理论语言学第三章3

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?•definition: It is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”:a. a physically definable unit;b. the common factor underlying a set of forms;c. a grammatical unit•a physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.It is wonderful.–Three words are recognized.–However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes–It‟s wonderful.–Are they two words or three?b. the common factor underlying a set of forms•-- walk, walks, walking, walked•How many words are there? (considered only one word/lexeme walk in dictionary)•I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.•How many times did the word “have” occur?•Lexeme: the abstract and smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which can be distinguished from another smallest unit.e.g. “write” is the lexeme of the set of the following items:write wrote written writing writesc. a grammatical unit•Language is hierarchy.3.1.2. Identification of words•stability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc•relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word•a minimum free form:(suggested by Bloomfield)maximum→ sentenceminimum→ word3.1.3 Classification of words•Variable vs. Invariable Words:–Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.–Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.•Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:–Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.–Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.•Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:–Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.–Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.•Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Word class–Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. •Some new word class:–Particles:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.–Auxiliaries: do, have–Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.–Pro-form–DeterminersPro-forms•Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.–Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone–Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.–Pro-verb: He spoke English better than she did.–Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.–Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner•Determiner: words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.•There are 3 classes of determiners:predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third…central determiners: this, that, every, each, either, my…post determiners: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, next, last, other, many, few, a great many o f…•Their positions are fixed:Predeterminers + central determiners +post determiners;•E.g. all her many good ideasP C P modifier•*their all trouble•*five the all boys•*all this boy•*all both girls3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphology•Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.e.g. dis appoint ment (3)•Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.•Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.2.2 Types of morphemes•Free morphemes & Bound morphemesFree morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes fall into two categories:Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g. mooncake Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2) Root, affix and stem•Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.•Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into–prefix (dis-, un-)–suffix (-en, -ify) and–Infix( feet, goose).•Stem : it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem can be bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3) Inflectional and Derivational AffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational•Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.•- (e) s: plurality of nouns•- (e) s: third person singular, present tense•- (e) d: past tense for all three persons•- (e) d: past participle form of verbs•- ing: progressive aspect•- er : comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- est: superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- …s: the possessive case of nouns•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Difference Between Roots ,Base and Stem ?•Some linguists consider the base to be the equivalent to the term root; that is, the base form of a word or that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved .•Some other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem.( in the word unhappiness, unhappy may be the base, happy is the root )•A stem is the main part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added and it can be a bound root, afree morpheme, or a derived form itself. The stem and the root often coincide( stars: root=stem); 1 stem=2 root/free morphemes (motherlands)3.2.3 Inflection and Word FormationThere are 2 fields Morphology concerns:the study of Inflections (Inflectional Morphology) andWord Formation ( Lexical or Derivational Morphology).•Inflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy’s ) do not change the grammatical class of the stems•Derivation: shows the relations between roots and affixes, e.g.lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)(2) Word Formationi. compound•Compounds: two or more free roots combine to make a new word.–Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill–Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit–Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree–Preposition compounds: into, throughout•Endocentric & exocentric compounds•Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg–self-control: a kind of control–armchair: a kind of chair•E xocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg–scarecrow: not a kind of crow–breakneck: not a kind of neck•Written forms of compounds–Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard–Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length–Open: coffee table, washing machine•Free variation:–businessman, business-man, business man–winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle–no one, no-one, nooneii. Derivation•Word class changed:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Word class unchanged:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change proper3.3.2 Morphosyntactic change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change3.3.1 lexical change proper1. Invention (coinage)one of the least common process of word formation in English. The invention of totally new terms.e.g. kodak, nylon2. BlendingTwo words are blended by joining the initial part of the first one and the final part of the second, or by joining the initial part of the two parts, e.g.–transfer +resistor>transistor–smoke+fog>smog–motorist+hotel>motel–breakfast+lunch>brunch–modulator+demodulator>modem–dance+exercise>dancercise–advertisement+editorial>advertorial–education+entertainment>edutainment–information+commercial>infomercial3. Abbreviation/ Shortingwords can be formed by the reduction of other words or phrases.•(1)initialism•(2)acronym•(3)clipping•Initialism–AI: artificial intelligence–a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible–ECU: European Currency Unit–HIV: human immunodeficiency virus–PC: personal computer–PS: postscript–RSVP: répondez s‟il vous plait (…please reply‟ in French)•4. Acronym–AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome–ASAP: as soon as possible–CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory–WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant–dink(y): double income, no kids–nilk(y): no income, lots of kids•Clipping–Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s–Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake–Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)5. Back-formationa word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type, e.g--diagnose < diagnosis–enthuse < enthusiasm–laze < lazy–liaise < liaison–reminisce < reminiscence–statistic < statistics–televise < television6. Analogical Creation–From irregular to regular:old new•work: wrought > worked•beseech: besought > beseeched•slay: slew > slayed•go: went > goed???7. Borrowing (loan words)•French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, •Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor•Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy•Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla•Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano •Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht•Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero•Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga•Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan words•Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed.–au pair, encore, coup d‟etat, kungfu, sputnik•Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, the meaning is fully borrowed.–coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)–Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)•Loanshift: form is native, meaning is borrowed.–bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte•Loan translation, or calque: each morpheme is translated in the equivalent morpheme in another language–free verse < L verse libre–black humor < Fr humour noir–found object < Fr objet trouvé8. CompoundingCompounding : to join two separate words to produce a single form.•(1) When the two words are in the same grammatical category ,the compound will be in this category :N + N = N : boyfriend ,elevator-operator, fighter-bomber, landlordAdj. + Adj. = Adj. icy-cold, red–hot•(2) When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound:N. + Adj. = Adj.: headstrong ,watertight, lifelongV. + N. = N. : daredevil, sawbones•Compounds formed with a preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compound:Overtake: prep + v. = v.Hanger-on: n. + prep. = n.Uplift: prep. + v. = v.Sit-in: v. +prep. = v.•(3)Though two-word compounds are the most common in English , it would be different to state an upper limit: e.g.Three-time loserFour-dimensional space-timeA middle-income-familyThe one –child-family policyA sentence in Washington post reads:“The air force is bei ng weaned away from the bomb-them-into-the-stone-age-with-the-biggest-fiercest-planes-imaginable-philosophy9. Derivationshow the relation between roots and affixes, e.g. nation, national, nationalize, nationalization, international;•Class-changing:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Class-preserving:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant10. Conversiona change in the function of a word,e.g a noun is used to be a verb: to dust11. Onomatopoeia•The use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing, like hiss, boom…3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change•Morphological change:–third person singular present tense:-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds–the campus of the university >the university‟s campus•Syntactical change:–He saw you not. > He d idn‟t see you.–I know not where to hide my head. > I don‟t know where to hide my head.•Fusion/blending:–equally good + just as good > equally as good–It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use in getting there before nine > There‟s no use getting there before nine.3.3.3 Semantic change•1) Broadening:–holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest–bird: young bird > any kind–task: tax > work•2) Narrowing:–meat: food >–girl: young person > young woman–deer: beast > a special kind of animal•3) Meaning shift:•bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood•4) Class shift: conversion to other word classes–engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)•5) Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .–history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.–his story > herstory•Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology–Manhattan: man with hat on–MBA: married but available–PhD: perhaps have divorced–golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.3.4 phonological change•phonological change: refers to changes in sound leading to changes in forms.•Types: (1) loss(2) addition(3) metathesis 换位(4) assimilation 同化•Loss of sound:–loss of sound in fast speech, eg cabinet, laboratory –and > ‟n in connected speech, eg rock-‟n-roll •Addition of sound:–L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo –English: strike > sutoraiki (Jap.) •Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound–O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask •Assimilation:–impossible, immovable–irregular, irresponsible–illogical, illegal3.3.5 Orthographic change•Change of spelling:–Iesus > Jesus–sate > sat–Sunne > Sun。

第三章语音和音系一、名词解释语音四要素一一音高、音重（强）、音长、音质。

音素一一是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位音位一一具体语言中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。

也是按语音的辨义作用归纳出来的音类，从语言的社会属性划分出来的语言单位音位变体一一处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。

如果它们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成为同一音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我们把它们叫做音位变体。

非音质音位一一非音质音位指具有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音重、音长等。

例如汉语普通话声调中的阴平、阳平、上声、去声，是由音高的变化形成的而不是音质变化形成的，就是非音质音位。

区别特征一一具体语言中有区别音位的作用的发音特征，叫做该语言的区别特征。

每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。

运用区别特征比较容易说清楚音位在具体语言中的特点和具体语言语音系统的组织方式。

音节一一由音位组成的语音中最小的结构单位，也是从听觉上感受到的最自然的单位。

语流音变一一音位和音位组合的时候，由于受说话时快慢，高低、强弱的不同和邻音的影响，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。

这种变化，我们叫做语流音变。

音步一一语言的一种节奏中，语流是大致每隔两个音节就有一次小的轻重、高低、长短或松紧的交替，形成语流中大致等距离出现的两音节的节奏单元。

这种节奏单元叫做音步。

二、填空或简答1、画一张元音舌位图，用国际音标标出八个基本元音。

八个基本元音[i][e][ ][a][u][o][ ][a]前央不圆唐圆唇后2、按音位特征用国际音标注出相应的音素。

(1)双唇浊鼻音m(2)舌尖前浊擦音z(3)舌面前送气清塞擦音用‘(4)后低不圆唇元音a(5)前半高不圆唇元音e(6)后半高圆唇元音。

3、列出现代汉语普通话辅音音位的至少四对区别特征并各举一对儿对立音位。

Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。

第三章语言学习（习得）理论本章我们将讨论语言学习（习得）问题，介绍语言学习（习得）理论。

有关第二语言习得的理论和假说现在已不下数十种，本章着重介绍影响较大的对比分析假说、中介语假说、内在大纲假说和习得顺序假说、输入假说、普遍语法假说及文化适应假说。

最后对第一语言习得和第二语言学习做一对比。

第一节语言学习与语言习得1．学习与习得的定义从上世纪60年代开始，西方一些学者就提出区分语言的学习（learning）与习得(Acquisition)这两种不同的学习。

70年代中期美国语言教学理论家克拉申（S.Krashen）又进一步系统地提出了学习与习得假说。

那么什么是习得，什么是学习呢？（第一）语言“习得”通常指的是儿童不自觉地自然地掌握、获得第一语言（通常是母语）的过程和方法。

所谓不自觉地自然地，是指儿童有一种内在的语言学习能力，他是在潜意识地、不知不觉的过程中获得一种语言，对语言规则的掌握是无意识的；他在自然的语言环境中（不是在课堂里），为了生存和发展的需要去学习并运用一种语言，他不注意语言形式（不自觉地掌握），只注重意义的沟通；获得语言的过程是由不自觉到自觉（比如入学后）。

（第二）语言“学习”通常指的是在学校环境（即课堂）中有意识地掌握第二语言的过程和方式，比如成人在学校学习第二语言。

所谓有意识地，是指为了某种目的，自觉地去学习第二语言，掌握第二语言的规则系统并加以运用，尤其注重语言形式的学习；其过程是从自觉到不自觉（指熟能生巧、自动化后）。

在使用学习与习得这两个术语时，一般的用法是：广义的学习包括习得和上述狭义的学习。

也有的学者主张把狭义的学习称为“学得”，以示与其上位概念的学习相区分，既包括学得与习得。

还有人把习得称为“获得”。

学习与习得这两种获得语言的途径，并非完全隔绝或相互排斥，而是相互交叉、相辅相成。

正因为第二语言学习中也包含有习得的因素，越来越多的人把第二语言学习也称为第二语言习得。

在第二语言学习理论的研究中，特别是西方学者的研究文章中已出现用术语“习得”代替“学习”的趋向。

第三章语言是符号系统1．符号符号就是全体社会成员共同约定用来表示某种事物或意义的标志(记号、标记）。

它具有两个特点：一、它由形式和意义两个要素组成，即每一个符号都是一定的形式和一定的内容的统一体，二者不可偏废；二、符号与符号所指称的事物(意义）之间没有必然的联系，是约定俗成的.它共有视觉符号、听觉符号、触觉符号和嗅觉符号四类。

征候就是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物,可以让我们通过它来推知事物.它不是符号。

如洪水和驼铃声分别代表下暴雨和骆驼走，它们之间的联系是自然的，其本身就是事物的特征，不需要大家来规定它们。

一般理解征候与符号的区别。

2．语言符号语言是一种符号，因为它能用来表示某种事物或意义.语言符号是一种音义结合的符号，即它由语音和语义两个要素构成。

语音是语言符号的物质表现形式，语义是语言符号的表现内容.只有音没有义，或者只有义而没有音的语言符号是不存在的.语言符号具有任意性、约定俗成性和线条性特点，语言符号一旦形成又具有强制性特点.3．语言符号与一般符号第一，语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，它是一种以听、说、读等形式作为人类交际的重要工具。

语言的声音是有意义的声音，是信息量非常大的声音，是用最少的音符任意排列表达出最丰富、最复杂意思的声音,受距离、光线、气候等因素的影响较小;在表达思想时，语音非常便捷，基本不需要什么附加工具,可以用语音边交流边工作。

其他符号的物质表现形式多是借助于色彩、线条、姿势等比较直观的媒介，使用上不如语音简捷;即使像军号这种通过声音来表达内容的符号也是有很大的局限性，它们的声音所表达的内容往往都是固定的，基本没有什么变化，表达的内容也比较枯燥,表达的效果还要受到距离等因素的影响。

第二，一般符号的构成比较简单，而语言符号是非常复杂的,它既是一个层级装置，又是一个符号系统.语言符号单位最多，上层是音位层，下层是符号层，符号层又能够分出语素、词、句子三层，每一层次都有相当数量的符号单位，另外语言符号系统又可分为语音系统、语义系统、语法系统、词汇系统等，各个子系统又有自己的系统。