studies. Some scholars reviewed that teacher feedback is more favorable in writing class while others prefer to use peer feedback. Up to now, most of the researchers just focus on either peer feedback or teacher feedback, and few researchers have combined the two kinds of feedback in the context of the EFL writing. Hence, the study attempts to apply peer feedback and teacher feedback into EFL writing through an empirical study and look forward to its feasibility and effectiveness will be approved in the near further study in writing pedagogy. Keywords: feedback; teacher feedback; peer feedback; EFL writing1.IntroductionFeedback plays a prominent role in improving student’s learning ability and strengthening his or her learning achievement in language pedagogy. In writing, feedback refers to “reader’s comprehensible input from author whose function is offering information to reader to modify composition” (Zhu, 2010). The efficiency of writing feedback will directly affect students’ writing level as well as reflecting the effectiveness of teacher’s writing strategies. Feedback in EFL writing mainly focus on: teacher feedback; peer feedback; self-feedback and computer-generated feedback. From which teacher feedback refers to the input provided by the teacher for the revision of students’ writings or assessment of learning performance (Keh, 1990) and peer feedback is defined as a system in which individuals evaluate counterparts’or peers’achievements of language learning including writing and reading (Topping, 1998). Teacher feedback plays a dominant role in L2 writing, while in recent yearsteacher feedback was given great attention through the popularity of process writing approach. Domestic and foreign scholars have already conducted a great deal of empirical research on teacher and peer feedback, but have not reached a consensus on the effectiveness and the ranges, methods and strategies of application. And many researches paid attention to the single study on different modes of feedback as well as focusing less on the comparative study of the efficiency, merits and demerits of integrating teacher feedback and peer feedback. Based on which this study will explore the effectiveness of combining teacher feedback and peer feedback and look forward to providing practically and significantly instructional feedback in EFL writing.2.Related Studies of Teacher Feedback and Peer Feedback at Home and AbroadThe study of writing feedback began in the 1950s. The scholars made a comparison between teacher’s error correction and peer’s error correction with the guidance of teachers, the results of which examined that the efficiency of the latter is better than the former one. In the following 60 years, domestic and international scholars made a detail study on the practical effectiveness of peer feedback (Keh, 1990; Ferris, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2006; Paulus, 1999; Tsui & Ng, 2000; Ming, 2005; Liu, 2002; Gong, 2007; Meng, 2009; Wang, 2010; Xu, 2010; Guo, 2011; Hu & Zhang, 2011). These researchers stated that singly using teacher feedback will not truly and efficiently improve students’writing ability. “Teachers often spend a great deal of time and energy in modifying composition and putting forward many comments and suggestions on writing, however, students always neglect teachers’correction comments as well as superficially understand the correction suggestions. This kind of single and passive feedback have no effect on stimulating student’s learning interests and enthusiasm”(Zhou, 2013: 121). On the contrary, peer feedback attracted more attention to scholars and teachers. They found that in the process of face-to-face communication, negotiation and discussion, peer feedback can mutually, actively and accurately state what students want to express. Meanwhile, student’s self-learningability and collaborative spirit could be exerted to the utmost as well as writing and thought ability being exerted to a higher extent.Some other studies investigated the essence of teachers’feedback behaviors (Connors & Lunsford 1993: 200-223; Ferris, 1997: 315-339; ); the effectiveness of feedback types (Ferris & Roberts, 2001: 161-184; Kepner, 1991: 305-313); students’perceptions of feedback (Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990: 155-177; Hedgocock & Left-kowtz, 1994: 141-165). Totally, students generally considered that peer feedback is much more effective than teacher feedback. In terms of teacher feedback, domestic researches focused more on the importance and values of student’s recognition process and its development (Zhang et al., 2000: 24-28; Xie, 2011: 50-51); and its efficiency in improving student’s attention and their ability (Li & Wu, 2005; Bei, 2009); and its influences on the accuracy, fluency and complexity of student’s writing (Wang & Liu, 2012: 49-53); or even the effectiveness of different types of teacher feedback and correction and teachers’and students’attitudes towards teacher feedback (Wang, 2006: 24-30; Zhang & Liu, 2010: 115-118). These studies just singly focused on different aspects of teacher feedback, there are less studies on the combination of peer feedback and teacher feedback and explanation of theirs reliability and efficiency in EFL writing.In recent writing instruction, peer feedback (Richards et al., 2005: 128) refers to “the activity in the process of composition modifying and in this activity where students read peers’ composition in groups and then make comments and suggestions on them”. International writing researches firmed the application of peer feedback in ESL writing (Hansen & Liu, 2005: 31-38; Jacobs et al., 1998: 301-317 ). Also many scholars conducted researches from the perspective of cognition, who put forward that peer feedback could cultivate student’s analytic ability and expand their thinking space (Paulus, 1999: 265-289). In addition, students could also communicate with peers and improve the ability of using target language in specific communicative contexts (Hansen, 2005: 31-38). However, the researchers pointed out that although peer feedback could make up drawbacks for teacher feedback, its accuracy, reliability and efficiency are being questioned and the practical operation is needed to beexplored further.From the above review, we can conclude that domestic and international scholars just singly conducted researches on either teacher feedback or peer feedback or made studies on the types, characteristics or strategies of feedback as well as a comparative study on peer feedback and teacher feedback. However, there are less researches on combing this two kinds of feedback from now on. Based on which, this study looks forward to making contribution to feedback in EFL writing by integrating peer feedback and teacher feedback.3. Definition of Terms3.1 Feedback TheoryFeedback is wisely seen in education as crucial for both encouraging and consolidating learning (Anderson, 1982; Vygotsky, 1978), and the importance has also been acknowledged in the field of English writing. In the traditional American dictionary (2006), feedback is defined as “transferring process and system input into a part of output”. In the process of writing, the effects of writing cannot be neglected. Keh (1990: 302) referred to feedback as an indispensable part in the process writing pedagogy.In language learning, feedback means evaluative remarks which are available to language learners concerning their language proficiency or linguistic performance (Larsen-Freeman, 2005). In the field of teaching and learning, feedback is defined as many terms, such as response, review, correction, evaluation or comment. No matter what the term is, it can be defined as “comments or information learners receive on the success of a learning task, either from the teacher or from other learners (Richards et al., 1998)”.A more detail description of feedback in terms of writing is that the feedback is “input from the reader to a writer with the effect of providing information to the writer for revision”(Keh, 1990). From the presentation of general grammatical explanation to the specific error correction is all the range of feedback. The purpose is to improve the writing ability of students by the description and correction of theerrors.The role of feedback is to make writers learn where he or she has misled or confused the reader by supplying insufficient information, illogical organization, lack of development of ideas, or something like inappropriate word-choice or tense (Keh, 1999).From the perspective of teachers, feedback can be seen as a form of evaluation, aiming at producing a supportive teaching environment and helping students finish assignments better with the aid of feedback from the previous ones. From the perspective of learners, feedback can be considered as a self-assessment, which enables learners to see in what area they need to improve and understand. And feedback can be classified as teacher feedback and peer feedback in terms of the source of feedback which writers receive.3.1.1Teacher FeedbackTeacher feedback refers to the input provided by the teacher for the revision of students’writings or assessment of learning performance (Keh, 1990). Students usually hole the view that teacher feedback is more believable for the reason that it is originated from the influence of the traditional product-oriented approach in writing. And many teachers feel that they have the duty to make substantial comments on students’compositions for the purpose of giving a response to students’efforts, offering assistance for the improvement of students’ writing performance and justify the grades they acquired (K, Hyland, 2003).Researchers considered teacher feedback from various aspects—examining the nature of teacher’s responding behaviors in order to find out the effectiveness of teacher feedback (Connors & Lunsford, 1993; Ferris, 1997; Sommers, 1982; Zamel, 1985); comparing students’ perceptions of teacher feedback with those peer feedback (Chaudron, 1984); and analyzing students’views on teacher’s feedback (Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990; Hedgcock & Leftkowtz, 1992). The main method of response to the writing is the handwritten commentary on students drafts and teacher feedback is most emphasized in students’expectation for revision. One of the major issues thathave been addressed is whether teachers’ written comments can help students enhance their writing ability without checking the texts appropriately (Brannon & Knoblauch, 1982; Straub, 1996, 1997).In fact, several early L1 studies that teacher feedback does not serve serve as a mean of effective communication between teacher and student (Brannon & Knoblauch, 1982; Faigley & Witte, 1981). However, the role of teacher feedback on students’ writing has transferred when it refers to second language learning. Although this mode may cause some wrong communication and misunderstanding between teacher and student, teacher feedback has the potential value for stimulating students to revise their drafts (Saito, 1994; Zhang, 1995) and to improve their writing (Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Ferris, 1995, 1997, 2006; Goldstein & Conrad, 1990). 3.1.2 Peer FeedbackDifferent from teacher feedback, peer feedback is defined as the use of learners as sources of information and interaction for each other in such a way that learners assume roles and responsibilities normally taken on by formally trained teacher, tutor or editor in commenting on and critiquing each others drafts in both written and spoken formats in the process of writing (Liu & Hansen, 2002). For many years, the unique benefits of language learners can offer to each other were ignored in writing classrooms, especially in ESL and EFL classrooms. The Process Writing Theory and The Collaborative Learning Theory have justified the use of peer feedback activities in the writing process. These theories have provided the evidence that peer feedback activities not only help L2 learners improve their writing ability but also their overall language abilities through the negotiation of meaning which typically take place during these activities.There are various forms in peer feedback, such as offering spoken suggestions and correcting errors in written form. The well-known mode of peer feedback of SL writing class is that students who work in pairs in small groups read peer’s compositions carefully, pointing out problems and doubts, and offer suggestions and comments (Richards et al., 2005). The essence of feedback is to hear multipleperspectives from a wide audience (Shepherd, 1992; Cho, Schunn, & Charney, 2006). This method, which is supported by the writing workshop pedagogy, and is widespread in the first language teaching.4. Theoretical Foundations of Feedback4.1 Collaborative LearningCollaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is the second theoretical basis that back for the application of feedback in writing class (Hiltz, 1997). It is feasible that students communicate actively with each other in the classroom.Collaborative learning emphasizes that both students and instructors participate and communicate actively (Hiltz, 1997). Collaborative learning is viewed from both behavioral and humanistic perspectives (Slavin, 1987). The behavioral perspective stresses that students are encouraged to study under a cooperative situation and rewarded in the form of group rather than individual ones. From the humanistic perspective, more understanding and better performance are gained from the interaction among peers. Hence, it is obvious that collaborative learning puts more attention to the influence of peers, which is different from the previous EFL writing theories (Johnson and Johnson, 1986).Collaborative learning makes it possible that students discuss and accomplish tasks that they can not do finish by themselves without higher motivation. Students acquire certain kinds of knowledge and benefit from each other in the way of spoken and written communication, which occurs in the atmosphere of collaborative learning.Researches in L1 writing has found that the writing is strengthened with the help of collaborative learning strategies (Bruffee, 1984). For example, students in writing groups negotiate meaning as they revise the peers’writings; learning in writing teams is conducive to improving the students’writing proficiency (Gere, 1987).As to the impact of collaborative learning on L2 writing instruction, many benefits of applying collaborative learning strategies in the classroom has also beenstated in the study. In some researches it is mentioned that students can make decisions reasonably and effectively compare notes from the content and application through the group work. Collaborative learning also offers students raise opportunities review and use their growing knowledge of L2 writing through interaction with peers in writing groups (Hivela, 1999: 8). There are many opportunities for students to share and communicate ideas with each other.4.2 Process-Oriented ApproachCompared with the product-oriented approach, the process approach is an essential component of composition instruction and research. It is obvious that product-oriented approach attaches great importance to grammar, spelling, punctuation and vocabulary and so on. The process-oriented approach in EFL writing began to appear in the late of 1960s and early 1970s in L1 writing (Elbow, 1973; Emig, 1971). The process-oriented approach was introduced to L2 studies by Vivan Zamel (1976). She argues that advanced L2 writers who are similar to L1 writers would benefit from this approach (Matsuda, 2003). Although there are various process approaches in writing instruction, some noticeable features can be concluded. The features of process-oriented approach are as followed:1)Putting attention to the process of writing rather than the final product;2)Offering suggestions and help to compose student’s writing;3)Putting forward strategies of pre-writing, drafting and rewriting;4)Attaching great importance to the stage of revising;5)Assisting students find the correct content when they write the compositions;6)Emphasizing feedback no matter from teachers or peers;7)Encouraging to hold individual feedback meetings in the groups throughout theprocess of writing.A process-oriented approach, which lays the first theoretical foundation for feedback that attaches great importance to the cyclical phases of writing, for example, pre-write, draft, revision, and edit and final draft. At the beginning, many tasks including producing a topic through reading or listening or analyzing the structure thathas been carried out to the writing. Next, students from create the first drafts for further reading and revising by forming their ideas into a liner structure. Then, the second draft appears and the interactive activity among peers can be repeated after the second on the condition that there is enough for students to discuss their compositions. Finally, students accomplish the final draft based on the feedback from both peers and the teachers. Therefore, it is clear that process of writing is the center of process-oriented approach (Keh, 1990: 294). And the reader’s feedback exerted great influence on the multiple-draft process because it is the motivation for the writer get the final draft through the writing process.The importance of the revision process of writing has been strengthened (Leki, 1990) and how to revise the writing from the reader’s feedback has also become the focus of the process of writing (Zhang, 1995). 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自动化专业英语论文Title: Automation Professional English ThesisIntroduction:In the field of automation, writing a professional English thesis is essential for students to showcase their research skills and knowledge. A well-written thesis can demonstrate the student's understanding of the subject matter and their ability to communicate effectively in English. This article will discuss the key components of a successful automation professional English thesis.1. Introduction to Automation:1.1 Automation Definition: Automation refers to the use of technology to control and monitor processes, reducing the need for human intervention. It involves the use of various tools such as sensors, actuators, and controllers to automate tasks and improve efficiency.1.2 Importance of Automation: Automation plays a crucial role in improving productivity, quality, and safety in various industries. It helps businesses streamline their operations, reduce errors, and increase output.1.3 Automation Applications: Automation is used in a wide range of industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, transportation, and agriculture. It is used to automate repetitive tasks, monitor processes, and collect data for analysis.2. Research Methodology:2.1 Literature Review: A thorough literature review is essential for understanding the existing research on the topic and identifying gaps in the literature. It helps the student build a strong theoretical foundation for their thesis.2.2 Data Collection: The student must decide on the data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments, to gather relevant data for their research. They must ensure that the data collected is accurate and reliable.2.3 Data Analysis: Once the data is collected, the student must analyze it using appropriate statistical tools and techniques. They must interpret the results and draw conclusions based on their findings.3. Thesis Structure:3.1 Title Page: The title page should include the title of the thesis, the student's name, the institution's name, and the date of submission.3.2 Abstract: The abstract provides a brief summary of the thesis, highlighting the research objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.3.3 Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for the thesis by introducing the topic, stating the research objectives, and outlining the structure of the thesis.4. Results and Discussion:4.1 Results Presentation: The student must present the results of their research in a clear and organized manner, using tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate their findings.4.2 Discussion: The discussion section is where the student interprets the results, compares them to existing literature, and discusses the implications of their findings.4.3 Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the thesis, discusses the limitations of the study, and suggests areas for future research.5. References and Citations:5.1 Citation Style: The student must follow a specific citation style, such as APA or IEEE, to properly cite sources in their thesis.5.2 Reference List: The reference list should include all the sources cited in the thesis, listed in alphabetical order by the author's last name.5.3 Plagiarism Check: Before submitting the thesis, the student should run a plagiarism check to ensure that their work is original and properly cited.Conclusion:Writing a professional English thesis in the field of automation requires careful planning, research, and attention to detail. By following the key components outlined in this article, students can create a successful thesis that demonstrates their knowledge and skills in the field of automation.。