语言学教程英文版

Linguistics语言学教程Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It explores how language works, how it evolves, and how it is used in communication. This field of study encompasses various sub-disciplines, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. In this linguistics tutorial, we will delve into each of these areas and explore their significance in understanding language.Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech. It focuses on the articulatory and acoustic properties of sounds, and how they are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonetics helps us understand the different ways in which sounds are made, such as the movements of the vocal cords, tongue, and lips. This knowledge is crucial in understanding the nuances of pronunciation in different languages.Phonology, on the other hand, deals with the abstract organization of sounds in a language. It studies the patterns and rules that govern how sounds combine to form words. Phonology helps us identify the distinctive features of different languages and allows us to analyze the sound systems of individual languages.Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It focuses on the processes of word formation, such as affixation, compounding, and inflection. Morphology helps us understand how words are created, how they change in different grammatical contexts, and how they convey meaning.Syntax is the study of how words combine to form grammatically correct sentences. It examines the rules and principles that govern sentence structure and word order. Syntax enables us to understand the grammatical structure of sentences and analyze the relationships between words within a sentence.Semantics focuses on the study of meaning in language. It explores how words and sentences convey meaning and how meaning is interpreted by speakers. Semantics helps us understand the nuances of word meanings, the relationships between words, and the various levels of meaning in language.Lastly, pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language. It examines how meaning is shaped by the speaker, the listener, and the specific situation in which communication takes place. Pragmatics helps us understand how meaning is inferred from implicit cues, such as tone of voice, gestures, and shared knowledge.Understanding the different sub-disciplines of linguistics is essential in unraveling the complex nature of language. It provides insights into how language is organized, how it is used, and how it evolves over time. Linguistics also has practical applications in fields such as education, translation, and language acquisition.In conclusion, linguistics is a multifaceted field that encompasses the study of various aspects of language. From the physical sounds of speech to the intricate nuances of meaning, linguistics allows us to unravel the mysteries of human communication. By understanding how language works, we gain a deeper appreciation for its complexity and the role it plays in our everyday lives.注意：以上文本仅供参考，不要将其作为最终版本，因为它是通过训练模型生成的，无法保证绝对的准确性和戏剧性。

《语言学教程》Chapter2phoneticsIntroduction to Phonetics:Speech Sounds and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): Articulatory Phonetics:Articulatory phonetics focuses on how speech sounds are produced and articulated by the vocal organs. These organs include the tongue, lips, teeth, and vocal cords. The sounds are produced by manipulating these organs to create different configurations and airflow patterns. For example, the sound [p] is produced by closing the lips and then opening them to release a burst of air.Acoustic Phonetics:Acoustic phonetics analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds in terms of sound waves and their frequencies. Sound waves are vibrations that travel through the air and reach our ears, where they are processed and interpreted as speech sounds. Different speech sounds have distinct acoustic properties, such as their pitch, loudness, and duration. These properties are measured and analyzed to better understand the characteristics of each sound.Auditory Phonetics:Auditory phonetics investigates how speech sounds are perceived and processed by the human auditory system. When we hear speech sounds, our ears detect the sound waves and send them to the brain for interpretation. The brain then matches these signals to specific speech sounds and recognizes their meaning. Auditory phonetics explores the mechanisms and processes involved in this perception and interpretation.Segmental and Suprasegmental Features:In linguistics, speech sounds can be classified into two categories: segmental and suprasegmental features. Segmental features pertain to individual sounds or phonemes, while suprasegmental features refer to properties that extend beyond individual sounds, such as stress, intonation, and rhythm. These suprasegmental features contribute to the melody and rhythm of speech and can carry additional meaning and emphasis.Phonetic Transcription:Conclusion:。

Chapter 3 LexiconTime periods: two classesTeaching contents:3.1 definition of a word3.2 The formation of wordsTeaching aims and requirementsLearn by heart:1. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.2. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Know:1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. Two different fields of morphology, including inflectional morphology and derivational morphology.Understand:1. Definition of a word2. The classifications of word according to different aspects3. The formation of wordsTeaching focus and difficulties:Focus：1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.3. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Difficulty:1. Classification of morphemes2. Inflection and derivations.1. Review what we have learned in last chapter, and ask some students to answer the following questions: (5m)1) How are English consonants classified?2) How are English Vowels classified?3) What are phonemes and allophones?2. Study3.1 Definition of a wordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.Zhang Weiyou (1999)a minimum free formStability --internal structure (can’t rearrange)relative uninterruptibility --internal structure (can’t insert)Classification of words(1)Basic word stock & non-basic vocabularyContent words & functional wordsNative words & borrowed wordsVariable words & invariable wordsOpen-class words & closed-class wordsTraditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesClassification of words (2)Variable words & invariable words (variability)—variable words: the words whose form is changeable, words which might appear in different inflective and derivative forms, v. n.—invariable words: the words whose form is unchangeable, words which usually occur in the same form such as: since, in, for, of, at, on Classification of words (3)Open-class words & closed-class words (membership)--open-class words: membership is unlimited, n. v. (economic words, scientific words.)--closed-class words: membership is comparatively limited. Pronouns, conj, prep. Articles.Classification of words (4)Traditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesTraditional parts of speech:N. v. adj. Adv. Prep. Conj. Interj.ArticleAdditional four categoriesParticles : 小品词infinite maker ‘to’, negative maker ‘not’, subor dinate units in verbal phrases.Auxiliaries: 助词(助动词、情态动词)Pro-form 代词形式pro-v. pro-adj.e.g. He likes the animal, so do i.e.g. The desk is white, so is the chair.Determiners 限定词‘the’, ‘a’, ‘some’, ‘all’e.g. ‘all the beautiful Chinese girls’,3. Study 3.2 The formation of word1) Ask the students to skip over this section and find out the answers to the following questions:a. What is morphology?b. What is morpheme? What is the biggest difference between morpheme and phoneme?c. How can we classify morphemes?2) 3.2.1 MorphologyDefinition: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components:morphemes.For example:Verbs are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective (adj.) or a noun (n.) 在形容詞或名詞加-ify變成動詞*simple (adj.) simplify (v) 簡化*quality (n) qualify (v)使具有資格*identity (n) identify (v) 認出MorphemesThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful components of words.E.g.: boyish孩子氣的;男孩似的boy, -ish (two morphemes)3) 3.2.2 Types of morphemes (1)Those that may constitute words by themselves,自由形式的詞素本身就是一個詞，可以單獨使用e.g.: boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes PK Bound morphemesThose that cannot occur alone,Bound morpheme includes two types: roots and affixes.e.g.: -s in dogs, -ed in worked, dis- in dislike, un- in unable.A certain affix here refers to an inflectional affix: grammatical endingsTypes of morphemes (2)Root: the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根Stem: the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干Affix: the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀E.g.: friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may be:Free: those that can stand by themselves,E.g.: black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,E.g.: -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: normally divided into:Prefix (dis-, un-) prefixes occur at the beginning of a word.suffix (-en, -ify) at the endinfix (foot-feet) in the middlePrefix 前綴mis- 誤mistake 誤解over- 過分overdo 做得過分Prefixed modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Exceptions are the prefixes be-, and en(m)-.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many caseschange its part of speech.Accordingly, there are noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, adverb-forming suffixes, and verb-forming suffixes.-er teacher, writer-ician “...(專)家,...工作者”electrician電工-bility “能力”possibility可能性-hood “時期”childhood幼年時期,童年時期-age “(人生的)某一時期”orphanage孤兒-ary (adj) elementary基本的, secondary第二位的-ful (adj) beautiful美麗的, delightful愉悅的, sorrowful悲傷的-en (V 使..) weaken使變弱, darken, deepen-ize (v …化) modernize使現代化-ly (adj+ -ly=adv n + -ly= adj) slowly慢慢地, friendly友善的-ward (往…方向) forward(adv)往前, eastward往東Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g.: friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.e.g.:*toler- (root) + affix –ate: tolerate忍受*quick (free morpheme) + affix –ly: quickly *careless (a derived form) + affix lessInflectional affix: Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case etc.e.g.: -ed, -s, -erHe had regular features. 他五官端正。

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. V elar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.In many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。

《语言学教程》（第五版）英文版读书笔记《语言学教程》是一本全面介绍语言学基本概念、理论和方法的英文教材，涵盖了语音、音系、形态、句法、语义、语用、社会语言学和语言变化等领域的内容。

本书采用了丰富的实例和分析方法，让读者能够深入了解语言学的细节和精髓。

本次读书笔记将从整体结构、核心概念、具体章节和思考题四个方面进行总结。

一、整体结构本书共分为18章，按照语言学的各个分支领域进行组织。

每章都以一个具体的主题为核心，通过讲解、举例、分析等方式，向读者呈现该领域的基本概念、理论和研究方法。

每章末尾还提供了关键词和思考题，便于读者巩固所学内容和进行深入思考。

全书结构清晰，内容丰富，具有很强的系统性。

二、核心概念本书涉及的核心概念包括语言的性质、语言的分类、语言的演变、语言的交际功能、语言的内部结构、语言的习得和第二语言习得等。

这些概念是语言学研究的基础，对于理解语言学的各个分支领域具有重要的意义。

本书在介绍这些概念时，采用了通俗易懂的语言和生动的实例，使读者能够轻松地理解和掌握这些概念。

三、具体章节第一章：语言的性质本章介绍了语言的定义、语言与文化的关系以及语言的多样性。

重点讲解了语言的符号性质和非任意性，强调了语言与文化之间的密切联系以及语言在不同文化中的差异。

此外，本章还介绍了语言在人类生活中的重要性以及语言习得的必要性。

第二章：语言的分类本章介绍了语言的分类方法，包括形态分类法和功能分类法。

形态分类法主要依据语言的词汇和语法特征进行分类，而功能分类法则更注重语言在实际交际中的作用。

本章还详细介绍了世界上各种语言的分布情况以及汉语和英语的分类地位。

第三章：语言的演变本章介绍了语言演变的定义和原因，分析了语言演变的规律和趋势。

重点讲解了语音、语法和词汇方面的演变，并通过实例展示了不同语言在不同历史时期的演变过程。

此外，本章还介绍了语言演变的研究方法和意义。

第四章：语言的交际功能本章介绍了语言的交际功能，包括信息传递、情感表达、社交联系和权力关系等。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. Language1.1 Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. What a person says (concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, and displacement.1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is n o logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

The course: Introduction to LinguisticsThe textbook: Linguistics: A Course Book (3rd ed.)The instructor: 王振亚 82388258 wangzhenya1969@ Chapter 1. Invitation to linguisticsNatural vs artificial languagesI. The definition of LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System：rule-governed *loves Mary John *bkooArbitrary: no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.A sound must seem to be an echo to its sense.Vocal: speech is primarySymbol: related to arbitrariness, language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they expressHuman: uniquely human or human specific or species specificCommunication: the primary function of languageII. Design features of languageThe defining properties of languageArbitrariness: not entirely arbitrary:onomatopoeic wordscompoundingsderivativessome surnamesDuality: the two subsystems of sound and meaningCreativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that are not present (structure-dependent operations)III. Functions of languageFunctions: broad categories of language usesInformative: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world.Interpersonal: when language is used to establish and maintain social relations Performative: when language is used to perform certain actsEmotive: when language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers’ emotions or attitudes towards something or someperson.Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes,e.g. greetings, farewells, etc.Recreational: when language is used for the pure joy of using itMetalinguistic: when language is used to discuss itselfIV. The definition of linguistics: The scientific study of languageV. Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations between speech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rulesgoverning the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds Morphology: the internal structures of wordsSyntax: the internal structures of sentencesSemantics: the study of meaning as encoded in languagePragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in contextMacrolinguistics: interdisciplinaryPsycholinguistics: psychology and linguistics combined, the psychological process in language production, comprehension and acquisition Sociolinguistics: sociology and linguistics combined, social functions of language and the social characteristics of language users, language varietiesand functionsAnthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: therelationship between language and cultureComputational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language:machine-translationVI. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs prescriptive studiesDescribing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive.Trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive Modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic vs diachronic studiesStudying language as it is used at a particular point in time is a synchronic study. Studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic studyLangue vs paroleLangue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stableParole is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable Competence vs performanceCompetence is the underlying knowledge about one’s language.Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations.Etic vs emicEtic studies aim at producing an exhaustive list of a linguistic phenomenon. Emic studies aim at knowing the relationships between the entities in that list. Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relationsSyntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction. Syntagmatically related elements form structures.Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. The three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics: the study of sound productionAcoustic phonetics: the study of sound transmission between interlocutors Auditory phonetics: the study of sound perceptionII. Speech organsLungs 肺trachea (wind pipe) 气管vocal folds (cords) 声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), close together(voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/ tongue tip舌尖tongue blade舌叶tongue front舌前tongue back舌后tongue root舌跟epiglottis会厌：a thin cartilaginous flap that covers the entrance to the larynx during swallowing, preventing food from entering the trachea. hard palate硬颚soft palate (velum) 软颚uvula小舌teeth 牙teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) 齿龈lips (labium) 唇nose鼻larynx喉pharynx咽vocal tract声道III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptionsSegments: smallest components of speech: bit -- /b/, /i/, /t/Divergence: no one-to-one correspondent between pronunciation and spelling: ou –enough, house, through, though, etc.Phonetic transcriptions: international phonetic alphabet. Its main principles include:1)there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound,2)the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it occurs,3)it was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new lettersand diacritics only when absolutely necessary.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标Diacritics: showing the minute differences between variations of the same sound,e.g. h for aspirated sounds, ~ for nasalized sounds, 0 for devoiced sounds. Broadtranscriptions do not make use of these diacritics, while narrow transcriptions do.IV. ConsonantsConsonants: when there is an obstruction of the air stream in the production of a sound1) Manners of articulation:Stop 爆破音: complete closure of the articulators: oral stop: /g/, nasal stop: /m/ Fricative摩擦音: close approximation of two articulators: /s/, /z/(median or central) approximant央通音: an articulator is close to another without producing a turbulent air stream /r/, /j/Lateral approximant边通音: /l/Affricate破擦音: /t∫/2) Places of articulationBilabial唇音: two lips: /m/Labiodental唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper front teeth: /f/Dental齿音: the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth: /θ/Alveolar齿龈音: the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge: /t/Post-alveolar后齿龈音: the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge: /∫/ Palatal硬颚音: the tongue front and the hard palate: /j/Velar软颚音: the tongue back and the soft palate: /k/Glottal声门音: /h/3) Voicing4) Nasal vs oral5) Lateral vs centralV. VowelsCardinal vowels: the reference points for the description and classification of vowels.i ue oЄɔa ɑ1) The part of the tongue that is raised: front /i:/, central /ə/, back /α/2) The height of the tongue: high, mid, low; closed /i:/, half closed /e/, half open /ε/, open /a/3) The degree of lip rounding: rounded /u:/, unrounded /i:/4) Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/5) Long vs short vowels or tense vs lax vowels: /i:/, /I/Vowels in EnglishFront central backHigh i: (beet) u: (boot)I (bit) ʊ (put)e (bait) o (boat)Mid Є (bet) əə: (worker) ɔ: (bought)ɒ (hot, Br.)æ (bat) ⋀ (but) ɒ (hot, Am.)low a (buy) ɑ: (farm)diohthongs: eI aI au ɔIou Iə uə eəVI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionCoarticulation协同发音: in speech a sound may become more like its neighbouring sound.Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the following sound, e.g. impossiblePerseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the preceding sound, e.g. playVII. Phonological analysisPhonemes音位: distinctive speech soundsminimal pairs最小对立体: pairs of words that differ in only one sound, e.g. pit-bit, bet-bat, cat-capcontrastive distribution对立分布: the two different sounds in a minimal pair are in contrastive distribution. Normally sounds in contrastive distribution are different phonemes.Allophones音位变体: variants of the same phoneme, e.g. light-wheel-play: clear-dark-devoiced, pipe: aspirated-unaspiratedcomplementary distribution互补分布: those sounds that never occur in the same environment are in complementary distribution, e.g. clear [l] before a vowel-dark [l] after a vowel-devoiced [l] after a voiceless consonant, aspirated [p] initially-unaspirated finallyphonetic similarity语音相似性: allophones of the same phoneme must be phonetically similar, e.g. /h/-/ŋ/pattern congruity模式一致性: when assigning a sound to one phoneme rather than another, we must take the sound pattern of the language into consideration, e.g. top [t]: alveolar, stop, voiceless, aspiatedstop [t]: alveolar, stop, voiceless, unaspiateddot [d]: alveolar, stop, voiced, unaspiratedst-sdPhonological processesAssimilation同化: when a sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundregressive assimilation逆同化: when a sound is influenced by the following sound, e.g. supportprogressive assimilation顺同化: when a sound is influenced by the preceding sound, e.g. stopPhonological processes: processes in which a sound undergoes a change in certain environments or contexts and we can write phonological rules to represent these changes: e.g.Voiced sound → voiceless / voiceless _________A voiced sound is transformed into a corresponding voiceless sound when it occurs after a voiceless sound: e.g. play→ is transformed into; / specifies the environment in which the change occurs; _________ indicates the position of the target sound.An alveolar sound → velar / _________ velarAn alveolar sound is transformed into a corresponding velar sound when it occurs before a velar sound: e.g. sinkVIII. Distinctive featuresDistinctive features: according to Prague School linguists, a phoneme can be further analyzed into a set of features and the distinctive features are phonological; binary; articulatorily and acoustically based features.Phonological: voicing-aspirationBinary: present or absentarticulatorily and acoustically based features: articulatory or acoustic features. IX. Suprasegmental phonology超切分音系学concerned with those aspects of sound features that involve more than single sound segmentsSuprasegmental phonemes超切分音位: stress, pitch, intonationSyllables and syllabic structures: typically, a syllable consists of onset (consonant preceding the rhyme) and rhyme which consists of nucleus or peak (vowel or syllabic consonant) and coda (consonant following peak).σ (syllable)onset rhymepeak codac a p (CVC)The onset position may be empty (e.g. eat) or filled by a consonant (e.g. cap) or a consonant cluster of two or three consonants (e.g. play, street). The nuclear position may be filled by a vowel (e.g. cap) or a syllabic consonant (e.g. pencil,pardon). And the coda position may be empty (e.g. tea) or filled by a consonant (e.g. cap) or a consonant cluster of two, three or four consonants (e.g. caps, sixth, sixths). So the syllabic structure in English can be represented as:(((C) C) C) V ((((C) C) C) C)Open syllable: a syllable without a coda (e.g. tea)Closed syllable: a syllable with a coda (e.g. cap)Stress: degree of force used in the production of a syllableword stress: distinctive, e.g. PERfect, perFECT; REcord, reCORDsentence stress: normally, content words are stressed in sentences, while grammatical words are unstressed, but in principle, sentence stress can fall on any word or syllable, e.g. He `went away-`John went a`way. She’s `fifteen years old-She’s `only fif`teen.Pitch: different rates of the vibration of the vocal cords produce what is known in acoustics terms as different frequencies and in articulatory terms as different pithes. Pitch variations are called tones: tone languages and non-tone languages Intonation: when pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentences rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.1) intonation can indicate different sentence types: yes-no interrogatives vs other types of sentences.2) intonation can impose different sentence structures on sentences, e.g.Tom didn’t come because of MaryTell me when the plane arrives in London.下雨天留客天留我不留。