英文资料翻译(原文)Friction (1)

贸易摩擦中的“摩擦”，是Tensions还是Friction？最近中文常说的“贸易摩擦”，在英语中有两种表达，一种是Trade Friction，另一种是Trade Tensions。

英语中的Friction和Tensions这两种说法，都是源于物理学的比喻，但在含义上并不完全相同。

在物理学中，Friction所指的是，在两个物体或两个表面之间，所发生的触碰摩擦。

在日常语言中，Friction经常用作比喻，描述不同的人群、团体、组织之间的不友好、敌对、见解相左等冲突关系。

Tension 的含义和用法Tension同样是源于物理学，但在日常英语中的使用范围，要比Friction更加广泛。

Tension的本来含义，是指一个物体被拉紧时所处的状态，有时也称为“张力”，例如常说的Surface tension，液体的表面张力；也可以用来指肌体的紧张，例如下面的句子：Massage can relieve tension in your shoulders and back.通过按摩，可以缓解颈部和背部的紧张。

和Friction一样，Tension也经常用来形容不同的人群、团体、组织之间的关系，而且也是用来描述各种敌对、不友好等负面关系。

例如：The incident has further increased tension between the two countries.这个事件发生之后，两国之间的关系变得更加紧张。

和Friction不同的是，Tension经常以复数形式出现，而且更多用来描述抽象事物之间的关系，例如：There is often a tension between the aims of the company and the wishes of the employees.在公司的整体目标和各位员工的个人意愿之间，经常会存在不一致或冲突。

Tension 和 Friction 的差别Tension和Friction都经常被翻译成中文的“冲突”，但这两种“冲突关系”并不是一回事。

Transmission of fluidFormer statement fluid transmission is including gas (pressure) transmission and liquid transmission, hydraulic transmission into liquid transmission, hydraulic transmission and fluid Nien transmission. Hydraulic transmission based on the interior market, the pressure to be able to impart impetus liquid; Hydraulic transmission based on Oula equation to the liquid changes to the short wheel drive transmission; For Newton, Nien transmission fluid friction law, the sticky liquid to impart dynamism to.Hydraulic transmission is the basic hydraulic components and hydraulic Bianjuqi coupled device. Hydraulic coupled devices is a fundamental component of a number of radial plane leaves, a work of the pump and turbine round. Hydraulic transmission oil in the work of the cycle of high-speed mobile transmission power, oil pumps round her so involved with the campaign because centrifugal force role do centrifuge campaign from pumps round (and imported axis) and to absorb mechanical energy into moment of momentum (mVR) incremental, high-speed Yeliu round water from the pump to the heart to do turbine flow release moment of momentum. promote turbine (and export axis) rotation, work-driven plane (and load) homework. Hydraulic Bianjuqi basic components are pumps round, and the turbine-round, they are a space (bending) leaves work round by the work of a relevant order. Hydraulic transmission oil pumps were working round the turbine mix for incremental Ye Liu was moment of momentum, after transfer-round water turbine Yeliu direction after the release of moment of momentum (kinetic energy) to promote the work of the turbine-driven rotary rush.My hydraulic components in the development of faster, 2003 hydraulic coupled devices produced about 70,000 National Taiwan. Widely used for Daishishusongji, rail carriers, ball mill, air-compressors, compressors, pumps and fuel pumps, and other equipment, transmission,improve transmission quality and energy conservation. My hydraulic coupled with the current maximum output rotational speed for 6500r/min, minimum power to 0.3kW, the maximum power to 7100kW. Hydraulic trend is coupled with a high rotational speed and power.International hydraulic coupled device products to the most famous German Fuk under special company, according to information that has reached 20000r/min rotational speed and power to 55000kW products, which are still visible in considerable gap. Of course, the power of the big oil hydraulic components for hydraulic transmission requirements higher. Hydraulic Bianjuqi mainly for engineering machinery, machinery and diesel oil. Hydraulic Bianjuqi main internal combustion engine with matching applications, the scope of its rotational speed in 2000~3000r/min. Mechanical engineering applications more, the greatest power 700HP about output about 70,000 Taiwan. Oil machinery applications less power to 1500HP. Diesel applications less power up 3000HP.Nien transmission fluid is a liquid transmission doors emerging disciplines in the country are still at an infancy stage. Because liquid Nien transmission products (such as fluid mechanics using Nien) and hydraulic transmission products (such as governor-hydraulic coupled device) Notwithstanding the different nature, but because of similar performance and the same purposes (governor energy), in a number of technical activities (such as the formulation of development plans, standards, technology management, orders, and other activities) are regarded as the same type, with the hydraulic industry commonalities, it is another chapter on the work of its product mix and transmission oil.First, the performance characteristics of the oil and hydraulic transmission hydraulic transmission oil development not only as a transmission medium for work, but also to provide lubrication bearings and gear while the carrier is further bad fever, heat away. Hydraulic transmission oil is a complex and require specialized research topics,which is directly related to the reliability of hydraulic components, transmission efficiency and service life. Should arouse the attention of extensive in-depth study.Hydraulic transmission oil should meet the following requirements :1、A suitable low-viscosity liquid viscosity, liquid indicate friction within small, mobile resistance small loss may reduce hydraulic components hydraulic losses; But lubricant sealed perspective, the viscosity can not be too low. Provide lubrication and therefore should meet the requirements of sealed premise as a low-viscosity liquid to improve hydraulic components transmission efficiency. Wen Xing Nien also called liquid than for the high-temperature or low-temperature, and still maintain an effective lubricant sealed.2、A greater emphasis on the hydraulic components for the moment and the power transmission and liquid working for the re-direct, it is liquid-degrees the higher the better.3、The performance can have a stable bubble, aging and sedimentation.4、Suanzhi sealed pieces to be neutral to low, and a good compatibility, not dwell inflation, not dissolved, the non-corrosive metal.5、A higher flash point and lower congeal point hydraulic components work Youwen change significantly, sometimes up to 160 degrees, and therefore require flash point higher than 180 degrees, and congeal point lower than -20 degrees, low-temperature environment for the benefit of the start-up of hydraulic components.6、A good lubricant performance liquid sufficient greasiness to the good parts in the surface material, a good lubricant.At present, and hydraulic transmission applications work more liquid types, among all oil-based products, has used the water or other liquid Nanran (coal mine explosion and fire in defense applications). Domestic hydraulic components commonly used 6th hydraulic transmission oil (also useful 8th hydraulic transmission oil), andsometimes to 22 turbine fuel substitution.Diesel oil is dedicated to the life of not less than 2,000 hours and for the initial operation of new equipment installed oil after 100 hours and 500 hours of the first, second formula, can still be used after the filter.Is one of the following situations, the need to replace the new oil : Water content greater than 0.2%; 50 degrees in the new oil viscosity higher than 6% mounted; Mechanical impurities (benzene Burong objects) to reach 0.2%; A high lipid intake or Suanzhi; Excessive bubble effects transmission power. More articles on the diesel-hydraulic transmission oil outside the oil will definitely reference value.Second, Transmission and hydraulic oil brands in (slightly)Third, Fluid Nien transmission of the oil transmission fluid requirements may Nien Tien National Petroleum Corporation December thickness operational changes are divided into two categories : one category is in operation slick thickness constant fluid Nien transmission, such as silicone oil slick thickness using fans is fixed, changes in the operational work of the degree to which oil-exporting rotational speed. Another operation is slick thickness is variable fluid Nien transmission, such fluid Nien Nien transmission products including fluid mechanics using, liquid Nien brakes, fluids Nien dynamometer, fluid Nien shaft coupling, fluid mechanics Nien devices. Current applications are more fluid mechanics using Nien, fluid mechanics devices and silicone oil Nien fans Clutch.1、Fluid mechanics using Nien and transmission oil fluid mechanics using Nien through its owners, driven friction between the film to a number of oil transmission power, relying on the apparent effectiveness initiative friction films "draw" driven friction with the direction of rotation films, transmission moment with oil viscosity, two films - "goes bad" proportional, and with oil thickness (films gap) negatively. Initiative friction films and imported axle and power machine linked to the importation of rotational speed as constants. Driven friction films and thework associated with the export of axle, and the output rotational speed with control pressure changes, spherical tank pressure control, a slick film thinning, export rotational speed rise, and vice versa. When the control pressure enough, the owners, driven friction films together into the transmission straight. When sufficient pressure control small owners, driven films from friction, zero export rotational speed. Nien in fluid mechanics using rotational speed than 0>1 change from the process of film-friction conditions showing a liquid friction "(a mechanical liquid) mixed friction" (purely mechanical) border friction. Therefore fluid mechanics using Nien are in the process of separation-state governor, the state governor and the state face. Work in fluid liquid is the role of transmission Nien transmission power, heat dissipation and cooling lubricant should have the following functions : (1) the appropriate viscosity. (2) is a good lubricant performance (greasiness and very pressurised nature). (3) a good oxidation insecurities. (4) higher than the thermal capacity and higher heat conductivity. In addition to the above requirements, but also work with rustproof liquid role, anti-bubble capacity, congeal points lower, flash point should be high, not volatile, non-toxic. Nien currently made in China fluid mechanics using more oil as a hydraulic transmission work on the 8th of liquid. The domestic fluid mechanics using a TL - Nien and HC type rated rotational speed mostly 1500r/min, individual 3000r/min. 75kW power transmission smallest, the largest of 1100kW. Fluid mechanics starts with the mechanics of hydraulic Nien coupled devices, are in the rotational speed electrical driven downward in the low-speed, power and small, inefficient. To this end in fluid mechanics using input Nien before or after the installation of vertical transmission-export, or to meet with the power machine and the matching machine work, so a new device -- liquid Nien governor devices.2、Fluid mechanics devices Nien current production and application of two different structures liquid Nien governor devices, a category is the U.S. Philadelphia drove parallel axle fluid production company Niengovernor devices into rotational speed 1785r/min exporting rotational speed 5000r/min, transmitting power to 5200kW. My hill Xian too Salih coal mine in the smaller Daishishusongji specifications. Oil is brought by the United States of its transmission. Baoding propeller factory design, produced with structurally similar products. Another is the United States Dodge (Dodge) companies CST fluid mechanics devices Nien, it is in Park pillar gear -- planetary reducer round of the robustness of the export-round, and export axis (connecting the Sun round), in parallel with export large Chijuan fluid mechanics using Nien (driven friction films fixed), start-up liquid separation Nien governor in the state starts (idling), gradually increasing pressure control, when his transmission torque and the torque equivalent output bearings, export axle (with load) started turning and continue to increase the pressure until the joint control of the situation, the export axle assume full power output. CST fluid mechanics device known as Nien large Daishishusongji soft start system in the country's major coal Daishishusongji already applied. CST series products, the importation of rotational speed 1483r/min, rated slowdown than to 15.38~57.66, transmitting power scope 702~3115kW. CST series of products supplied by the United States dedicated hydraulic transmission oil.3、Silicone oil producing fans with liquid silicone oil work of the fan clutch, driven plate with a 78-98 derby leaves, the two derby leaves mutual alternate inserted, a number Park derby gap (oil), use these links, the sticky oil to impart momentum. The process of routing thickness unchanged through changes Chongyou volume and the size of the area to exploration by sheared governor.Engine in the appropriate temperature can be higher fuel efficiency, overheating is not too cold. Automotive firm to offer fans of silicone oil and engine linked driven sites linked with the fans, for liquid silicone oil viscosity larger. On temperature devices for cooling water to control the rear airflow temperature feelings Chongyou volume. When the enginecooling water temperature low, the air currents temperature low temperature equipment made Chongyou small amount of oil sheared small size, transmission moment small, low rotational speed fans for the engine cooling capacity low. Conversely, when the engine cooling water temperature is high, the fans rotational speed is high, awareness of the engine cooling effect. This will allow a regular in the most appropriate temperature. Fuel efficiency, noise small, extended engine life.Silicone oil used silicone oil is a fan using synthetic lubricants, not petroleum refining come from. It is the semi-organic silicon polymers or copolymer, containing duplicate silicon modules for yuan oxygen machine backbone, and the silicon atoms along the chain, replace clustering levonorgestrel, the general chain-guns. To meet the prescribed performance requirements, availability of different organic polymers to replace the base elements or the size of the adjustment (that is, to change its molecular weight), to change its viscosity or acquire other properties.Silicone oil depends on the physical properties of polymer molecular structure, such as molecular weight, organic genetic types and quantity, location and length of extension chain. In the liquid oil thickness constant use silicone oil Nien transmission of the main reasons is that it has a high viscosity, good performance and strong resistance Nien Wen sheared capacity.Silicone oil can be used in all types of vehicles using fans, currently our applications are mainly jeeps, and other vehicles Beijing 130. Motor oil production plant with Beijing and Changchun First Automobile Works Bengchang units.流体传动流体传动包括气体(压)传动和液体传动，液体传动分为液压传动、液力传动和液粘传动。

原文：Transmission designAs we all know automobile engine to a certain speed can be achieved under the best conditions, when compared issued by the power, fuel economy is relatively good. Therefore, we hope that the engine is always in the best of conditions to work under. However, the use of motor vehicles need to have different speeds, thus creating a conflict. Transmission through this conflict to resolve.Automotive Transmission role sum up in one sentence, called variable speed twisting, twisting or slow down the growth rate by increasing torsional. Why can slow down by twisting, and the growth rate but also by twisting? For the same engine power output, power can be expressed as N = WT, where w is the angular velocity of rotation. When N fixed, w and T is inversely proportional to the. Therefore, the growth rate will reduce twisting, twisting slowdown will increase. Automotive Transmission speed gear based on the principle of variable twisted into various stalls of different transmission ratio corresponding to adapt to different operational conditions.General to set up a manual gearbox input shaft, intermediate shaft and output shaft, also known as the three-axis, as well as Daodang axis. Three-axis is the main transmission structure, input shaft speed is the speed of the engine, the output shaft speed is the intermediate shaft and output shaft gear meshing between different from the speed. Different gears are different transmission ratio, and will have a different speed. For example Zhengzhou richan ZN6481W2G manual transmission car-SUV, its transmission ratio are: 1 File 3.704:1; stalls 2.202:1; stalls 1.414:1; stalls 1:1 5 stalls (speeding file) 0.802: 1.When drivers choose a launch vehicle stalls, Plectrum will be 1 / 2 file synchronization engagement with a back stall gear and output shaft lock it, the power input shaft, intermediate shaft and output shaft gear of a stall, a stall the output shaft gear driven, and the output shaft power will be transmitted to the drive shaft (red arrow). A typical stall Biansuchilun transmission ratio is 3:1, that is to say three lapsto the input shaft and output shaft to a circle.When the growth rate of car drivers choose two stalls, Plectrum will be 1 / 2-file synchronization and file a joint separation after 2 stall and lock the output shaft gear, power transmission line similar, the difference is that the output shaft gear of a stall 2 stall replaced by the output shaft gear driven. 2 stall Biansuchilun typical transmission ratio is 2.2:1, 2.2 laps to the input shaft and output shaft to a circle than a stall speed increase, lower torque.When refueling vehicle drivers growth stalls option 3, Plectrum to 1 / 2 back to the free file-synchronization position, and also allows the 3 / 4 file synchronization Mobile stall until 3 in the output shaft gear lock, power can be into the shaft axis - intermediate shaft - the output shaft of the three stalls Biansuchilun, led through three stalls Biansuchilun output shaft. 3 stalls typical transmission ratio is 1.7:1, 1.7 laps to the input shaft and output shaft to a circle is further growth.When car drivers Option 4 refueling growth stalls, Plectrum will be 3 / 4 from the 3-file synchronization stall gear directly with the input shaft gear joint initiative, and power transmission directly from the input shaft to the output shaft, the transmission ratio at 1:1, that the input shaft and output shaft speed the same. The driving force without intermediate shaft, also known as direct file, the file transmission than the maximum transmission efficiency. Most cars run-time files are used directly to achieve the best fuel economy.Shift into the first interval when, in a free transmission when Biansuchilun output shaft is not locked in, they cannot rotate the output shaft driven, not power output.General automotive manual transmission than the main 1-4 stalls, usually the first designers to determine the minimum (one stall) and maximum (4 files) transmission ratio, the middle stall drive by geometric progression than the general distribution. In addition, there are stalls Daodang and speeding, speeding file is also known as the five stalls.When the car to accelerate to more than car drivers with the choice of five stalls, and a typical five-transmission ratio is 0.87:1, which is driven by a pinion gear, thegear when the initiative to 0.87 zone, passive gear have been transferred to a circle of the End.Dao Dang, the opposite direction to the output shaft rotation. If one pair of meshing gears when we reverse rotation, with a middle gear, it will become the same to the rotation. Use of this principle, we should add a gear Daodang the "media" will be rotational direction reversed, it will have a Daodang axis. Daodang installed in the transmission shaft independent crust, and the intermediate shaft parallel axis gear with the intermediate shaft and output shaft gear meshing gears, will be contrary to the output shaft.Daodang usually used for the synchronization control also joins five stalls, stalls and Daodang 5 position in the same side. As a middle gear, the general transmission Daodang transmission ratio greater than 1 file transmission ratio, by twisting, steep slope with some vehicles encountered on the progress stalls falters with a Daodang boost.Ride from the driver of the considerations, better transmission stall, stall adjacent stall more than the transmission changes the ratio of small, and easy to shift smoothly. However, the short comings of the stalls is more transmission structure is complicated, bulky, light vehicle transmission is generally 4-5 stalls. At the same time, transmission ratio is not integral, but with all of the decimal point, it is because of the gear teeth meshing is not caused by the whole multiples of two gear teeth can lead to the whole multiples of two meshing gears of uneven wear, making the tooth surface quality have a greater difference.Manual transmission and synchronizerManual transmission is the most common transmission, or MT. Its basic structure sum up in one sentence, is a two-axle shaft, where input shaft, the shaft axis and intermediate shaft, which constitute the main body of the transmission and, of course, a Daodang axis. Manual transmission known as manual gear transmission, which can be in the axial sliding gears, the gears meshing different variable speed reached twisting purpose. Typical manual transmission structure and principles are as follows.Input shaft also said that the first axis, and its front-end spline driven directlywith the clutch disc sets with the spline , by the transfer of torque from the engine. The first axis of the intermediate shaft and gears meshing gears often, as long as the shaft axis to a turn, the intermediate shaft and gear also will be rotating. Vice also said intermediate shaft axis, the axis-even more than the size gear. Also known as the second output shaft axis, the axis of various sets of gear stall progress can be manipulated at any time in the role of the device and the corresponding intermediate shaft gear meshing, thus changing its speed and torque. With the end of the output shaft spline associated with the drive shaft through the drive shaft torque transmitted to the drive axle reducer.Thus, progress stalls drive transmission path is: input shaft gear often rodents - often rodents intermediate shaft gear - corresponding intermediate shaft gear - the second axis corresponding gear. Reversing the gear shaft can be manipulated by the device pick in the axis movement, and the intermediate shaft and output shaft gear meshing gears, to the contrary to the direction of rotation output.Most cars have five stalls and a Daodang forward, a certain degree of each stall transmission ratio, the majority of stalls transmission ratio greater than 1, 4 file transmission ratio of 1, known as direct stalls, and transmission ratio is less than 1 No.5 stall called accelerated stall. Free at the output shaft gear in a position of non-engagement, unacceptable power transmission.The transmission input shaft and output shaft rotational speed to their own, transform a stall when there is a "synchronous". Two different rotational speed gear meshing force will impact the collision occurred, damage gear. Therefore, the old transmission shift to a "feet-off" approach, or stall on the location of the free stay for a while by stalls in the free position refueling doors, in order to reduce the speed differential gear. However, this operation is relatively more complicated and difficult to grasp accurate. So designers create a "synchronized," and allows synchronization through the meshing of gears to be consistent speed and smooth meshing.At present Synchronous Transmission is based on the synchronization of inertia, mainly from joint sets, synchronous lock ring, and so on, it is characterized by friction on the role of synchronization. Splice sets Genlock engagement ring gear and the ringgear when it had Chamfer (Lock angle), Genlock within the cone ring gear engagement with the question of cone ring gear contact friction. Lock and cone angle has been made in the design of an appropriate choice to be made friction cone of the teeth meshing with the ring gear quickly sets pace at the same time will have a Lock role and to prevent the gears meshing in sync before. When synchronization lock cone ring gear engagement with the question of cone ring gear after contact in the effects of friction torque gear speed quickly lower (or higher) with the same speed synchronous lock ring, the two synchronous rotation of the gear Genlock Central zero speed, thus moment of inertia also disappear, then in force under the impetus of engagement sets unhindered and synchronization lock ring gear engagement, and further engagement with the question of gear engagement and the completion Gear Shift Process.The automatic gearboxThe automatic gearbox chooses to block the pole the equal to moving the stick shift of the gearbox, having generally below several blocks:P( parking), R( pour to block), N( get empty to block), D( go forward), S( or2, namely for 2 block soon), L.( or1, namely for 1 block soon)This several an usage for blocking a right usages coming driver the automatic gearbox is automotive of person to say particularly important, underneath let us very much familiar with once automatic gearbox eachly blockings main theme.The usage of the P ( the parking blocks)The launches the luck turns as long as choose to block the pole in driving the position, automatic gearbox car run about very easily.But park, choose to block the pole must pull into of P, from but pass the internal parking system in gearbox moves the device will output the stalk lock lives, combining to tense the hand system move, preventing the car ambulation.The usage of the R( pour to block)R a control for is pouring blocking, using inside wanting slicing recording, automatic gearbox car unlike moving gearbox car so can using half moving, so while reversing the car wanting special attention accelerating pedal.The usage of the N( get empty to block)The N is equal to get empty to block, can while starting or hour of trailer usage.At wait for the signal or block up the car will often often choose to block the pole keeps in the of D, trampling at the same time the next system move.If time is very short, do like this is an admission of, but if stop the time long time had better change into of N, combine to tense the hand system moves.Because choose to block the pole in driving the position, the automatic gearbox car has generally and all to drive the trend faintly, long hours trample the system move same as a deterrent this kind of trend, make gearbox oil gone up, the oil liquid changes in character easily.Particularly in the air condition machine work, launch the soon higher circumstance in machine bottom more disadvantageous.Some pilots for the sake of stanza oil, at made good time or go down slope will choose to block the pole pull the of N skids, this burn the bad gearbox very easily, launching the machine to revolves soon in the however because the gearbox outputs at this time the stalk turns soon very high,, the oil pump provides the oil shortage, lubricating the condition worsen, burn the bad gearbox easily.The usage of the D( go forward to block)Will choose to block when is normal to drive the pole put in the of D, car can at 1 ～4 block( or 3 block) its change to block automatically.The of D drives the position most in common usely. What demand control is: Because the automatic gearbox is soon high and low with car to come to make sure to block according to the accelerator size a, so accelerate the pedal operation method is different, changing to block the hour of the car is soon too not same alike.If start hour quick accelerate the pedal tramples the bottom, rising to block the night, accelerating the ability is strong, arriving certain car soon behind, then will accelerate the pedal loosen to open very quickly, car can rise to block immediately, launch like this the machine voice is small, comfortable good.The another characteristics of the D is a compulsory low blocking, easy to high speed the hour overtakes a car, will accelerate quickly in of D drove the pedal trample after all, connect the compulsory low fend off the pass and then can reduce to block automatically, the car accelerates very quickly, after overtaking a car loosen to openthe pedal of acceleration to can rise to block automatically again.The usage of the S, of L low the usage that blockThe automatic gearbox in in is placed in the low blocking the scope on of S or of Ls, can usage under an etc. circumstance.It change to can make use of to launch well into of S or of Ls the mechanism move, avoiding the car wheel system move the machine over hot, cause the system move the effect descent while going down slope.But change into from the of D of S or of L, car soon can't higher than rise to block the car homologously soon, otherwise strong vibration in opportunity to launch, make gearbox oil hoicked, even will damage the gearbox.The is another at rain fog weather hour, if the road adheres to the term bad, can change into a position for or of L, fixing at somely first lowly blocking driving, doing not use can automatically changing blocking, in order to prevent the car beats slippery.Must keep firmly in mind at the same time, beat the slippery hour can will choose to block the pole pushes into a motive for, cutting off launching machine, toing guarantee a car the safety.汽车变速器设计----------英文文献翻译我们知道，汽车发动机在一定的转速下能够达到最好的状态，此时发出的功率比较大，燃油经济性也比较好。

英文资料Limits and TolerancesThe breakage of the machine spare parts ,generally always from the surface layer beginning of .The function of the product ,particularly its credibility and durable ,be decided by the quantity of spare parts surface layer to a large extent. Purpose that studies the machine to process the surface quantity be for control the machine process medium various craft factor to process the surface quantity influence of regulation, in order to make use of these regulations to control to process the process, end attain to improve the surface quantity, the exaltation product use the function of purpose .The machine processes the surface quantity to use the influence of the function to the machine(A) The surface quantity to bear to whet the sexual influence1.Rough degree of surface to bear to whet the sexual influenceA just process vice-of two contact surfaces of good friction, the first stage is rough only in the surface of the peak department contact ,the actual contact area is much smaller than theoretical contact area, in contact with each other the peak of the units have very great stress, to produce actual contact with the surface area of plastic deformation, deformation and peak between the Department of shear failure, causing serious wear.Parts wear may generally be divided into three stages, the initial stage of wear and tear, normal wear and tear all of a sudden intense phase of stage wear.Parts of the surface roughness of the surface wear big impact. In general the smaller the value of surface roughness, wear better. However, surface roughness value is too small, lubricants difficult to store, contact between the adhesive-prone elements, wear it to increase. Therefore, the surface roughness of a best value, the value and parts of the work related to increased work load, the initial wear increased, the best rough surface is also increased.2.Cold Working hardening the surface of the wear resistanceProcessing the Cold Work hardening the surface of the friction surface layer of metal microhardness increase, it will generally improve the wear resistance. Cold Working but not a higher degree of hardening, wear resistance for the better, because too much will lead to hardening of the Cold Working excessive loose organization ofmetal, even a crack and peeling off the surface of the metal, declined to wear resistance.(B)The surface quality of the impact of fatigue strengthMetal hand alternating loads of fatigue after the damage occurred in parts often Chilled layer below the surface and, therefore parts of the surface quality of fatigue very influential.1.Surface roughness on the impact of fatigue strengthIn alternating load, the surface roughness of the Au-site easily lead to stress concentration, a fatigue crack, the higher the value of surface roughness, surface traces of Yu Shen Wen, Wen at the end of the radius smaller, anti-fatigue damage at the end of the more capacity Worse.2.Residual stress, fatigue Cold Work hardening of the impactResidual stress on the impact of large parts fatigue. Surface layer of residual stress fatigue crack will expand and accelerate the fatigue damage the surface layer and the residual stress can prevent fatigue crack growth, delaying the formation of fatigue damage.(C)The surface quality of the corrosion resistance of the impactParts of the corrosion resistance to a large extent depends on the surface roughness. The higher the value of surface roughness, Au Valley accumulate on the more corrosive substances. Corrosion resistance of the more worse.Surface layer of residual stress will produce stress corrosion cracking, lower parts of the wear-resistance, and the residual stress is to prevent stress corrosion cracking.(D) The surface quality with qualityRough surface will affect the value of the size of the co-ordination with the surface quality. The gap with rough value will increase wear and tear, increased space, with the requirements of the destruction of nature. For Fit, the assembly part of the process of convex surface-crowded peak times, the actual reduction of the surplus and reduce the support of the connection between the strength.DimensioningThe design of a machine includes many factors other than those of determining the loads and stresses and selecting the proper materials. Before construction or manufacture can begin, it is necessary to have complete assembly and detail drawings to convey all necessary information to the shop men. The designer frequently is called upon to check the drawings before they are sent to the shop. Much experience andfamiliarity with manufacturing processes are needed before one can become conversant with all phases of production drawings.Drawings should be carefully checked to see that the dimensioning is done in a manner that will be most convenient and understandable to the production departments. It is obvious that a drawing should be made in such a way that it has one and only one interpretation. In particular, shop personnel should not be required to make trigonometric or other involved calculations before the production machines can be set up.Dimensioning is an involved subject and long experience is required for its mastery.Tolerances must be placed on the dimensions of a drawing to limit the permissible variations in size because it is impossible to manufacture a part exactly to a given dimension. Although small tolerances give higher quality work and a better operating mechanism, the cost of manufacture increases rapidly as the tolerances are reduced, as indicated by the typical curve of Fig 14.1. It is therefore important that the tolerances be specified at the largest values that the operating or functional considerations permit.Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral. In unilateral dimensioning, one tolerance is zero, and all the variations are given by the other tolerance. In bilateral dimensioning, a mean dimension is used which extends to the midpoint of the tolerance zone with equal plus and minus variations extending each way from this dimension.The development of production processes for large-volume manufacture at low cost has been largely dependent upon interchangeability of component parts. Thus the designer must determine both the proper tolerances for the individual parts, The manner of placing tolerances on drawings depends somewhat on the kind of product or type of manufacturing process. If the tolerance on a dimension is not specifically stated, the drawing should contain a blanket note which gives the value of the tolerance for such dimensions. However, some companies do not use blanket notes on the supposition that if each dimension is considered individually, wider tolerance than those called for in the note could probably be specified. In any event it is very important that a drawing be free from ambiguities and be subject only to a single interpretation.Dimension and ToleranceIn dimensioning a drawing, the numbers placed in the dimension lines represent dimension that are only approximate and do not represent any degree of accuracy unless so stated by the designer.To specify a degree of accuracy, it is necessary to add tolerance figures to the dimension. Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the part or the total variation allowed in a given dimension. A shaft might have a nominal size of 2.5 in. (63.5mm), but for practical reasons this figure could not be maintained in manufacturing without great cost. Hence, a certain tolerance would be added and , if a variation of ±0.003 in.(±0.08mm) could be permitted, the dimension would be stated 2.500±0.003(63.5±0.008mm).Dimensions given close tolerances mean that the part must fit properly with some other part. Both must be given tolerances in keeping with the allowance desired, the manufacturing processes available, and the minimum cost of production and assembly that will maximize profit. Generally speaking, the cost of a part goes up as the tolerance is decreased. If a part has several or more surfaces to be machined, the cost can be excessive when little deviation is allowed from the nominal size.Allowance, which is sometimes confused with tolerance, has an altogether different meaning.It is the minimum clearance space intended between mating parts and representsthe condition of tightest permissible fit. If a shaft, size 1.4980.0000.003+-, is to fit a hole ofsize 1.5000.0030.000+-, the minimum size hole is 1.500 and the maximum size shaft is 1.498.Thus the allowance is 0.002 and the maximum clearance is 0.008 as based on the minimum shaft size and maximum hole dimension.Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral. Unilateral tolerance means that any variation is made in only one direction from the nominal or basic dimension.Referring to the previous example, the hole is dimensioned 1.5000.0030.000+-, whichrepresents a unilateral tolerance. If the dimensions were given as 1.500±0.003, the tolerance would be bilateral; that is , it would vary both over and under the nominal dimension. The unilateral system permits changing the tolerance while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit. With the bilateral system, this is not possible without also changing the nominal size dimension of one or both of the two mating parts. In mass production, where mating parts must be interchangeable, unilateral tolerances are customary. To have an interference or fore fit between mating parts, the tolerances must be such as to create a zero or negative allowance.Tolerances Limits and FitsThe drawing must be a true and complete statement of the designer’s expr essed in such a way that the part is convenient to manufacture. Every dimension necessary to define the product must be stated once and repeated in different views. Dimensions relating to one particular feature, such as the position and size of hole, where possible, appear on the same view.There should be no more dimensions than are absolutely necessary, and no feature should be located by more than one dimension in any direction. It may be necessary occasionally to give an auxiliary dimension for reference, possibly for inspection. When this is so, the dimension should be enclosed in a bracket and marked for reference. Such dimensions are not governed by general tolerances.Dimensions that affect the function of the part should always be specified and not left as the sum or other dimensions. If this is not done, the total permissible variation on that dimension will form the sum or difference of the other dimensions and their tolerance, and this with result in these tolerances having to be made unnecessarily tight. The overall dimension should always appear.All dimensions must be governed by the general tolerance on the drawing unless otherwise stated. Usually, such a tolerance will be governed by the magnitude of the dimension. Specific tolerances must always be stated on dimensions affecting or interchangeability.A system of tolerances is necessary to allow for the variations in accuracy that are bound to occur during manufacture, and still provide for interchangeability and correct function of the part.A tolerance is the difference in a dimension in order to allow for unavoidable imperfections in workmanship. The tolerance range will depend on the accuracy of the manufacturing organization, the machining process and the magnitude of the dimension. The greater the tolerance range is disposed on both sides of the nominal dimension. A unilateral tolerance is one where the tolerance zone is on one side only of the nominal dimension, in which case the nominal dimension may from one of the limits.Limits are the extreme dimensions of the tolerance zone. For example, nominal dimension30mm tolerance 30.0230.000++ limits 30.02530.000Fits depend on the relationship between the tolerance zones of two mating parts,and may be broadly classified into a clearance fit with positive allowance, a transition fit where the allowance may be either positive or negative (clearance or interference) , an interference fit where the allowance is always negative.Type of Limits and FitsThe ISO system of Limits and Fits, widely used in a number of leading metric countries, is considerably more complex than the ANSI system.In this system, each part has a basic size. Each limit of part, high and sign being obtained by subtracting the basic size form the limit in question. The difference between the two limits of size of a part is called the tolerance, an absolute without sign.There are three classes of fits: 1) clearance fits, 2) transition fits ( the assembly may have either clearance or interference ), and 3) interference fits .Either a shaft-basis system or a hole-basis system may be used. For any given basic size, a range of tolerance and deviations may be specified with respect to be line of zero deviation, called the zero line. The tolerance is a function of the basic size and is designated by a number symbol, called the grade-thus the tolerance grade. The position of the tolerance with respect to the zero line also a function of the basic size-is indicated by a letter symbol(or two letter), a capital letter for holes and a lowercase letter for shafts. Thus the specification for a hole and shaft having a basic size of 45mm might be45H8/g7.Twenty standard grades of tolerance are provided, called IT 01,IT 0 ,IT 1-18, providing numerical values for each nominal diameter, in arbitrary steps up to 500mm (for example 0-3,3-6,6-10…, 400-500mm). The value of the tolerance unit, I, for grades 5-16 is=+0.0.001i DWhere i is in microns and D in millimeters.Standard shaft and hole deviations similarly are provided by sets of formulas, However, for practical, both tolerances and deviations are provided in three sets of rather complex tables. Additional tables gives the values for basic sizes above 500mm and for “Commonly Used Shafts and Holes” in two categories ---“General Purpose” and “Fine Mecbanisms and Horology”.中文翻译极限与误差机械零件的破坏，一般总是从表层开始的。

科技英语翻译复习重点（英译汉篇）一、词语意思翻译1.A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together.（直译法）紧固件是指将两个或多个物体通过机械方法固定在一起的硬件装置。

2.Machinery design is either to formulate an engineering plan for the satisfaction ofa specified need or to solve an engineering problem.（直译法）机械设计的目的是为满足特定需求而绘制工程图纸或解决工程问题。

3.In the1970s,integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors futher decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers.（增词法）20世纪70年代，集成电路技术的发展和后续的微处理器的发明进一步缩小了计算机的尺寸，降低了价格，同时加快了运行速度，提高了可靠性。

4.A power reactor has no need of oil,for the heat generated in the uranium pile is the result of nuclear fission,not of combustion.（增词法）原子动力反应堆不需要油，因为铀堆中所产生的热是核裂变的结果，而不是燃烧的结果。

5.The elementary mechanical components of a machine are termed machine elements.These elements consist of three basic types:structural components, mechanisms,and control components.（省略法）机器的基本机械构件称为机械零件，包括三种基本类型，即：结构构件、机械构件和控制构件。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Safety Assurance for Challenging Geotechnical Civil Engineering Constructions in Urban AreasAbstractSafety is the most important aspect during design, construction and service time of any structure, especially for challenging projects like high-rise buildings and tunnels in urban areas. A high level design considering the soil-structure interaction, based on a qualified soil investigation is required for a safe and optimised design. Dueto the complexity of geotechnical constructions the safety assurance guaranteed by the 4-eye-principle is essential. The 4-eye-principle consists of an independent peer review by publicly certified experts combined with the observational method. The paper presents the fundamental aspects of safety assurance by the 4-eye-principle. The application is explained on several examples, as deep excavations, complex foundation systems for high-rise buildings and tunnel constructions in urban areas. The experiences made in the planning, design and construction phases are explained and for new inner urban projects recommendations are given.Key words: Natural Asset; Financial Value; Neural Network1.IntroductionA safety design and construction of challenging projects in urban areas is based on the following main aspects:Qualified experts for planning, design and construction;Interaction between architects, structural engineers and geotechnical engineers;Adequate soil investigation;Design of deep foundation systems using the FiniteElement-Method (FEM) in combination with enhanced in-situ load tests for calibrating the soil parameters used in the numerical simulations;Quality assurance by an independent peer review process and the observational method (4-eye-principle).These facts will be explained by large construction projects which are located in difficult soil and groundwater conditions.2.The 4-Eye-PrincipleThe basis for safety assurance is the 4-eye-principle. This 4-eye-principle is a process of an independent peer review as shown in Figure 1. It consists of 3 parts. The investor, the experts for planning and design and the construction company belong to the first division. Planning and design are done accordingto the requirements of the investor and all relevant documents to obtain the building permission are prepared. The building authorities are the second part and are responsible for the buildingpermission which is given to the investor. The thirddivision consists of the publicly certified experts.They are appointed by the building authorities but work as independent experts. They are responsible for the technical supervision of the planning, design and the construction.In order to achieve the license as a publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering by the building authorities intensive studies of geotechnical engineering in university and large experiences in geotechnical engineering with special knowledge about the soil-structure interaction have to be proven.The independent peer review by publicly certified experts for geotechnical engineering makes sure that all information including the results of the soil investigation consisting of labor field tests and the boundary conditions defined for the geotechnical design are complete and correct.In the case of a defect or collapse the publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering can be involved as an independent expert to find out the reasons for the defect or damage and to develop a concept for stabilization and reconstruction [1].For all difficult projects an independent peer review is essential for the successful realization of the project.3.Observational MethodThe observational method is practical to projects with difficult boundary conditions for verification of the design during the construction time and, if necessary, during service time. For example in the European Standard Eurocode 7 (EC 7) the effect and the boundary conditions of the observational method are defined.The application of the observational method is recommended for the following types of construction projects [2]:very complicated/complex projects;projects with a distinctive soil-structure-interaction,e.g. mixed shallow and deep foundations, retaining walls for deep excavations, Combined Pile-Raft Foundations (CPRFs);projects with a high and variable water pressure;complex interaction situations consisting of ground,excavation and neighbouring buildings and structures;projects with pore-water pressures reducing the stability;projects on slopes.The observational method is always a combination of the common geotechnical investigations before and during the construction phase together with the theoretical modeling and a plan of contingency actions(Figure 2). Only monitoring to ensure the stability and the service ability of the structure is not sufficient and,according to the standardization, not permitted for this purpose. Overall the observational method is an institutionalized controlling instrument to verify the soil and rock mechanical modeling [3,4].The identification of all potential failure mechanismsis essential for defining the measure concept. The concept has to be designed in that way that all these mechanisms can be observed. The measurements need to beof an adequate accuracy to allow the identification ocritical tendencies. The required accuracy as well as the boundary values need to be identified within the design phase of the observational method . Contingency actions needs to be planned in the design phase of the observational method and depend on the ductility of the systems.The observational method must not be seen as a potential alternative for a comprehensive soil investigation campaign. A comprehensive soil investigation campaignis in any way of essential importance. Additionally the observational method is a tool of quality assurance and allows the verification of the parameters and calculations applied in the design phase. The observational method helps to achieve an economic and save construction [5].4.In-Situ Load TestOn project and site related soil investigations with coredrillings and laboratory tests the soil parameters are determined. Laboratory tests are important and essential for the initial definition of soil mechanical properties of the soil layer, but usually not sufficient for an entire and realistic capture of the complex conditions, caused by theinteraction of subsoil and construction [6].In order to reliably determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles, load tests need to be carried out [7]. Forpile load tests often very high counter weights or strong anchor systems are necessary. By using the Osterberg method high loads can be reached without install inganchors or counter weights. Hydraulic jacks induce the load in the pile using the pile itself partly as abutment.The results of the field tests allow a calibration of the numerical simulations.The principle scheme of pile load tests is shown in Figure 3.5.Examples for Engineering Practice5.1. Classic Pile Foundation for a High-Rise Building in Frankfurt Clay and LimestoneIn the downtown of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, on aconstruction site of 17,400 m2 the high-rise buildingproject “PalaisQuartier” has been realized (Figure 4). The construction was finished in 2010.The complex consists of several structures with a total of 180,000 m2 floor space, there of 60,000 m2 underground (Figure 5). The project includes the historic building “Thurn-und Taxis-Palais” whose facade has been preserved (Unit A). The office building (Unit B),which is the highest building of the project with a height of 136 m has 34 floors each with a floor space of 1340 m2. The hotel building (Unit C) has a height of 99 m with 24 upper floors. The retail area (Unit D)runs along the total length of the eastern part of the site and consists of eight upper floors with a total height of 43 m.The underground parking garage with five floors spans across the complete project area. With an 8 m high first sublevel, partially with mezzanine floor, and four more sub-levels the foundation depth results to 22 m below ground level. There by excavation bottom is at 80m above sea level (msl). A total of 302 foundation piles(diameter up to 1.86 m, length up to 27 m) reach down to depths of 53.2 m to 70.1 m. above sea level depending on the structural requirements.The pile head of the 543 retaining wall piles (diameter1.5 m, length up to 38 m)were located between 94.1 m and 99.6 m above sea level, the pile base was between 59.8 m and 73.4 m above sea level depending on the structural requirements. As shown in the sectional view(Figure 6), the upper part of the piles is in the Frankfurt Clay and the base of the piles is set in the rocky Frankfurt Limestone.Regarding the large number of piles and the high pile loads a pile load test has been carried out for optimization of the classic pile foundation. Osterberg-Cells(O-Cells) have been installed in two levels in order to assess the influence of pile shaft grouting on the limit skin friction of the piles in the Frankfurt Limestone(Figure 6). The test pile with a total length of 12.9 m and a diameter of 1.68 m consist of three segments and has been installed in the Frankfurt Limestone layer 31.7 m below ground level. The upper pile segment above the upper cell level and the middle pile segment between the two cell levels can be tested independently. In the first phase of the test the upper part was loaded by using the middle and the lower part as abutment. A limit of 24 MN could be reached (Figure 7). The upper segment was lifted about 1.5 cm, the settlement of the middle and lower part was 1.0 cm. The mobilized shaft friction was about 830 kN/m2.Subsequently the upper pile segment was uncoupled by discharging the upper cell level. In the second test phase the middle pile segment was loaded by using the lower segment as abutment. The limit load of the middle segment with shaft grouting was 27.5 MN (Figure 7).The skin friction was 1040 kN/m2, this means 24% higher than without shaft grouting. Based on the results of the pile load test using O-Cells the majority of the 290 foundation piles were made by applying shaft grouting. Due to pile load test the total length of was reduced significantly.5.2. CPRF for a High-Rise Building in Clay MarlIn the scope of the project Mirax Plaza in Kiev, Ukraine,2 high-rise buildings, each of them 192 m (46 storeys)high, a shopping and entertainment mall and an underground parking are under construction (Figure 8). The area of the project is about 294,000 m2 and cuts a 30 m high natural slope.The geotechnical investigations have been executed 70m deep. The soil conditions at the construction site are as follows: fill to a depth of 2 m to 3mquaternary silty sand and sandy silt with a thickness of 5 m to 10 m tertiary silt and sand (Charkow and Poltaw formation) with a thickness of 0 m to 24 m tertiary clayey silt and clay marl of the Kiev and But schak formation with a thickness of about 20 m tertiary fine sand of the But schak formation up to the investigation depthThe ground water level is in a depth of about 2 m below the ground surface. The soil conditions and a cross section of the project are shown in Figure 9.For verification of the shaft and base resistance of the deep foundation elements and for calibration of the numerical simulations pile load tests have been carried out on the construction yard. The piles had a diameter of 0.82 m and a length of about 10 m to 44 m. Using the results of the load tests the back analysis for verification of the FEM simulations was done. The soil properties in accordance with the results of the back analysis were partly 3 times higher than indicated in the geotechnical report. Figure 10 shows the results of the load test No. 2 and the numerical back analysis. Measurement and calculation show a good accordance.The obtained results of the pile load tests and of the executed back analysis were applied in 3-dimensionalFEM-simulations of the foundation for Tower A, taking advantage of the symmetry of the footprint of the building. The overall load of the Tower A is about 2200 MN and the area of the foundation about 2000 m2 (Figure11).The foundation design considers a CPRF with 64 barrettes with 33 m length and a cross section of 2.8 m × 0.8m. The raft of 3 m thickness is located in Kiev Clay Marl at about 10 m depth below the ground surface. The barrettes are penetrating the layer of Kiev Clay Marl reaching the Butschak Sands.The calculated loads on the barrettes were in the range of 22.1 MN to 44.5 MN. The load on the outer barrettes was about 41.2 MN to 44.5 MN which significantly exceeds the loads on the inner barrettes with the maximum value of 30.7 MN. This behavior is typical for a CPRF.The outer deep foundation elements take more loads because of their higher stiffness due to the higher volume of the activated soil. The CPRF coefficient is 0.88 =CPRF . Maximum settlements of about 12 cm werecalculated due to the settlement-relevant load of 85% of the total design load. The pressure under the foundation raft is calculated in the most areas not exceeding 200 kN/m2, at the raft edge the pressure reaches 400 kN/m2.The calculated base pressure of the outer barrettes has anaverage of 5100 kN/m2 and for inner barrettes an average of 4130 kN/m2. The mobilized shaft resistance increases with the depth reaching 180 kN/m2 for outer barrettes and 150 kN/m2 for inner barrettes.During the construction of Mirax Plaza the observational method according to EC 7 is applied. Especially the distribution of the loads between the barrettes and the raft is monitored. For this reason 3 earth pressure devices were installed under the raft and 2 barrettes (most loaded outer barrette and average loaded inner barrette) were instrumented over the length.In the scope of the project Mirax Plaza the new allowable shaft resistance and base resistance were defined for typical soil layers in Kiev. This unique experience will be used for the skyscrapers of new generation in Ukraine.The CPRF of the high-rise building project MiraxPlaza represents the first authorized CPRF in the Ukraine. Using the advanced optimization approaches and taking advantage of the positive effect of CPRF the number of barrettes could be reduced from 120 barrettes with 40 mlength to 64 barrettes with 33 m length. The foundation optimization leads to considerable decrease of the utilized resources (cement, aggregates, water, energy etc.)and cost savings of about 3.3 Million US$.译文:安全保证岩土公民发起挑战工程建设在城市地区摘要安全是最重要的方面在设计、施工和服务时间的任何结构,特别是对具有挑战性的项目,如高层建筑和隧道在城市地区。

Frictionally excited thermoelastic instability in disc brakes—Transientproblem in the full contact regimeAbstractExceeding the critical sliding velocity in disc brakes can cause unwanted forming of hot spots, non-uniform distribution of contact pressure, vibration, and also, in many cases, permanent damage of the disc. Consequently, in the last decade, a great deal of consideration has been given to modeling methods of thermo elastic instability (TEI), which leads to these effects. Models based on the finite element method are also being developed in addition to the analytical approach. The analytical model of TEI development described in the paper by Lee and Barber [Frictionally excited thermo elastic instability in automotive disk brakes. ASME Journal of Tribology 1993;115:607–14] has been expanded in the presented work. Specific attention was given to the modification of their model, to catch the fact that the arc length of pads is less than the circumference of the disc, and to the development of temperature perturbation amplitude in the early stage of breaking, when pads are in the full contact with the disc. A way is proposed how to take into account both of the initial non-flatness of the disc friction surface and change of the perturbation shape inside the disc in the course of braking.Keywords: Thermo elastic instability; TEI; Disc brake; Hot spots1. IntroductionFormation of hot spots as well as non-uniform distribution of the contact pressure is an unwanted effect emerging in disc brakes in the course of braking or during engagement of a transmission clutch. If the sliding velocity is high enough, this effect can become unstable and can result in disc material damage, frictional vibration, wear, etc. Therefore, a lot of experimental effort is being spent to understand better this effect (cf. Refs.) or to model it in the most feasible fashion. Barber described the thermo elastic instability (TEI)as the cause of the phenomenon. Later Dow and Burton and Burton et al.introduced a mathematical model to establish critical sliding velocity for instability, where two thermo elastic half-planes are considered in contact along their common interface. It is in a work by Lee and Barber that the effect of the thickness was considered and that a model applicable for disc brakes was proposed. Lee and Barber’s model is made up with a metallic layer sliding between twohalf-planes of frictional material. Only recently a parametric analysis of TEI in disc brakes was made or TEI in multi-disc clutches and brakes was modeled. The evolution of hot spots amplitudes has been addressed in Refs. Using analytical approach or the effect of intermittent contact was considered. Finally, the finite element method was also applied to render the onset of TEI (see Ref.).The analysis of nonlinear transient behavior in the mode, when separated contact regions occur, is even accomplished in Ref. As in the case of other engineering problems of instability, it turns out that a more accurate prediction by mathematical modeling is often questionable. This is mainly imparted by neglecting various imperfections and random fluctuations or by the impossibility to describe all possible influences appropriately. Therefore, some effort aroused to interpret results of certain experiments in addition to classical TEI (see, e.g.Ref).This paper is related to the work by Lee and Barber [7].Using an analytical approach, it treats the inception of TEI and the development of hot spots during the full contact regime in the disc brakes. The model proposed in Section 2 enables to cover finite thickness of both friction pads and the ribbed portion of the disc. Section 3 is devoted to the problems of modeling of partial disc surface contact with the pads. Section 4 introduces the term of ‘‘thermal capacity of perturbation’’ emphasizing its association with the value of growth rate, or the sliding velocity magnitude. An analysis of the disc friction surfaces non-flatness and its influence on initial amplitude of perturbations is put forward in the Section 5. Finally, the Section 6 offers a model of temperature perturbation development initiated by the mentioned initial discnon-flatness in the course of braking. The model being in use here comes from a differential equation that covers the variation of the‘‘thermal capacity’’ during the full contact regime of the braking.2. Elaboration of Lee and Barber modelThe brake disc is represented by three layers. The middle one of thickness 2a3 stands for the ribbed portion of the disc with full sidewalls of thickness a2 connected to it. The pads are represented by layers of thickness a1, which are immovable and pressed to each other by a uniform pressure p. The brake disc slips in between these pads at a constant velocity V.We will investigate the conditions under which a spatially sinusoidal perturbation in the temperature and stress fields can grow exponentially with respect to the time in a similar manner to that adopted by Lee and Barber. It is evidenced in their work [7] that it is sufficient to handle only the antisymmetric problem. The perturbations that are symmetric with respect to the midplane of the disc can grow at a velocity well above the sliding velocity V thus being made uninteresting.Let us introduce a coordinate system （x1; y1）fixed to one of the pads (see Fig. 1) thepoints of contact surface between the pad and disc having y1 = 0. Furthermore, let acoordinate system （x2; y2）be fixed to the disc with y2=0 for the points of the midplane. We suppose the perturbation to have a relative velocity ci with respect to the layer i, and the coordinate system （x; y）to move together with the perturbated field. Then we can writeV = c1 -c2; c2 = c3; x = x1 -c1t = x2 -c2t,x2 = x3; y = y2 =y3 =y1 + a2 + a3.We will search the perturbation of the uniform temperature field in the formand the perturbation of the contact pressure in the formwhere t is the time, b denotes a growth rate, subscript I refers to a layer in the model, and j =-1½is the imaginary unit. The parameter m=m（n）=2pin/cir =2pi/L, where n is the number of hot spots on the circumference of the disc cir and L is wavelength of perturbations. The symbols T0m and p0m in the above formulae denote the amplitudes of initial non-uniformities (e.g. fluctuations). Both perturbations (2) and (3) will be searched as complex functions their real part describing the actual perturbation of temperature or pressure field.Obviously, if the growth rate b<0, the initial fluctuations are damped. On the other hand, instability develops ifB〉0.2.1. Temperature field perturbationHeat flux in the direction of the x-axis is zero when the ribbed portion of the disc is considered. Next, let us denote ki = Ki/Qicpi coefficient of the layer i temperature diffusion. Parameters Ki, Qi, cpi are, respectively, the thermal conductivity, density and specific heat of the material for i =1,2. They have been re-calculated to the entire volume of the layer (i = 3) when the ribbed portion of the disc is considered. The perturbation of the temperature field is the solution of the equationsWith and it will meet the following conditions:1，The layers 1 and 2 will have the same temperature at the contact surface2，The layers 2 and 3 will reach the same temperature and the same heat flux in the direction y,3，Antisymmetric condition at the midplaneThe perturbations will be zero at the external surface of a friction pad(If, instead, zero heat flux through external surface has been specified, we obtain practically identical numerical solution for current pads).If we write the temperature development in individual layers in a suitable formwe obtainwhereand2.2. Thermo elastic stresses and displacementsFor the sake of simplicity, let us consider the ribbed portion of the disc to be isotropic environment with corrected modulus of elasticity though, actually, the stiffness of this layer in the direction x differs from that in the direction y. Such simplification is, however, admissible as the yielding central layer 3 practically does not take effect on the disc flexural rigidity unlike full sidewalls (layer 2). Given a thermal field perturbation, we can express the stress state and displacements caused by this perturbation for any layer. The thermo elastic problem can be solved by superimposing a particular solution on the general isothermal solution. We look for the particular solution of a layer in form of a strain potential. The general isothermal solution is given by means of the harmonic potentials after Green and Zerna (see Ref.[18]) and contains four coefficients A, B, C, D for every layer. The relateddisplacement and stress field components are written out in the Appendix A.在全接触条件下，盘式制动器摩擦激发瞬态热弹性不稳定的研究摘要超过临界滑动盘式制动器速度可能会导致形成局部过热，不统一的接触压力，振动分布，而且，在多数情况下，会造成盘式制动闸永久性损坏。

高中英语选修10课文翻译篇一：人教版高中英语选修10词汇表-英汉分开英语⑩(选修) Book 10 Unit 1 1 venture n. vi. &amp; vt.2 web n.3 suffering n.4 gall-bladder n.5 strengthen n.6 endurance n.7 hut n.8 stove n.9 unbearable adj. 10 cosy adj. 11 block out12 breathless adj. 13 rotten adj. 14 blacken vt. 15 circumstance n. 16 blast n. 17 hoarse adj. 18 bless vt. 19 selfish adj. 20 hook n. vt. 21 aboard adv.22 seasickness n. 23 anyhow adv. 24 steward n. 25 crush vt.26 mourn vi. &amp; vt. 27 urgent adj. 28 bedding n. 29 vital adj. 30 cheerful adj. 31 persevere vt.32 perseverance n. 33 faith n. 34 give way to35 framework n. 36 rank n. 37 morale n. 38 select n.39 booming adj. 40 swear vt. 41 advocate vt. 42 freezing adj. 43 stool n. 44 gratitude n. 45 punishment n. 46 loyal adj. 47tactful adj.48 odd n. 49 stout adj. 50 optimism n. 51 delay vt. &amp; vi. n. 52 discourage vt. 53 dynamic adj.54 regular adj. 55 grasp vt. 56 give off57 bored adj.58 liver n. 59 chef n.60 changeable adj. 61 caution n. 62 admirable adj.63 commitment n. 64 proverb n. Book 10 Unit 21 respectful adj.2 disrespectful adj.3 disrespectfully adv.4 emperor n.5 shorten vt.6 modernize vt.7 throne n.8 duke n.9 burden n. 10 hand over11 responsibility n. 12 boundary n. 13 allocate vt.14 whichever pron. 15 darling n. adj. 16 adore vt.17 pray vt. 18 care for19 majesty n.20 lord n. (Lord) God 21 bridegroom n. 22 distribute vt. 23 troop n. (pl) 24 contradict vt. 25 hear out26 on behalf of27 flattery n. 28 flatter vt.29 beyond question30 speak out31 friction n.32 forecast vt. n. 33 oppose vt. 34 pack up35 frontier n. 36 give away37 fond adj. 38 be fond of39 deceitful adj. 40 corrupt adj. 41 greedy adj. 42 greed n.43 innocent adj. 44 cunning adj. 45 storage n. 46 author n. 47 sacrifice n. 48 make a name49 allergic adj. 50 sneeze n. vi. 51 armchair n. 52 confirm vt.53 rewind vt. 54 cash n. vt. 55 cheque n. 56 signature n. 57 terminal n. 58 vacant adj. 59 dusty adj. 60 respond vi. 61 staff n. 62 suspect vt. 63 insult n. 64 scold vt. 65 drunken adj. 66 scratch n.67baggage n. (= luggage in BrE)68 demand vt. n. 69 prob n.Book 10 Unit 31 civil adj.2 trolleybus n.3 register n. vt.4 boycott n.5 prohibit vt.6 offence n.7 unjust adj.8 separation n. 9 tradition n.10 submit vi. &amp; vt. 11 unwilling adj. 12 seize vt. 13 seize on14 collision n. 15 collision course16 hopeful adj.17 negotiate vt. &amp; vi. 18 chaos n. 19 sandal n.20 punctual adj. 21 coincidence n. 22 pedestrian n.23 march vi. 24 pavement n. 25 salute vt. &amp; vi.26 abuse n. vt. 27 hostility n. 28 resolve n. v. 29 prayer n. 30 bomb n. vt. 31 supreme adj. 32 nationwide adj. 33 constitution n. 34 constitutional adj. 35 fundamental adj. 36 battle n. 37 happinessn. 38 liberty n. 39 skim vt. 40 evident adj. 41 self-evident adj. 42 brief adj.43 discrimination n. 44 philosophy n. 45 commit vt.46 live out47 creed n.48 brotherhood n. 49 oasis n.50 symphony n. 51 almighty adj. 52 quotation n.53 metaphor n. 54 simile n.55 dominate vt. &amp; vi.Book 10 Unit 4 1 efficient adj. 2 efficiently adv.3 diameter n.4 recipe n.5 booklet n.6 endeavour n.7 competent adj.8 up to9 caption n.10 digest vt. 11 beneath adv. 12 adopt vt. 13 preview vt. 14 frequent adj. 15 in detail16 manual n.17 assess vt. 18 consult vt.19 underneath adv. &amp; prep.20 shabby adj. 21 rainbow n. 22 brewery n. 23 acute adj. 24 bent adj.25 cab n. (= taxi) 26 currency n. 27 lotus n. 28 cuisine n. 29 educator n. 30 seminar n. 31 acquisition n. 32 ballet n. 33 album n. 34 resemble vt. 35 cassette n. 36 tend vi.37 tend to (do sth) 38 messy adj. 39 tiresome adj.40 vague adj. 41 bonus n. 42 auditory adj. 43 tactile adj. 44 oral adj.45 component n. 46 concrete adj.Book 10 Unit 5 1 literary adj. 2 gee n.3 recount n. vt.4 prejudice n.5 consensus n.6 equality n.7 in force8 twist n.9 contradiction n. 10 get round11 limitation n. 12 heroine n. 13 obstacle n. 14 ironic adj. 15 hopeless adj.16 under the name of 17 sceptical adj. 18 see through19 deception n. 20 approval n. 21 explicit adj. 22 struggle against23 outspoken adj. 24 growth n.25 childhood n. 26 hail vt.27 revelation n. 28 premier adj. 29 ambiguous adj.30 concession n. 31 stand out32 critic n.33 injustice adj. 34 possess vt. 35 sponsor n. 36 eccentric adj. 37 generous adj. 38 merchant n. 39 straight away40 warehouse n. 41 bargain n. 42 burglar n. 43 sequence n. 44 inspect vt. 45 bungalow n. 46 chain n.47 dangle vi. &amp; vt. 48 semicircle n. 49 squeakn. vi. 50 pull oneself up51 roof n. 52 collar n.53 bench n. 54 pine n. 55 claw n. 56 squirrel n.57 romance n. 58 vain adj. 59 in vain60 signal n.61 discount vt. 62 n.63 sensitive adj. 64 decline vt. &amp; vi. 65 arrogant adj. 66 at length67 enquire vt.68 against ones will69 think ill of70 do everything in ones power to 71 rejoice vi. 72 initial adj. 73 fault n. 74 hasty adj. 75 hastily adv. 76 sensible adj. Book 10 Unit 11n. （有风险的）商业、企业vi. &amp; vt. 冒险；敢于去2 n. （蜘蛛等的）网3 n. 苦处；受难4 n. 胆囊5 n. 加强；巩固6 n. 忍耐；持久；耐（性）7 n. 小屋；棚屋8 n. 炉子9 adj. 无法忍受的；承受不住的10 adj. 舒适的；安逸的11 封闭12 adj. 喘不过气来的13 adj. 腐烂的；变质的14 vt. 使变黑15 n. 环境；详情；境况16 n. 一阵（风）；一股（气流）17 adj. 嘶哑的18 vt. 祝福；保佑19adj. 自私的20 n. 钩；吊钩vt. 勾住；迷上21 adv. 在船（飞机、车上）上；上船（飞机，车等）22 n. 晕船23 adv. 无论如何24 n. （轮船、飞机等）乘务员；膳务员25 vt. 碾碎；粉碎；（使）变形26 vi. &amp; vt. 哀悼；忧伤27 adj. 急迫的；紧急的28 n. 被褥；（家畜）草垫29 adj. 生死攸关的；重要的30 adj. 愉快的；高兴的31 vt. 坚持32 n. 坚持不懈33 n. 信任；信念；信仰；忠实34 让路；让步35 n. 框架；结构36 n. 等级；军阶；军衔37 n. 士气；精神状态38 n. 选择；挑选39 adj. 发轰隆声的40 vt. 宣誓；发誓41 vt. 支持；拥护；提倡42 adj. 冰冻的；严寒的43 n. 凳子；大便44 n. 感激；感恩45 n. 惩罚；惩处46 adj. 忠诚的；忠实的47 adj. 机智的；圆滑的；言行得体的48 n. 古怪的；奇数的；单数的49 adj. 结实的；顽强的；矮胖的50 n. 乐观；乐观主义51 vt. &amp; vi. 耽搁；延迟n.耽搁；延迟52 vt. 使……气馁53 adj. 动力的；精力充沛的；有活力的54 adj. 规则的；定期的；常规的55 vt. 抓住；抓紧；掌握56 发出（蒸汽、光等）57 adj. 无聊的；无趣的；烦人的58 n. 肝脏59 n. 厨师；主厨60 adj. 可改变的61 n. 小心；谨慎；警告62 adj. 令人钦佩的；绝妙的；极好的63 n. 许诺；委托事项；承担义务64 n. 谚语Book 10 Unit 21 adj. 尊敬的；尊重人的2 adj. 失礼的；无礼的3 adv. 失礼地；无礼地4 n. 皇帝；君主5 vt. 缩短；使变短6 vt. 使现代化7 n. 王座；王位8 n. 公爵9 n. 担子；负担10 移交（权力、责任）11 n. 责任；职责12 n. 边界；分界线13 vt. 分派；分配14 pron. 无论哪一个；任何15 n. 心爱的人adj. 亲爱的；可爱的16 vt. 崇拜；爱慕；喜爱17 vt. 祈祷；恳求；请18 关怀；照顾；计较19 n. 最高权威；王权；雄伟20 n. 封建领主；地主；统治者；(Lord) God （宗）上帝21 n. 新郎22 vt. 分发；分配23 n. 群；组(pl) 军队24 vt. 同………矛盾或抵触；反驳25 听完26 代表……27 n. 奉承；恭维话28 vt. 过分夸赞；奉承；恭维29 无可争辩；毫无疑问30 大胆地说；大声地31 n. 摩擦；矛盾；冲突32 vt. 预报；预测n. 预测；预报33 vt. 反对；反抗；抵制34 把……打包；整理35 n. 国界；边疆；边境36 送掉；泄露37 adj. 喜爱的；慈爱的；宠爱的；溺爱的38 喜爱；爱好39 adj. 欺诈的；不诚实的40 adj. 腐败的；贪污的；堕落的41 adj. 贪婪的42 n. 贪婪43 adj. 天真的；无罪的；清白的44 adj. 善于骗人的；狡猾的45 n. 贮藏；存储；储藏室46 n. 作家47 n. 牺牲；献身；祭品48 出名49 adj. 过敏的50 n. 喷嚏vi. 打喷嚏51 n. 手扶椅；（单座）沙发52 vt. 确定53 vt. 重绕；倒回54 n. 现金vt. 兑现55 n. 支票56 n. 签名；署名；信号57 n. 终点站；航空集散站58 adj. 空的；空缺的59 adj. 满是灰尘的；积满灰尘的60 vi. 回答；响应；作出反应61 n. 职工；员工62 vt. 怀疑63 n. 侮辱；凌辱64 vt. 责骂；斥责65 adj. 醉的；常醉的66 n. 抓；挠；刮67 n. (= luggage in BrE)行李68 vt. 要求；需要n. 要求；需求；需要69 n. （小）道具Book 10 Unit 3 1 adj. 公民的；国民的2 n. 无轨电车3 n. 登记vt. 登记；注册4 n. 抵制；排斥5 vt. 禁止；阻止6 n. 冒犯；违法行为7 adj. 不公平的；不公正的8 n. 分离；分开9 n. 传统；惯例10 vi. &amp; vt. 服从；顺从11 adj. 不愿意的；勉强的12 vt. 抓取；逮住；夺取13 抓住14 . 碰撞；冲突15 冲突（的进程或行动）16 adj. 怀有希望的；有希望的17 t. &amp; vi. 商议；谈判；磋商18 n. 混乱19 n. 凉鞋20 adj. 守时的；准时的21 n. 巧合22 n. 步行者23 vi. 行军；前进24 n. 人行道；公路25 vt. &amp; vi. 行礼致敬；敬礼26 n. 滥用；虐待；辱骂vt. 滥用；虐待；辱骂27 n. 敌意；恶意28 n. 决心v. 决心；决定29 n. 祈祷30 n. 炸弹vt. 投弹；轰炸31 adj. 最高的；极度的32 adj. 全国性的；全国的33 n. 宪法34 adj. 宪法的35 adj. 基础的；基本的36 n. 战争；战役37 n. 幸福；快乐38 n. 自由39 vt. 浏览；轻轻掠过40 adj. 明显的；显然的41 adj. 不证自明的；不言而喻的42adj. 简短的；短暂的43 n. 歧视44 n. 哲学；人生观45 vt. 犯罪；做（不合法的或错事）46 活过；实践47 n. 信条48 n. 手足情意；兄弟关系49 n. （沙漠中）绿洲；舒适的地方50 n. 交响乐；交响曲51 adj. 全能的；有无限权力的52 n. 引语；引文；语录；引用53 n. 隐喻；暗喻54 n. 明喻55 vt. &amp; vi. 支配；占优势Book 10 Unit 41 adj. 有效率地；效率高的2 adv. 有效率地；效率高地3 n. 直径4 n. 菜谱5 n. 小册子6 n. 尽力；竭力7 adj. 有能力的；能胜任的8 取决于……9 n. 标题；说明；字幕10 vt. 消化11 adv. 在……之下12 vt. 采用；收养13 vt. 预习；事先查看14 adj. 时常发生的；经常的15 详细的16 n. 手册；指南17 vt. 评定；评估18 vt. 请教；咨询19 adv. &amp; prep. 在下面；在……的下面20 adj. 破旧的；褴褛的21 n. 彩虹22 n. 酿酒厂；啤酒厂23 adj. 敏锐的24 adj. 弯曲的25 n. (= taxi) 出租车；计程车26 n. 货币；通货27 n. 荷花；莲花；睡莲28 n. 烹饪（法）29 n. 教育家30 n. 研讨会；讨论发言会31 n. 获得；习得32 n. 芭蕾舞33 n. （收集相片、邮票等的）薄、册；唱片集34 vt. 像；类似35 n. 盒式磁带36 vi. 倾向37 易于；往往会（做某事）38 adj. 肮脏的；凌乱的；杂乱的39 adj. 令人厌烦的；烦人的40 adj. 含糊的；不清楚地41 n. 奖金；红利；津贴42 adj. 听的；听觉的43 adj. 触觉的；可感触的；触觉型的44 adj. 口头的；口述的45 n. 成分；组成部分46 adj. 具体的；有形的Book 10 Unit 5 1 adj. 文学的2 n. （文艺作品的）类型；体裁3 n. 叙述；描述vt. 叙述4 n. 偏见；成见5 n. 共识；共同意见6 n. 同等；平等7 有效的；在实施中8 n. 扭曲；歪曲9 n. 反驳；矛盾10顺利应付；克服；说服某人同意其原先反对的事11 n. 限制；局限性12 n. 女英雄；女主人公13 n. 障碍；阻碍14 adj. 有讽刺意味的；讽刺的15 adj. 没有希望的；绝望的16 用……的名字，在……的名字下17adj. 怀疑性的；持怀疑态度的18 看穿；识破19 n. 欺骗；诡计20 n. 赞成；承认21 adj. 直率的；明确的；清楚地22 与……作斗争23 adj. 坦率直言的24 n. 成长；生长25 n. 孩童时期；童年26 vt. 向……欢呼；大声招呼；呼喊27 n. 启示；揭示28 adj. 第一的；首要的29 adj. 含糊的；模糊的30 n. 让步；让与某人之物31 杰出32 n. 批评家；评论家33 adj. 不公平；非正义34 vt. 拥有；占有35 n. 担保人；发起人；赞助者36 adj. 古怪的37 adj. 慷慨的；大方的38 n. 商人39 立即；马上40 n. 仓库；货栈41 n. 便宜货42 n. 窃贼43 n. 顺序44 vt. 检查；视察45 n. 平房46 n. 链条；锁链47 vi. &amp; vt. 悬挂；摇摆；使晃动48 n. 半圆形49 n. 尖叫声；吱吱声vi. 发出尖叫声50 立起身来51 n. 屋顶；房顶52 n. 衣领53 n. 长椅子54 n. 松树55 n. 爪；脚爪56 n. 松鼠57 n. 浪漫故事；浪漫史；恋情58 adj. 徒然的；虚荣的59徒然；徒劳60 n. 信号61 vt. 不信任；减少62 n. 折扣；打折63 adj. 敏感的64 vt. &amp; vi. 拒绝；衰退；下降65 adj. 傲慢的；自大的66 最后；详细地67 vt. 询问68 违心地69 对……评价不高70 竭尽全力做某事71 vi. 欣喜；高兴；喜悦72 adj. 最初的；初始的73 n. 过错；缺点74 adj. 匆忙的；慌忙的75 dv. 匆忙地；慌忙地76 adj. 有感觉的；明智的篇二：高中英语(选修)10词汇表(新课标人教版)高中英语⑩(选修)词汇表---熟词Book 10 Unit 1web n. （蜘蛛等的）网suffering n. 苦处；受难strengthen n. 加强；巩固hut n. 小屋；棚屋stove n. 炉子unbearable adj. 无法忍受的；承受不住的breathless adj. 喘不过气来的circumstance n. 环境；详情；境况selfish adj. 自私的aboard adv. 在船（飞机、车上）上；上船（飞机，车等）anyhow adv. 无论如何steward n. （轮船、飞机等）乘务员；膳务员mourn vi. &amp; vt. 哀悼；忧伤bedding n. 被褥；（家畜）草垫vital adj. 生死攸关的；重要的faith n. 信任；信念；信仰；忠实framework n. 框架；结构rank n. 等级；军阶；军衔select n. 选择；挑选advocate vt. 支持；拥护；提倡freezing adj. 冰冻的；严寒的punishment n. 惩罚；惩处optimism n. 乐观；乐观主义dynamic adj. 动力的；精力充沛的；有活力的regular adj. 规则的；定期的；常规的grasp vt. 抓住；抓紧；掌握bored adj. 无聊的；无趣的；烦人的caution n. 小心；谨慎；警告admirable adj. 令人钦佩的；绝妙的；极好的commitment n. 许诺；委托事项；承担义务cash n. 现金vt. 兑现signature n. 签名；署名；信号dusty adj. 满是灰尘的；积满灰尘的respond vi. 回答；响应；作出反应staff n. 职工；员工suspect vt. 怀疑scratch n. 抓；挠；刮baggage n. (= luggage in BrE) 行李demand vt. 要求；需要n. 要求；需求；需要Book 10 Unit 3civil adj. 公民的；国民的tradition n. 传统；惯例submit vi. &amp; vt. 服从；顺从unwilling adj. 不愿意的；勉强的seize vt. 抓取；逮住；夺取seize on 抓住hopeful adj. 怀有希望的；有希望的negotiate vt. &amp; vi. 商议；谈判；磋商coincidence n. 巧合pavement n. 人行道；公路abuse n. 滥用；虐待；辱骂vt. 滥用；虐待；辱骂resolve n. 决心v. 决心；决定nationwide adj. 全国性的；全国的constitution n. 宪法constitutional adj. 宪法的fundamental adj. 基础的；基本的battle n. 战争；战役happiness n. 幸福；快乐skim vt. 浏览；轻轻掠过brief adj. 简短的；短暂的evident adj. 明显的；显然的self-evident adj. 不证自明的；不言而喻的Book 10 Unit 2respectful adj. 尊敬的；尊重人的disrespectful adj. 失礼的；无礼的disrespectfully adv. 失礼地；无礼地responsibility n. 责任；职责boundary n. 边界；分界线whichever pron. 无论哪一个；任何adore vt. 崇拜；爱慕；喜爱bridegroom n. 新郎distribute vt. 分发；分配troop n. 群；组(pl) 军队contradict vt. 同………矛盾或抵触；反驳forecast vt. 预报；预测n. 预测；预报oppose vt. 反对；反抗；抵制fond adj. 喜爱的；慈爱的；宠爱的；溺爱的be fond of 喜爱；爱好greedy adj. 贪婪的greed n. 贪婪innocent adj. 天真的；无罪的；清白的author n. 作家allergic adj. 过敏的armchair n. 手扶椅；（单座）沙发confirm vt. 确定Book 10 Unit 4efficient adj. 有效率地；效率高的efficiently adv. 有效率地；效率高地endeavour n. 尽力；竭力competent adj. 有能力的；能胜任的caption n. 标题；说明；字幕digest vt. 消化beneath adv. 在……之下adopt vt. 采用；收养frequent adj. 时常发生的；经常的assess vt. 评定；评估consult vt. 请教；咨询shabby adj. 破旧的；褴褛的rainbow n. 彩虹acute adj. 敏锐的cab n. (= taxi) 出租车；计程车currency n. 货币；通货cuisine n. 烹饪（法）educator n. 教育家seminar n. 研讨会；讨论发言会album n. （收集相片、邮票等的）薄、册；唱片集cassette n. 盒式磁带sponsor n. 担保人；发起人；赞助者tend vi. 倾向generous adj. 慷慨的；大方的tend to (do sth) 易于；往往会（做某事）bargain n. 便宜货messy adj. 肮脏的；凌乱的；杂乱的inspect vt. 检查；视察bonus n. 奖金；红利；津贴bungalow n. 平房component n. 成分；组成部分chain n. 链条；锁链concrete adj. 具体的；有形的roof n. 屋顶；房顶Book 10 Unit 5bench n. 长椅子prejudice n. 偏见；成见claw n. 爪；脚爪hopeless adj. 没有希望的；绝望的vain adj. 徒然的；虚荣的sceptical adj. 怀疑性的；持怀疑态度的in vain 徒然；徒劳approval n. 赞成；承认signal n. 信号outspoken adj. 坦率直言的discount vt. 不信任；减少n. 折扣；打折growth n. 成长；生长sensitive adj. 敏感的childhood n. 孩童时期；童年initial adj. 最初的；初始的critic n. 批评家；评论家fault n. 过错；缺点possess vt. 拥有；占有Book 10 Unit 1swear vt. 宣誓；发誓构词法词汇：delay vt. &amp; vi. 耽搁；延迟endurance n. 忍耐；持久；耐（性）n. 耽搁；延迟blacken vt. 使变黑discourage vt. 使……气馁hook n. 钩；吊钩vt. 勾住；迷上give off 发出（蒸汽、光等）seasickness n. 晕船urgent adj. 急迫的；紧急的Book 10 Unit 2cheerful adj. 愉快的；高兴的构词法词汇：changeable adj. 可改变的shorten vt. 缩短；使变短sun-blindness n. 日盲症；（因阳光强烈导致的暂时）失modernize vt. 使现代化明storage n. 贮藏；存储；储藏室其它词汇：drunken adj. 醉的；常醉的venture n. （有风险的）商业、企业vi. &amp; vt. 冒险；敢其它词汇：于去emperor n. 皇帝；君主gall-bladder n. 胆囊throne n. 王座；王位cosy adj. 舒适的；安逸的duke n. 公爵rotten adj. 腐烂的；变质的darling n. 心爱的人adj. 亲爱的；可爱的blast n. 一阵（风）；一股（气流）majesty n. 最高权威；王权；雄伟hoarse adj. 嘶哑的lord n. 封建领主；地主；统治者；(Lord) God morale n. 士气；精神状态上帝booming adj. 发轰隆声的friction n. 摩擦；矛盾；冲突stool n. 凳子；大便frontier n. 国界；边疆；边境gratitude n. 感激；感恩deceitful adj. 欺诈的；不诚实的loyal adj. 忠诚的；忠实的corrupt adj. 腐败的；贪污的；堕落的tactful adj. 机智的；圆滑的；言行得体的cunning adj. 善于骗人的；狡猾的odd adj. 古怪的；奇数的；单数的sacrifice n. 牺牲；献身；祭品stout adj. 结实的；顽强的；矮胖的cheque n. 支票liver n. 肝脏terminal n. 终点站；航空集散站chef n. 厨师；主厨vacant adj. 空的；空缺的proverb n. 谚语prop n. （小）道具动词和短语：动词和短语：block out 封闭burden n. 担子；负担v. 负担bless vt. 祝福；保佑hand over 移交（权力、责任）crush vt. 碾碎；粉碎；（使）变形allocate vt. 分派；分配persevere vt. 坚持pray vt. 祈祷；恳求；请perseverance n. 坚持不懈care for 关怀；照顾；计较give way to 让路；让步hear … out 听完（宗）on behalf of 代表…… flattery n. 奉承；恭维话flatter vt. 过分夸赞；奉承；恭维beyond question 无可争辩；毫无疑问speak out 大胆地说；大声地pack up 把……打包；整理give away 送掉；泄露make a name 出名sneeze n. 喷嚏vi. 打喷嚏rewind vt. 重绕；倒回insult n. 侮辱；凌辱vt. 侮辱；凌辱scold vt. 责骂；斥责Book 10 Unit 3构词法词汇：unjust adj. 不公平的；不公正的separation n. 分离；分开brotherhood n. 手足情意；兄弟关系其它词汇：trolleybus n. 无轨电车boycott n. 抵制；排斥offence n. 冒犯；违法行为collision n. 碰撞；冲突collision course 冲突（的进程或行动）chaos n. 混乱sandal n. 凉鞋punctual adj. 守时的；准时的pedestrian n. 步行者hostility n. 敌意；恶意prayer n. 祈祷supreme adj. 最高的；极度的liberty n. 自由discrimination n. 歧视philosophy n. 哲学；人生观creed n. 信条oasis n. （沙漠中）绿洲；舒适的地方symphony n. 交响乐；交响曲almighty adj. 全能的；有无限权力的quotation n. 引语；引文；语录；引用metaphor n. 隐喻；暗喻simile n. 明喻动词和短语：register n. 登记vt. 登记；注册prohibit vt. 禁止；阻止march vi. 行军；前进salute vt. &amp; vi. 行礼致敬；敬礼bomb n. 炸弹vt. 投弹；轰炸commit vt. 犯罪；做（不合法的或错事）live out 活过；实践dominate vt. &amp; vi. 支配；占优势其它词汇：diameter n. 直径recipe n. 菜谱booklet n. 小册子manual n. 手册；指南underneath adv. &amp; prep. 在下面；在……的下面brewery n. 酿酒厂；啤酒厂lotus n. 荷花；莲花；睡莲acquisition n. 获得；习得ballet n. 芭蕾舞vague adj. 含糊的；不清楚地auditory adj. 听的；听觉的tactile adj. 触觉的；可感触的；触觉型的oral adj. 口头的；口述的动词和短语：up to … 取决于……preview vt. 预习；事先查看in detail 详细的resemble vt. 像；类似Book 10 Unit 5构词法词汇：equality n. 同等；平等contradiction n. 反驳；矛盾limitation n. 限制；局限性heroine n. 女英雄；女主人公injustice adj. 不公平；非正义hasty adj. 匆忙的；慌忙的hastily adv. 匆忙地；慌忙地sensible adj. 有感觉的；明智的其它词汇：literary adj. 文学的gee n. （文艺作品的）类型；体裁consensus n. 共识；共同意见twist n. 扭曲；歪曲obstacle n. 障碍；阻碍ironic adj. 有讽刺意味的；讽刺的deception n. 欺骗；诡计explicit adj. 直率的；明确的；清楚地revelation n. 启示；揭示premier adj. 第一的；首要的ambiguous adj. 含糊的；模糊的concession n. 让步；让与某人之物eccentric adj. 古怪的merchant n. 商人warehouse n. 仓库；货栈burglar n. 窃贼sequence n. 顺序semicircle n. 半圆形collar n. 衣领pine n. 松树squirrel n. 松鼠romance n. 浪漫故事；浪漫史；恋情arrogant adj. 傲慢的；自大的动词和短语：Book 10 Unit 4构词法词汇：bent adj. 弯曲的tiresome adj. 令人厌烦的；烦人的recount n. 叙述；描述vt. 叙述in force 有效的；在实施中get round 顺利应付；克服；说服某人同意其原先反对的事under the name of … 用……的名字，在……的名字下see through 看穿；识破struggle against 与……作斗争hail vt. 向……欢呼；大声招呼；呼喊stand out 杰出straight away 立即；马上dangle vi. &amp; vt. 悬挂；摇摆；使晃动squeak n. 尖叫声；吱吱声vi. 发出尖叫声pull oneself up 立起身来decline vt. &amp; vi. 拒绝；衰退；下降at length 最后；详细地enquire vt. 询问against one’s will 违心地think ill of 对……评价不高do everything in one’s power to … 竭尽全力做某事rejoice vi. 欣喜；高兴；喜悦篇三：高中英语选修10单词默写完整版选修10 英译汉默写单词练习unit1（共74 个单词）1. venture_______________2. webn．_______________3. Scottish adj. _______________；4. suffering n．_______________5. gall-bladder n. _______________6. strengthen vt. _______________7. endurance n. _______________8. hut n. _______________9. stove n_______________10. unbearable n. _______________ 11. cosy adj. _______________ 12. block out_______________13. breathless adj_______________ 14. rotten adj. _______________ 15. blacken vt_______________16. circumstance n. _______________ 17. blast n. _______________ 18. hoarse adj. _______________ 19. bless vt. _______________ 20. selfish adj. _______________ 21. hook n. _______________22. aboard adv.＆perp. _______________ 23. seasickness n. _______________ 24. anyhow adv. _______________ 25. steward n. _______________ 26. crushvt. _______________27. mourn vi.&amp;vt. _______________ 28. urgentadj. _______________ 29. bedding n．_______________ 30. banjo n. _______________ 31. vital adj. _______________ 32. cheerful adj. _______________ 33. persevere vt_______________ 34. perseverance n. _______________ 35. faith n．_______________ 36. give way to _______________ 37. framework n. _______________ 38. rank n. _______________ 39. morale n．_______________ 40. selectvt. _______________ 41. boomingadj. _______________ 42. swear vt. _______________ 43. advocate vt. _______________ 44.freezing adj. _______________45. stool n. _______________46. gratitude n．_______________ 47. punishment n. _______________ 48. loyal adj. _______________ 49. tactful adj. _______________ 50. odd adj._______________ 51. stout adj. _______________ 52. optimism n. _______________ 53. delay vt.＆vi. _______________ 54. discourage vt. _______________ 55. dynamic adj. _______________；56. regular adj. _______________ 57. grasp vt. _______________ 58. give off _______________ 59. bored adj. _______________60. liver n. _______________ 61. chef n. _______________62. changeable adj. _______________ 63. caution n. _______________64. sun-blindness n_______________ 65. admirable adj_______________ 66. commitment n_______________ 67. proverb n. _______________unit2（共80 个单词）68. King Lear_______________69. respectful adj. _______________ 70. disrespectful adj. _______________ 71. disrespectfully adv. _______________ 72. emperor n. _______________ 73. shorten vt．_______________ 74. modernize vt. _______________ 75. throne n. _______________ 76. Regan _______________ 77. duke n. _______________ 78. burden n．_______________ 79. hand over_______________80. responsibility n．_______________ 81. boundary n．_______________ 82. allocate vt．_______________ 83. whichever pron．_______________ 84. darling n．_______________ 85. adore vt. _______________ 86. pray vt．_______________ 87. care for_______________88. majesty n. _______________ 89.lord _______________90. bridegroom n．_______________ 91. distribute vt. _______________92. troop n．_______________ 93. contradict vt. _______________ 94. hear......out_______________95. on behalf of_______________…… 96. flattery n. _______________ 97. flatter vt．_______________ 98. beyond question_______________ 99. speak out_______________ 100. friction n. _______________ 101. forecast vt. _______________ 102. oppose vt. _______________ 103. pack up to put_______________ 104. frontier n. _______________ 105. give away_______________ 106. fond adj. _______________ 107. be fond of _______________108. deceitful adj. _______________109. corrupt adj. _______________110. greedy adj_______________111. greed n. _______________112. innocent adj_______________113. cunning adj. _______________ 114. storage n. _______________115. author n. _______________116. Latin n_______________117. make a name_______________ 118. allergic adj_______________119.sneeze n．_______________120. armchair n. _______________ 121. confirm vt_______________ 122. rewind vt. _______________123. cash n. _______________124. cheque n. _______________ 125. signature n. _______________126. terminal n. _______________127. vacant adj_______________128. dusty adj. _______________129. respond vi. _______________ 130. staff n. _______________131. suspect vt. _______________ 132. insult n. _______________ 133. scold vt. _______________134. drunken adj. _______________ 135. scratch n.&amp;vt_______________ 136. baggage n. _______________137. demand vt. _______________ 138. prop n. _______________ unit3 （共74 个单词）139. civil adj. _______________140. trolleybus n. _______________141. register n．_______________142. boycott n. _______________143. prohibit vt_______________ 144. offence n. _______________145. unjust adj. _______________146. separation n._______________ 147. tradition n. _______________148. submit v＆vt. _______________149. unwilling adj. _______________ 150. seize vt._______________ 151. seize on_______________ 152. collision course _______________ 153. hopeful adj. _______________154. negotiate vt&amp;vi. _______________ 155. chaos n_______________156. sandal n. _______________157. punctual adj. _______________ 158. coincidence n. _______________159. pedestrian n. _______________160. march vi. _______________161. pavement n. _______________ 162. salute vt＆vi. _______________163. abuse n. _______________ 164. hostility n．_______________165. resolve n. _______________166. prayer n. _______________167. bomb n. _______________168. supreme adj. _______________169. nationwide adj. _______________170. constitution n. _______________171. constitutional adj. _______________ 172. fundamental adj. _______________ 173. battle n．_______________174. happiness n. _______________175. liberty n．_______________ 176. skim vt_______________177. evident adj. _______________ 178. self-evident adj. _______________ 179. brief adj. _______________180. discrimination_______________181.philosophy n．_______________ 182. Mockingbird n. _______________183. commit vt. _______________184. live out_______________185. creed n_______________186. brotherhood n. _______________187. oasis n. _______________188. symphony n．_______________ 189. Jew n. _______________190. Gentile n. _______________ 191. Protestant n. _______________192. Catholic n．_______________193. Negro n_______________194. almighty adj. _______________ 195. quotation n．_______________196. metaphor n．_______________197. simile n．_______________198. dominate vt＆vt_______________ unit4 （共47 个单词）199. efficient adj. _______________200. efficiently adv. _______________201. centigrade adj. _______________202. diameter n．_______________203. recipe n. _______________204. booklet n_______________205. endeavour n．_______________206. competent adj. _______________ 207. up to... _______________208. caption n. _______________．209. digest vt.______________ 210. beneath adv.＆prep. _______________ 211. adopt vt. _______________ 212. preview vt_______________213.frequent adj. _______________214. in detail _______________215. manual n. _______________216. New Zealand_______________217. assess vt. _______________218. consult vt. _______________219. shabby adj. _______________220. rainbow n. _______________221. brewery n. _______________222. acute adj. _______________ 223. bent adj. _______________224. cab n．_______________225. currency n. _______________226. lotus n. _______________227. cuisine n．_______________228. seminar n. _______________229. acquisition n. _______________230. underneath adv. _______________231. ballet n. _______________ 232. album n. _______________233. resemble vt．_______________234. cassette n. _______________235. tend vi. _______________236. tend to do sth _______________ 237. messy adj. _______________238. tiresome adj. _______________239. vague adj._______________ 240. bonus n. _______________241. auditory adj. _______________242. tactile adj. _______________243. oral adj. _______________244. component n. _______________245. concrete adj. _______________ unit5 （共85 个单词）246. literary adj. _______________247. gee n. _______________248. recount n．_______________ 249. prejudice n. _______________ 250. consensus n_______________251. equality n．_______________252. in force _______________253. twist n. _______________ 254. contradiction n. _______________255. get round _______________256. to persuade sb to agree to sthwhich he first opposed______________ 257. limitation n. _______________258. heroine n. _______________259. obstacle n．_______________ 260. ironic adj. _______________261. hopeless adj_______________ 262. under the name of..... _______________ 263. sceptical adj. _______________264. see through _______________265. deception n. _______________266. approval n_______________267. explicit adj. _______________268. struggle against_______________269. outspoken adj. _______________ 270. growth n. _______________271. childhood n. _______________ 272. hail vt._______________273. revelation n. _______________274. premier adj._______________275. ambiguous adj. _______________ 276. concession n. _______________ 277. stand out _______________ 278. critic n. _______________ 279. injustice n. _______________ 280. possess vt. _______________ 281. sponsor n_______________ 282. eccentric adj. _______________ 283. generous adj. _______________ 284. merchant n. _______________ 285. straight away _______________ 286. warehouse n．_______________ 287. bargain n_______________ 288. burglar n．_______________ 289. sequence n. _______________ 290. inspect vt. _______________ 291. bungalow n_______________ 292. chain n. _______________ 293. dangle vi.＆vt. _______________ 294. semicircle n．_______________ 295. squeak n. _______________ 296. pull oneself up_______________ 297. roof n. _______________ 298. collar n. _______________ 299. bench n．_______________ 300. pine n. _______________ 301. Claw n. _______________ 302. Squirrel n．_______________ 303. romance n. _______________304. Vain adj. _______________305. in vain _______________306. signal n. _______________307. discount vt_______________308. sensitive adj_______________309. decline vt.＆vi_______________ 310. arrogant adj. _______________ 311. at length _______________312. enquire vt. _______________313. against one&#39;s will_______________ 314. think ill of_______________ 315. do everything inone&#39;s power to. _______________316. rejoice vi.＆vt_______________317. initial adj. _______________318. fault n. _______________319. hasty adj. _______________ 320. hastily adv. _______________ 321. sensible adj. _______________选修10 汉译英单词默写练习unit1（共74 个单词）1 n.（有风险的）商业、企业)_____________2 adj.苏格兰的；苏格兰人的；_____________3 n．苦楚；受难_____________4 n. 胆囊_____________5 vt.加强；巩固_____________6 n.忍耐；持久；耐（性）_____________7 n.小屋；棚屋_____________8 n.炉子_____________9 n.无法忍受的；承受不住的_____________ 10adj.舒适的；安逸的_____________11 封闭_____________。

附录附录A：LOW ROLLING RESISTANCE TIRESAccording to the report,80% or more of a car’s fuel energy is wasted by friction and other such losses. 1.5 to 4.5% of total gasoline use could be saved if allreplacement tires in use had low rolling resistance. About 237 million replacement tires are sold in the U.S. each year – none has rolling resistance labeling.1. America’s Fuel Use, Its Impacts,and Opportunities for SavingsThe environmental impacts of America’s gasoline use are profound. With over 160 million passenger cars and light trucks on the road, we burn about 126 billion gallons of gasoline per year. Our fuel use continues to rise about 3% annually, propelled by continued increases in total number of vehicles, rising average distance driven per car, and falling average fuel economy.Today, light-duty vehicles (cars & light trucks) are responsible for about 20% of the nitrogen oxides, 27% of the volatile organic compounds, 51% of the carbon monoxide, and roughly 30% of all the carbon dioxide (the main greenhouse gas) emitted from human activities nationwide. Rising fuel use also has enormous implications for protection of wilderness and public lands (vulnerable to increasedexploration), water resources (vulnerable to tanker and pipeline accidents), and national security. So the opportunity to save money and improve environmental quality through fuel use reductions is clear.One of the most promising opportunities for fuel savings across the entire fleet of existing vehicles is to utilize low rolling resistance tires instead of standard replacement models. This change improves the inherent efficiency of the vehicle, automatically saving fuel over the typical 30,000 to 50,000 mile lifetime of a set of tires.This report examines the opportunity for saving gasoline through use of improved tire technology and recommends particular tire models for which our initial test data suggest environmental advantages. Its findings are applicable to government and corporate fleet managers as well as individual tire buyers.2. How Tires Can Reduce Fuel ConsumptionAccording to the National Academy of Sciences, about 80 to 88% of the energy in a vehicle’s gasoline tank is wasted in various thermal, frictional, and standby losses in the engine and exhaust system. This leaves only about 12 to 20% of the potential energy actually converted to vehicle motion. One of the key ways to improve that efficiency is to reduce the rolling resistance of vehicle tires. This is not a measure of a tire’s traction or “grip” on the road surface, but rather simply indicates how easily a tire rolls down the road, minimizing the energy wasted asheat between the tire and the road, within the tire sidewall itself, and between the tire and the rim.Detailed modeling conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory concluded that a 10% reduction in tire rolling resistance should yield fuel savings of about 1 to 2%, depending on driving conditions and vehicle type. According to research for the California Energy Commission, about 1.5 to 4.5% of total gasoline use could be saved if all replacement tires in use had low rollingresistance. This translates roughly into average savings of up to 30 gallons of gasoline savings per vehicle per year, or from $2.5 to $7.5 billion worth of national average gasoline savings.As part of their efforts to meet Federal fuel economy standards, automakers routinely specify low rolling resistance tires on their new vehicles. Between 1980 and 1994, the lowest rolling resistance tire models available achieved a 48% reduction in rolling resistance, and have likely continued to improve thereafter. These original equipment (OE) tire models are occasionally available in the replacement tire market, but often only by special order. In general, the tires marketed to the replacement tire market tend to place greater emphasis on longevity and low price, and therefore often have higher rolling resistance than OE tires.Unfortunately both OE and replacement tires lack any sort of rollingresistance labeling currently, so fleet managers and consumers that wish to buy highly energy-efficient tires when their first set of OE tires wear out have been stymied. Even when tire makers claim that particular replacement models are more fuelefficient than others, they do not always use consistent test methods or independent laboratory data to back up those claims. About 237 million replacement tires are sold in the U.S. each year for cars and light trucks, and none of them provides rolling resistance labeling.In 2002, the Energy Foundation funded Ecos Consulting to analyze the tire market, select representative models for rolling resistance testing, and work with Green Seal to recommend particular models that perform well while achieving low rolling resistance. Those findings are being published for the first time in this Choose Green Report. Additional background on Ecos Consulting’s key findings can be found in a separate report prepared for the California Energy Commission, available at3. Balancing Tire Resistance and Other ConsiderationsThe manufacture of tires, like other industrial processes, involves material extraction and production, as well as energy consumption and the emission of various pollutants. Each of these manufacturing stages impacts the environment in different ways. However, tires, like a number of other consumer products, are actually responsible for more environmental impacts in their use and ultimate disposition than in theirmanufacturing. They significantly impact the amount of fuel consumed by the vehicle to which they are attached, leading to global warming emissions as well as local and regional air pollution. They create particulate air pollution in the process of wearing, and they can be a significant solid waste problem if not properly recycled.An analysis conducted by Italian tire manufacturer Pirelli (Figure 1) revealed the dominance of tire use in overall life-cycle energy consumption. Fully 82% of the lifecycle energy use occurs from t he tire’s contribution to vehicle fuel use, compared to roughly 18% associated with obtaining the raw materials and manufacturing the tire itself. Thus, a tire’s rolling resistance is likely to be a larger factor in its life-cycle environmental impact than its composition, longevity, or ultimate fate, though those factors merit consideration as well.This report places greatest significance on the measured rolling resistance of tires, followed closely by consideration of the tire’s expected longevity and performance characteristics. A tire with high rolling resistance can cause profound environmental impact, even if it capably grips the road and lasts for 80,000 miles. By contrast, a very low rolling resistance tire may not be worth recommending if its lifetime is unusually short or test data indicate that it provides poor traction.Every tire currently on the market represents a balance between a wide assortment of desired performance characteristics and price (wesurveyed tires ranging from $25 to over $200 per tire). Careful balancing of these characteristics can yield not only a high-performing tire, but also one that is better for the environment than others currently available on the market.4.Rating Tire Rolling Resistance and Related FactorsRolling resistance has traditionally been measured through an official Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) test procedure known as J1269. It measures the force required to roll a tire against a dynamometer at a fixed speed of 50 miles per hour. A newer procedure, SAE J2452, promises improved accuracy by assessing rolling resistance at a variety of speeds, but no independent laboratory currently has the capability to conduct such testing in-house. As a result, all of our testing was conducted at a single independent laboratory according to SAE J1269.The highest and lowest rolling resistance tires we tested differed in efficiency by 60%, indicating that tire choice can have a bigger impact on fuel economy than most people realize. Rolling resistance differences of 20 to 30% are not uncommon among tires of an otherwise similar size, type, and level of performance. This means an individual vehicle could save up to 6% of its gasoline use if it were fitted with very efficient tires, paying for the modest additional cost of low rolling resistance tires in approximately a year of fuel savings. In other words, a typical compactcar such as a Ford Focus can improve its mileage from 30 mpg to 32 mpg simply by using lower rolling resistance tires. For a car averaging 15,000 miles per year the fuel savings is about $50 (at $1.50 per gallon).All tires have imprinted information on their sidewalls indicating size, type, load, and speed ratings, as described in Figure 2. The majority of tire models employ a “P” designation for passe nger vehicle use, but some bear the “LT” designation for use with light trucks. In general, “P” tires appear to be gaining in popularity relative to “LT” tires of a given size.In addition, the U.S. Department of Transportation requires each manufacturer to grade its tires under the Uniform Tire Quality Grading System (UTQGS) and establish ratings for the following characteristics: tread wear, traction, and temperature resistance. Unfortunately, the ultimate results published for each tire model are less “uniform” than they should be. The government specifies how each test should be conducted and prevents a manufacturer from claiming better performance than measured. However, it does not prevent manufacturers from claiming worse performance than measured. And, curiously enough, many do, primarily to amplify marketing distinctions among their tires at different price points and encourage buyers to move up from a “good” to a “better” or “best” model in a particular category.Given the variability of ratings and the number of relevant factors, we have compiled our own composite metrics of performance for assessing tires, including the Federal ratings noted below and a variety of other published data.5.Rolling On to the FutureEfforts to differentiate replacement tires on the basis of rolling resistance are still in their very early stages. Without data on the rolling resistance of all tire models across a range of sizes, it is impossible to say for sure if the models identified in this report represent the most efficient models or simply a subset of them. For now, consumers and fleet managers can start with the data shown here and request additional information directly from retailers and manufacturers.附录Ｂ：低滚动阻力轮胎根据报告80％的或更多的汽车的燃料是由摩擦和其他类似的损失所消耗的。