社会语言学英语

英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。

nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。

社会语言学社会语言学（Sociolinguistics ）是在 20 世纪 60 年代在美国首先兴起的一门边缘科学。

它主要是指运用语言学和社会学等学科的理论和方法，从不同的社会科学的角度去研究语言的社会本质和差异的一门学科。

对这个定义，有一些不同的理解。

有的学者认为，此研究应以语言为重点，联系社会因素的作用研究语言的变异；有的学者认为是语言的社会学，研究语言和社会的各种关系，使用语言学的材料来描写和解释社会行为，并将语言当做社会现象考察。

[1]中文名索绪尔外文名Saussure概况听语音在当前中国，“社会语言学”与“文化语言学”、“语言文化学”等有相混的地方，应该把它们区分开来为好，给“社会语言学”一个较为固定的内涵、一个较为稳定的外延，不能作为一个“漫无边际”的“糊里糊涂”的概念。

社会语言学在当前中国，主要是一些研究方言学的学者在做，或者说是一些学者从方言学的领域中转移过来的。

这有一定的原因，方言与文化、方言与民俗之间，等等，本来就关系较为紧密，这也是促成中国社会语言学形成的一个原因。

社会语言学将从以下两个领域进行探索：第一，是社会生活的变化将引起语言（诸因素）的变化，其中包括社会语境的变化对语言要素的影响。

第二，从语言（诸因素）的变化探究社会（诸因素）的变化。

在第一个领域中，社会是第一性，社会有了变化，才引起语言的变化。

在第二个领域中社会仍是第一性，但未会有像语言相对论者所认为，有什么模式的语言就会产生什么样的社会模式或者社会文化。

社会语言学的任务是在于描述“语言和社会结构的共变”。

“共变”是现代语言学常用的新术语。

该命题说的“共变”是现代语言学常用的新术语。

该命题说的“共变”似乎指语言是一个变数。

这两个变数互相影响，互相作用，互相制约，互相接触而引起的互相变化。

[2]代表人物听语音索绪尔索绪尔（Saussure，1857-1913）首先提出社会语言学的研究方向。

他认为Language分为两个方面：一是语言（Langue）即平时人们研究的语言系统或是总结语言的使用，例如语法，句法，词法等；另一个方面便是言语（Parole），即社会语言学，语言的当代的使用偏好，与当代社会相关联的研究方向。

第三章英语语言学第一节语言学概述语言学（linguistics）是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language,but languages in general.语言学研究的范畴（The scope of linguistics）比较广泛，包括以下几个方面：语音学（Phonetics）、音系学（Phonology）、形态学（Morphology）、句法学（Syntax）、语义学（Semantics）、语用学（Pragmatics）、社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、应用语言学（Applied linguistics）。

此外，在语言学中还有一些需要区别的概念，比如：① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）③ Speech and writing言语与文字④ Langue and parole语言和言语⑤ Competence and performance语言能力与语言运用第二节语音学语音学（phonetics）是对发音特征的研究（phonetics is the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds or the study of the phonic medium of language) 。

口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。

从社会语言学角度浅谈英语语言性别差异英语是全球最广泛使用的通用语言之一，同时也是世界上最具有性别差异的语言之一。

从语言学角度来看，英语语言性别差异主要表现在词汇、语法、发音等方面。

本文将从社会语言学角度来探讨英语语言中的性别差异。

一、英语词汇中的性别差异1.职业名称的性别歧视2.确立女性特有词汇英语中也有一些词汇是专指女性的，例如“girl”，"lady"，"mother"，等等。

这些词汇的使用并不会引起任何负面情绪，因为它们表达的是女性的特殊身份和地位。

1.代词的性别英语中的代词分为主格代词和宾格代词，主格代词有I，you，he，she，it等，宾格代词有me，you，him，her，it等。

在英语中，代词并没有设置专门的性别区分，但是在实际使用时，会根据代指的人的性别来选择相应的代词。

例如， "he"和"him"都是用于指代男性的。

英语中的名词也没有设置专门的性别区分，但是在实际使用中，会根据其所指的实物的性别来进行区分。

例如，"father"和"mother"，"brother"和"sister"，"king"和"queen"等都是用来区分男性和女性的。

1.语音的高低调英语中的语音分为高音调和低音调，而这两种语音在性别上也有一定的区分。

比如，男性说话时通常会使用较低的音调，而女性则会使用较高的音调。

因此，在英语语言学中，发音可以体现出性别的差异。

2.语速的快慢在英语中，发音的快慢也可以体现出性别的差异。

研究发现，女性说话的速度通常比男性快，而且女性的说话语音往往更为纯正。

社会语言学论文A Brief Analysis of Gender Differences in Language******学号：************院系：外国语学院班级：英语1101指导教师：***二〇一四年五月二十三日A Brief Analysis of Gender Differences in LanguageAbstractSociolinguistics is the descriptive study that concentrates on the study of how language is used, and the effects of language use on society. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, for instance, ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, etc. With regard to this paper, the emphasis will be put onto the differences in the actual speech of different gender. We can classify the gender differences in language into two categories. The first category is mainly about sexism in language, as for this category, we mainly focus on how speakers demonstrate their different cultural attitudes toward different genders. The second category is about the differences in the actual speech of men and women.In the first part, I will make a brief introduction about sociolinguistics and gender differences in language. In the second part, it will concern the categories of gender differences in language and previous study of gender differences in language. The third part concentrates on the approach of the analysis. The fourth is about the data collection and research methodology. The fifth part analyzes the differences of the speech between men and women from three perspectives— the purpose of the speech, the topic of the conversation and the mode of the speech. The final part comes to the conclusion about the gender differences in language.Key words: Gender differences, sociolinguistics, analysisMain Body1、IntroductionThe knowledge of gender differences in language is very helpful for language learners, and gender differences may exist not only one but all languages. Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women make more minimal responses than men is akin to saying that men are taller than women. The initial identification of a women's register was by Robin Lakoff in 1975, who argued that the style of language served to maintain women's role in society. A later refinement of this argument was that gender differences in language reflected a power difference. However, both these perspective have the language style of men as normative, implying that women's style is inferior. More recently, Deborah Tannen has compared gender differences in language as more similar to 'cultural' differences. Comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style, aiming to communicate factual information, whereas women have a rapport style, more concerned with building and maintaining relationships. Such differences are pervasive across mediums, including face-to-face conversation, written essays of primary school children, email, and even toilet graffiti. Communication styles are always a product of context, and as such, gender differences tend to be most pronounced in single-gender groups. One explanation for this, is that people accommodate their language towards the style of the person they are interacting with. Thus, in a mixed-gender group, gender differences tend to be less pronounced. A similarly important observation is that this accommodation is usually towards the language style, not the gender of the person. That is, a polite and empathic male will tend to be accommodated to on the basis of their being polite and empathic, rather than their being male.All in all, gender differences can be reflected in many aspects in our daily life, we should pay more attention to it, thus we can avoid many misunderstandings between men and women.2. Literature ReviewCategories of Gender Differences in LanguageAccording to Wolfson, the research about language and sex can be divided into two categories. The first category is about sexism in language and the ways in which speakers demonstrate their different cultural attitudes toward men and women. Two areas of sexism in English have been well-studied. One is that females are excluded from mention in English because the generic he/man problem. Men are regarded as the representatives of all human beings and their speech is the standard, while women are seen as inferior and secondary in society. The second is that females are give negative treatment in society. Bad words in our daily is always related to female words. Female words are often used to insult a male, whereas male words are usually used to compliment female.The second category is about the differences in the actual speech of men and women. The formation of these differences in language may have historical, physiological, social and psychological factors. Lakoff (1973) was one of the early articles to deal with the issue of differences in men’s and women’s speech. She has concluded six major characteristics of women’s speech: lexical choice, question intonation in statements, hedges which includes tag questions and statement modifiers which remove assertive force, emphatic modifiers and intonational emphasis, hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation and superpolite forms.3. Theoretical FrameworkThe contrast analysis of male and female language in daily conversation concerns many aspects, such as the topic of the conversation, the mode of the conversation and so on. The differences of the speech between men and women may result from their conception of value, their hobby and their interest etc. They hold different opinions according to the same matter. So we can refer to the ethnography of speaking in describing the gender differences in language. Ethnography refers to theinvestigation of cultures using a particular methodology, that of participant observation. The ethnography of speaking proposed by Dell Hymes in 1962.…The ethnography of speaking is concerned with the situations and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity in its own right. (Hymes 1962:101) This ethnographic framework takes into account the various factors that are involved in speaking. An ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative event achieves its objectives. (Wardhaugh1998)Conversation means to exchange ideas through interaction, so we can also employ the approach of interactional sociolinguistics—rapport talk proposed by Deborah Tannen (1984,1982) to analyze the gender differences in language. Tannen (1990a) has described the characteristics of men and women’s speech from nine dimensions: intimacy-independence, connection-status, inclusive-exclusive, relationship-information, rapport-report, community-contest, problems-solutions, novice-expert and listening-lecturing. From the description, we can conclude that women’s speech tends to be solidarity, yet men’s speech tends to be independent.4. Research MethodologyThere is a binary distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative research is inductive, subjective, ungeneralisable, soft, process and verification oriented, hypothesis-driven, and hypothesis generating research, while quantitative research is deductive, objective, generalisable, hard, outcome and discovery oriented, data-driven and hypothesis testing research.In this paper, I employ the quantitative and descriptive methodology to discuss the differences of the speech between men and women. Firstly, the characteristics of women and men’s speech are collected. Secondly, the differences are described through the collection.5. Contrast Analysis of Speech of Men and Women in Daily ConversationThe speech of women differs from the speech of men in daily conversation. Men and women differ in the kinds of language they use because men and women often fill distinctly different roles in society. We can analyze the differences of the speech of men and women from many aspects, such as the purpose of the speech, the topics of the speech and the mode of the speech. Many of the differences may result from different socialization practices.5.1 The purpose of the conversationThe purpose of the women’s speech is to establish the rapport relationship among the members in the community. They try their best to become a member of the community. They want to keep intimate relationship through interaction. So in their speech, the main purpose is to express their feelings and listen to others. The style of their speech appears more obedient and negative.However, the purpose of men’s speech is task-oriented, they have a more analytical approach, so they try to solve problems and troubles through interaction. They seldom express their intimate feelings to others. They also want show their independence in the communication. So it is absolutely different from the purpose of the women’s conversation.5.2 The topic of the conversationThe topic of women’s conversation is different from that of men’s. The topic of the women’s conversation mainly concerns social life, emotion, this can not be separated from their position, profession, social status, and personality. Women’s speech is regarded as trivial and gossip-laden because in the speech community of women, they mainly discuss clothing, love, family, trifles in daily life, experience, emotion, food and drink, life’s troubles. The purpose of the speech is to show the intimate relationship with the addressees, and through the speech they want to reinforce their membership in the community.On the contrast, men show great interest in topics concerning business, politics, legal matters, sports, geography, economy and military etc., these aspects can reflect their solid position in society.6. ConclusionIt can never be denied that gender differences do exist in all languages. Since women and women play different role in social life, they will definitely employ the different skills or methods in their communication or conversation.Women’s speech is different from men’s speech in lexical choice, syntax and pragmatics in daily life. Like O’Barr and Atkins said, “women’s language ” would be more appropriately termed “powerless language”. It demonstrated to us that means this kind of language is less convincing, less intelligent, less competent, and less trustworthy, because women are more concerned about the emotion, intimacy, food, dress, relationship in conversation, they are always ready to share their happiness and sadness with people close to them or even strangers. However, men’s language is regarded as power because the controlling status in society, and what they are interested in is business, military, politics, sport and geography, they communicate with others in order to exchange ideas with them.After learned the sociolinguistics as well as this brief analysis of the gender differences in language, I came to realize that, as a language learner, we should not only learn the basic knowledge about language, but also know the culture of the language. What’s more, I realize that the gender differences in language can never be neglected in language learning for the essential role it plays.Reference1.Nessa Wolfson. Perspectiv e: Sociolinguistics and TESOL, Heinle & Heinle Publishers2.赵蓉晖.《语言与性别：口语的社会语言学研究》.上海外语教育出版社3.陈琳. 《英语中女性特点及其发展趋势探究》.《语文学刊》. 2010年第10期4.杨永林. 《社会语言学研究》.上海外语教育出版社20045.胡文仲.《超越文化的屏障》.外语教学与研究出版社。

Chapter 8 Language And Society1. Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also used to establishand maintain social relationships.1. The relatedness between language and society2. The users of the same language in a sense all speak differently related to their语言和社会的关联social background.3. The structure of language vocabulary is different,reflects both the physical andsocial environments of a society.There are different words about snow in Eskimo.1.The scope of sociolinguistics 1. Speech community (linguistic community) : is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to社会语言学范围 2. Speech community and speech variety a community mainly based language. It’s generally defined as a group of people who言语社团和言语变体have the opportunity to interact with each other and there are exist various social groupsdefined not only by the speaker’s geographical background, but also by their educationalbackground, their occupation, gender, age, or ethnic affiliation.2. Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech usedby a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be foundat the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the languageThree types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies1 Regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. (同一地理区域使用的)2.V arieties of language 2 sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (特定社会阶层使用的)语言的各种变体 1. Dialectal varieties 3 language and gender.女性的语言比男性“更正确”原因在女性对自己身份更看重(more status-conscious)4 idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age5 language and age6 ethnic dialect; is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it’s mainly spoken by a lessprivileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination and segregation1. Field of discourse语场：指社会行为的类型，即正在进行的活动的领域和目的，包括谈话的主题。

英语语言学分支语言学是研究语言的科学，包括多个分支，每个分支关注语言的不同方面。

以下是一些主要的英语语言学分支：1. 音韵学（Phonetics and Phonology）：研究语音的产生、传播和接收，以及语音单位在语言中的组合和分布。

音韵学关注语音的物理性质和声学特征。

2. 形态学（Morphology）：研究语言中的词的内部结构和形态变化。

形态学关注单词如何形成，以及单词内部构建的规则。

3. 句法学（Syntax）：研究句子的结构，包括词与词之间的关系，以及句子的组成方式。

句法学关注语法规则是如何用来生成合乎语法规范的句子的。

4. 语义学（Semantics）：研究词和句子的意义。

语义学关注语言中词汇和句法单位的意义，以及它们如何组合形成合适的语言表达。

5. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言使用的上下文依赖性和语境中的语言交际。

语用学关注说话者和听话者之间的信息传递，以及言语行为在特定情境中的作用。

6. 社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）：研究语言和社会之间的关系。

社会语言学关注方言、语言变异、语言政策等与社会因素相关的语言现象。

7. 心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）：研究语言的心理过程，包括语言习得、语言记忆、语言理解等。

心理语言学关注语言在认知过程中的作用。

8. 历史语言学（Historical Linguistics）：研究语言的历史演变和变化。

历史语言学关注语言家族、语言演化、语言接触等方面的变化。

9. 比较语言学（Comparative Linguistics）：研究不同语言之间的相似性和差异。

比较语言学关注语言之间的语法结构、词汇和语音的比较。

这些分支共同构成了语言学的广阔领域，每个分支都有其独特的研究对象和方法。

linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。

它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。

它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。

它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。

4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。

它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。

它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。

它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。

7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。

它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。

8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。

它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。

9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。

它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。

这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。

不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。

Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核目标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应用：Halliday’s register theory一、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。