Morphological approaches for an English pronunciation lexicon

英语词汇学试题Introduction and Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or formsof words, primarily through the use of _________construct.A. wordB. formC. morphemeD. root2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of theform and meaning of words.A. SemanticsB. LinguisticsC. EtymologyD. Stylistics3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes.A. GreekB. RomanC. ItalianD. Germanic4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis,syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.A. linguisticB. grammaticalC. arbitraryD. semantic5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices oflinguistic elements in a particular________ for special effectsA. situationB. contextC. timeD. place6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning,origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference.A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines andacademic areas.A. technicalB. artisticC. differentD. academic8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members ofparticular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves.A. SlangB. JargonC. Dialectal wordsD. Argot9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems tostand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.A. JargonB. ArgotC. Dialectal wordsD. Slang10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to thesub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it.A. workersB. criminalsC. any personD. policeman11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.A. ArgotB. SlangC. JargonD. Dialectalwords12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are nowrestricted only to specialized or limited use.A. commonB. littleC. slightD. great13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that havetaken on ______meanings.A. newB. oldC. badD. good14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words.They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are alsocalled _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.A. contentB. notionalC. emptyD. newII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and _____ofwords.17.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structuresof English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______.18.English lexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology,______,etymology, stylistics, ________.19.There are generally two approaches to the study of words , namelysynchronic and _______.nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 2) content words and functional words 3) native words and borrowed words 4)characteristics of the basic word stock.A B21 . Stability ( ) A. E-mail22. Collocbility( ) B. aught23. Jargon( ) C. por24. Argot ( ) D. upon25.Notional words( ) E. hypo26. Neologisms ( ) F. at heart27. Aliens ( ) G. man28. Semantic-loans( ) H. dip29. Archaisms ( ) I. fresh30. Empty words ( ) J. emirIV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) characteristics of the basic word stock 2) types of nonbasic vocabulary.31. dog cheap ( ) 32 a change of heart ( )33. can-opener ( ) 34.Roger ( )35. bottom line ( ) 36.penicillin ( )37. auld ( ) 38. futurology ( )39.brethren ( ) 40. take ( )V. Define the following terms.41. word 42. Denizens 43. Aliens 44. Translation-loans 45. Semantic-loansVI. Answer the following Questions46.Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning, sound and form with examples.47. What are the main characteristics of the basic word-stock? Illustrate your points with examples.48. Give the types of nonbasic vocabulary with examples.VII. Analyze and comment on the following.49. Classify the following words and point out the types of words according to notion.earth, cloud, run, walk, on, of, upon, be, frequently , the, five, but, a , never.50. Group the following borrowed words into Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.Dream, pioneer, kowtow, bazaar, lama, master-piece, port, shirtKey to Exercises:1.A2.C3.D4.A5.B6.D7.A8.B9.D10.B11.D12.A13.A14.B15.CI.16.meanings17.morphological, historical, usages 18. semantics, lexicography19.diachronic20.vocabularyII.21. G 22. F23. E24. H25. C26. A27. J28.I29.B30.DIII.31. the basic word stock; productivity32. the basic word stock; collocability33.the basic word stock; argot34.nonbasic word stock; slang35. nonbasic word stock; jargon36. nonbasic word stock ;terminology37.nonbasic word stock; dialectal words38. nonbasic word stock ,neologisms39. nonbasic word stock; archaisms40. the basic word stock; polysemyV-----VI. (see the course book)VII. 49. Content words: earth, clould, run, walk, frequently, never, fiveFunctional words: on, of, upon, be, the, but, a.50. Denizens: port, shirt,Aliens: bazaar, kowtowTranslation-loans: lama, masterpieceSemantic-loans:dream, pioneerChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary and Chapter 3 Word Formation I(练习2)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best completethe statement.1.It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000( some put it 5,000)languages, which can be grouped intothe basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.A. 500B. 4000C. 300D. 20002.The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly ______language.A. inflectedB. derivedC. developedD. analyzed3.After the _________, the Germanic tribes called Angles ,Saxons, and Jutes came in great numbers.A. GreeksB. IndiansC. RomansD. French4.The introduction of ________had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. BuddhismD. Islamism5.In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. With the invaders, many________words came into the English language.A. GreekB. RomanC. CelticD. Scandinavian6.It is estimated that at least ______ words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English.A. 500B. 800C. 1000 .D. 9007.The Normans invaded England from France in 1066. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of______ words into English.A. FrenchB. GreekC. RomanD. Latin8.By the end of the _______century , English gradually came back into the schools, the law courts, andgovernment and regained social status.A. 12thB. 13thC. 14thD.15th9.As a result , Celtic made only a ________contribution to the English vocabulary.A. smallB. bigC. greatD. smaller10. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian,Slovenian and _______.A. GreekB. RomanC. IndianD. Russian11.In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from thedead language.A. SanskritB. LatinC. RomanD. Greek12.Greek is the modern language derived from _______.A. LatinB. HellenicC. Indian D . Germanic13.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all belong to theItalic through an intermediate language called _______.A. SanskritB. LatinC. CelticD. Anglo-Saxon14.The ________family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish andSwedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.A. GermanicB. Indo-EuropeanC. AlbanianD. Hellenic15.By the end of the _______century , virtually all of the people who held political or social power and many ofthose in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin.A. 10thB.11thC.12thD. 13thII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as _______.17.. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings , Middle English was one of ______.18.It can be concluded that English has evoked from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present _____language.19.The surviving languages accordingly fall into eight principal groups , which can be grouped into an Easternset: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian ,Armenian and Albanian; a Western set :Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, _______.20.It is necessary to subdivide Modern English into Early (1500-1700)and _____ Modern English.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) origin of the words2)history off English development 3) language family.A B21. Celtic ( ) A.politics22. religious ( ) B.moon23.Scandinavian ( ) C. Persian24. French ( ) D.London25. Old English ( ) E. abbot26.Dutch ( ) F. skirt27.Middle English ( ) G. sunu28. Modern English ( ) H. lernen29. Germanic family ( ) I. freight30.Sanskrit ( ) J. NorwegianIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify types of morphemes underlined.31. earth ( ) 32.contradict ( )33. predictor ( ) 34. radios ( )35. prewar ( ) 36. happiest ( )37. antecedent ( ) 38. northward ( )38. sun ( ) 40. diction ( )V. Define the following terms.41. free morphemes 42. bound morphemes 43. root 44. stem 45.affixesVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.46. Describe the characteristics of Old English .47. Describe the characteristics of Middle English.48. Describe the characteristics of Modern English.VII. Answer the following questions with examples.49. What are the three main sources of new words ?50. How does the modern English vocabulary develop ?Key to exercises:I. 1.C 2.A 3.C 4.B 5.D 6.D 7.A 8.B 9.A 10.D 11.A 12.B 13.B 14.A 15.BII.16.Old English 17. Leveled endings 18. analytic 19. Germanic te(1700-up to the present )III.21. D 22. E 23. F 24. A 25. G 26. I 27. H 28. B 29. J 30. CIV.31. free morpheme/ free root 32. bound root 33. suffix 34. inflectional affix35. prefix 36. Inflectional affix 37. prefix 38. suffix 39. free morpheme/free root40.bound rootV.-VI ( See the course book )VII. 49. The three main sources of new words are :(1)The rapid development of modern science and technology ,e.g. astrobiology, green revolution ;(2)Social , economic and political changes; e.g. Watergate, soy milk;(3)The influence of other cultures and language; e.g. felafel, Nehru Jackets.50. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: (1) creation, e.g. consideration,carefulness; (2) semantic change, e.g. Polysemy, homonymy ; (3) borrowing ;e.g. tofu, gongful.Chapter 3 The Development of the English V ocabulary and Chapter 4 Word Formation II（练习3）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______.A.reversative prefixesB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes2.The prefixes contained in the following words are called ______: pseudo-friend, mal practice, mis trust.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes3.The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes4.The prefixes in words extra-strong, overweight and arch bishop are _____ .A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes5.The prefixes in words bi lingual ,uni form and hemis phere are ________.A. number prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes6.________ are contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.A.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeB. Prefixes of time and orderC. Locative prefixesD. Prefixes of degree or size7. Rugby ,afghan and champagne are words coming from ________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames8. Omega,Xerox and orlon are words from _________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames9.Ex-student, fore tell and post-election contain________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. locative prefixes10.Mackintosh, bloomers and cherub are from _______A. names of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames11.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes12.The prefixes in words anti-government , pro student and contra flow are _____-.A.prefixes of degree or sizeB. prefixes of orientation and attitudeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes13.Utopia ,odyssey and Babbit are words from ________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames14.The suffixes in words clockwise, homewards are ______.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes15.The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixesII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes tostem. This process is also known as_____.pounding , also called ________, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems . Wordsformed in this way are called _________.18. __________ is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.19. _________ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of anotherword . Words formed in this way are called blends or _____words.20 A common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using whatremains instead. This is called _______.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to types of suffixation.A B21. Concrete denominal noun suffixes( ) A. priceless22. Abstract denominal noun suffixes ( ) B. downward23. Deverbal noun suffixes(denoting people.)() C. engineer24. Deverbal nouns suffixes( denoting action,etc) （） D. darken25. De-adjective noun suffixes（）Ｅviolinist26. Noun and adjective suffixes ( ) F.happiness27. Denominal adjective suffixes ( ) G. arguable28. Deverbal adjective suffixes ( ) H.dependent29. Adverb suffixes ( ) I. adulthood30. Verb suffixes ( ) J. survivalIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of clipping 2) types of acronymy and write the full terms.31.quake ( ) 32. stereo ( ) 33. flu ( ) 34. pub ( ) 35. c/o ( )36. V-day ( ) 37. TB ( ) 38. disco ( ) 39.copter ( ) 40. perm ( )V.Define the following terms .41. acronymy 42. back-formation 43. initialisms 44. prefixation 45. suffixationVI. Answer the following questions with examples.46. What are the characteristics of compounds ?47. What are the main types of blendings ?48. What are the main types of compounds ?VII. Analyze and comment on the following:49. Use the following examples to explain the types of back-formation.(1) donate ----donation emote----emotion(2) loaf—loafer beg------beggar(3) eavesdrop---eavesdropping babysit---babysitter(4) drowse—drowsy laze---lazy50. Read the following sentence and identify the types of conversion of the italicized words.(1) I’m very grateful for your help. (2) The rich must help the poor.(3)His argument contains too many ifs and buts. (4) They are better housed and clothed.(5) The photograph yellowed with age. (6) We downed a few beers.Key to exercises :1. B2. C3. A4. B5. A6.C7.B8.D9.C 10.C 11.D 12.B 13.A 14.C 15.BII. 16. derivation position, compounds 18. Conversion 19. Blending(pormanteau) 20.clippingIII. 21.C 22. I 23. H 24. J 25.F 26.E 27.A 28.G 29.B 30.DIV.31. Front clipping, earthquake32. Back clipping, stereophonic33.Front and back clipping, influenza34.Phrase clipping, public house35. Initialisms, care of36. Acronyms, Victory Day37. Initialisms, tuberculosis38. Back clipping, discotheque39. Front clipping, helicopter40. Phrase clipping, permanent wavesV-VI. (See the course book)VII.49. There are mainly four types of back-formation.(1)From abstract nouns (2) From human nouns (3) From compound nouns and others (4) From adjectives50. (1)Verb to noun (2) Adjective to noun (3) Miscellaneous conversion to noun (4 ) Noun to verb (5) Adjective (6) Miscellaneous conversion to verbChapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers.Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2._______is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objectiveworld in the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships _______the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be ________.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5.Trumpet is a(n) _______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD.etymologically6.Hopeless is a ______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically7.In the sentence ‘ He is fond of pen ’ , pen is a ______ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically8.Walkman is a _______motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD.etymologically9.Functional words possess strong _____ whereas content words haveboth meanings, and lexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10.___is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historicalperiod, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s _______towards the personor thing in question.A. feeling .B. likingC. attitudesD. understanding12. ___ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh,dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that overlaps with stylistic and affectivemeanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD.collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ______.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. differentwords15.Reference is the relationship between language and the ______.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specificcountryII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggesttheir ______pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings ofmany are the sum total of the morphemes combined.18._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning of a word.19.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. Inother words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. 20.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and_________.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of motivation 2) types of meaning.A B21. Onomotopooeic motivation ( ) A. tremble with fear22. Collocative meaning ( ) B. skinny23. Morphological motivation ( ) C. slender24. Connotative meaning ( ) D. hiss25. Semantic motivation ( ) E. laconic26. Stylistic meaning ( ) F. sun (a heavenly body)27. Etymological motivation ( ) G.airmail28. Pejorative meaning ( ) H. home29. Conceptual meaning ( ) I. horse and plug30. Appreciative meaning ( ) J. pen and awordIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1)types of motivation 2) types of meaning.31. neigh ( ) 32. the mouth of the river ( )33. reading-lamp ( ) 34. tantalus ( )35. warm home ( ) 36. the cops ( )37. dear me ( ) 38. pigheaded ( )39. handsome boy ( ) 40. diligence ( )IV.Define the following terms .41. motivation 42. grammatical meanings 43. conceptual meaning 44. associative meaning 45. affectivemeaningV.Answer the following questions . Your answers should be clear and short.46. What is reference ? 47. What is concept ? 48. What is sense ?VI.Analyze and comment on the following.49. Study the following words and explain to which type of motivation they belong.50. Explain the types of associative meaning with examples.Key to exercises:1. C2.B3.D4.A5.C6.A7.C8.D9.A 10.B11.C 12.B 13.D 14.D 15.CI.16. meanings 17.multi-morphemic 18.Semantic motivation 19.origins 20.associative meaningII.21. D 22.A 23.G 24.H 25.J 26.I 27.E 28.B 29.F 30.CIII.31. Onomatopoeic motivation 32. Semantic motivation33. Morphological motivation 34. Etymological motivation35. Connotative meaning 36.Stylistic meaning37. Affective meaning 38. pejorative39. collocative meaning 40. appreciativeV-VI. See the course book.VII.49. (1) Roar and buzz belong to onomatopoeic motivation.(2)Miniskirt and hopeless belong to morphological motivation.(3) The leg of a table and the neck of a bottle belong to semantic motivation.(4) Titanic and panic belong to etymological motivation.50. Associative meaning comprises four types:(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, is often associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which makethem appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylistic values.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Words thathave emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it isthat part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field (练习5)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best completethe statement.1.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to ______.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages2.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of thesemantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional3._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meaningsproceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection4. _________ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first senseby successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation5.One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage6. ________refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly thesame essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms7. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is _______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy8. _________ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms9. The antonyms: male and female are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms10.The antonyms big and small are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms11.The antonyms husband and wife are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected termsposition and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms13.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are often employed in aconversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms14.From the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it was endowed with only one meaning . Thefirst meaning is called ______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning15.Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called_______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their ____, the second。

Chapter 3&4 summary于梦婷翻译方向班91Chapter 3Morphology --one of the scope of linguistics is instructed in chapter 3. Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Different rules apply to classify words.First one is part of speech(词性). Second one is meaning expressed. Third one is different classes.NounsVerbs lexical words（content words）Adjectives open class wordsWords can be divided into AdverbsConjunctionsPrepositions grammatical words（functional words）Articles closed class wordsPronounsLinguists define word as the smallest free form found in language. A free form is simply an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements；in many cases, it can even appear in isolation. For instance, The boys left. The plural marking -s is not a free form.The most important component（部份）of a word structure is the morphemeA morpheme which can be aword by itself is called free（词素, 形态素）t he smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Free and bound morpheme-‘s-s……二、compounding（复合构词法）3、derivation （派生法）、conversion （转化法）1）clipping （拆分））initials and acronyms （首字母缩写） 五、abbreviation （缩写法）3)blending （混合）六、back formation （反成法）7、neologism （coinage 新语） 八、borrowing(借用法)Chapter 4Syntax ，a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences is introduced in chapter 4. First ，sentence types must be mastered.simple sentenceAccording to their structure coordinate sentencecomplex sentenceSV/SVO/SVC According to the linear order of constituentsSVA/SVOO/SVOC/SVOA Second ，there are various approaches to syntactic studies. the traditional approachthe structural approachNew words may be coined from already existing words by Words may shift from one part of speech to another without theA blend is a combination of parts of wordsto form a third word which contains some Initials differ from acronyms in thatwhereas initials are read letter by letter ，An abbreviated word can be formed byDerivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a A borrowing word refers to a word or phrase which has been New words can be created to define new objects or ideas.the generative approach④the functional approachParts of speech 一、the traditional approachFunction of words categoriesConcord and government （一致性与一般语法）tense and aspect （时和体） 二、the structural approachsyntagmatic and paradigmatic relations （组合关系与聚合关系） endocentric and exocentric constructions （向心结构与离心结构）Immediate constitute analysis （直接成份分析法）3、the generative approach Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languages. A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes ，called syntactic categories ，which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. 一、The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. Here word level categories are divided into two kinds ： Nouns(N) Major lexical categories Verbs(V)An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serve as the centre or head of the whole.Typtical endocentric constructions are noun phrase ，verb phrase ，adjectiveThe syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in asequence or between elements which are all present.Agreement between words inTense ：A grammatical form connected with verbs ，which often show timeAspect ：A category of the verb designatingAdjective（A）Preposition（P）Determiner（Det）Degree words（Deg）Minor lexical categories Qualifier（Qual）Auxiliary （Aux）Conjunction（Con）二、Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases，the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase（NP），verb phrase（VP），adjective phrase（AP）and prepositional phrase（PP).Phrases can consist of just one word. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain ：headSpecifier ----left side of the headComplement ---right side of the head3、Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.book on the desk NP→（Det）N（PP）…The XP rule：XP→（specifier）X（complement）XPSpecifier head complement4S →NP VPLinguists take an abstrct category inflection （dubbed “infl ”）as their heads ，which indicates the sentence ’s tense and agreement. InflpNP infl VP 六、1)yes-no questionEg. Will the train arrive ？ First step ： CPC SNP Infl VP Det NwillVThe trian arrive Second step ： CPC SNP Infl VP Det N will V The trian arrive Inversion Third step ： CPC SInfl NP Infl VP will Det N will V The trian arrive 2）do insertion Eg. Do birds fly? CPC SNP Infl VP N Nonpst VBirds flyCPC SNP Infl VPN do VBirds flyCPC SInfl NP Infl VPwill N e VBirds fly3)wh movementEg. What languages can you speak？What languages can you_______speak_______?ABVPV NPspeak eeg. Who win the game？transformatiSurfaceA inversionB wh movementCPNP C SNP Infl VPNPe Pst VDet Nwin the game N。

Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。

前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。

2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。

（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。

语义的最小单位是语素。

语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。

2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。

英语起源和发展（Origin and development of English）English of (The Growth English)English development formThe history of the British people flourished in England (England). BC lived England British ancestors called Celtic (Celts), the British (Britons) is the most powerful tribal forces, for living in England, in the southern region, and they occupied the area called Britannia[BT! >C$QU+], and they speak with the language called celtic.In 55 BC (Gaul - today known as Gaul guarding the Rome region of France) will keep Caesar (Julius (Caesar[DN:: SU+K>K! L+]: 100 ~ 44B.C.) in the general volatile invasion of Britannia, opened the prelude to the Romans Britannia for 400 years. The Rome rulers also made a logical move to bring their Latin (Latin) into Britannia, making Celtic and Latin a more extensive language blend for more than 400 years.Ad 410 years after the withdrawal of forces from the Rome Britannia, the people of intrepid northern Pictish (Picts) aborigines headed Britannia infestation. At this time for a long time after the Romans under the wing of British people had become weak to northern Germany Angles[>$QgSL] lived in northern Germany, the Germanic Saxons[>K$EKQL] live, Jutes[DN and Germanic peoples of northwest Germany (German: CK]---- live Jutland Peninsula Germanic nationality for help. But the German Yankees to help the good busy not only lazy not to walk, even the British people forced to dominate the north and south to the west.These Yankees from Germany, the Angles family is the most numerous potential, and the occupied Britannia renamed Angleland[>$RgSS$QD], and later, Angleland's name has changed to England[>, RgS+QD]. The language used by Angles is called Englisc[>, RgS, KE], Lu, and on the one hand it begins to blend with Celt +Latin, and on the other hand, the popularity of its tribe has spread over Angleland. Linguists refer to the language used in Angleland during this period as Old English (Old English).By the middle of the 1000, the British royal family had inherited the throne. At this time it faces northwest France the English Channel (Normandy: Normandy[>Q& P+QD! ") in William and the Duke of Normandy (William [>V! SU+P]), which relies on virgin blood advocate the right to inherit the throne of England, was forced into the UK in 1066, this history is called the Norman Conquest (the Norman Conquest), and Prince William it is called William the Conqueror (William the Conqueror). Of course, French also flowed into England with the Norman, and during this period blended with "Celt + Latin + Angles/Saxon", forming the Middle English.After the The Norman Conquest for about 400 years, with the progress of the times, such as religious movement, the Anglo American folk literature rise, poetry and drama of embryonic development, as well as the Renaissance, the invention of printing, colonial competition, has the following significant changes in the development of english.1. a large vocabulary of Latin (Greek) and french.The morphological changes of 2. complex endings disappeared.3., the localization of local vocabulary.4., the disappearance of the gender inherent mark of nouns.5., to meet the needs of language and the development of the times, flexible absorption of foreign words.All these factors have evolved and formed the norms and characteristics of modern english. When linguists study the development of English, they usually differentiate modern English into early modern English (Early Modern English) and late modern English (Late Modern English).Second modern English (Modern English)With the development of modern English in this century, we can get a general picture of the whole of the following three points.A. vocabulary in modern English (Vocabulary)The vocabulary structure of modern English is as follows:(a) local vocabulary (i.e., Angle-Saxon): approximately 1/5 of the vocabulary of modern English and the majority of the everyday basic language, for example:Dog (dog), cow (cow), fish (FISH), bread (bread),Bed (bed), and, of, on, for, etc.(b) Latin vocabulary (including Greek) refers to the Latin word "Latin" meaning, accounting for about 3/5 of the vocabulary structure of modern English, that is, more than half. That's why today when we study English, there are many words that can be helped by Latin roots (Root),The reason for a prefix (Prefix), or suffix (Suffix), such as "student", "family"":"Studere - (enthusiastic, learning)" + "-ent" - student"Familia - (family)" + "-y" (noun) - familyFrench provides Latin into English to the sidewalk, of course itself into many, for example: Dinner (dinner), fruit (fruit), soup (soup), fork (fork), nation (National), Encore (encore, Encore), etcThe vocabulary of modern English can also be created in the light of the progress of the times, and the Latin or Greek roots are often used at this time. For example, the word "television" was coined in 1907""Tele (and beyond Greek roots)" + "-vision" (visual field - Latin suffix) - television.(c) foreign language: English foreign language about the structure of modern English vocabulary 1/5, its language isalso an impressive array of European countries, to borrow from all over the world language and its colonial language more. Such as:Italy:piano (Gang Qin), Violin (violin), etc.Spain:cigar (Xue Qie), mosquito (mosquitoes), etc.Arabia:coffee (coffee), zero (zero), etc.China:tea (tea), typhoon (typhoon), ctc.B. usage of modern english:Modern English can be divided into different levels in the world:(a) mother tongue (Mother tongue): native English speaking countries include the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada (including French), Australia, New Zealand and so on, using a population of about 350 million people.(b) (Second language) common language: English for public English speaking countries across five continents, all hosted former British colonies and the United States, the use of population estimated (by day terms can pass as the base) is about 2 billion 500 million. Of these 2 billion 500 million, English language proficiency is about 60 million.(c): in addition to the foreign language (a) (b) two, the world's other countries almost all English is the firstimportant foreign language in school education system in order to provide required courses or elective students learning. In Europe alone, according to a survey of 1991~1992 years old students aged 15 to 24 years old, English is the first important foreign language, with up to 83% of the learners. It is estimated that the English language is foreign, but more than 100 million people are fluent in speaking, writing and reading.The application of C. modern EnglishIn accordance with the evaluation criteria of modern language application value, namely, culture, education, economy, politics, science and technology, transportation, media and other aspects of the world's breadth and depth to assess, in today's world no second languages and English.Culture: Publications representing human knowledge and ideas each year, accounting for more than half of the world's publications by English publishers.Education: there are few regular universities in the world that do not have an English department or a graduate school, but there are so many students or scholars engaged in the study of English that no other language can look at them.Economy: Global trade activities and economic activities that affect human life are dominated by english.Politics: the United Nations, although identified in Britain, France and Russia, Spain and other five languages for the five largest language in the world, but the United Nations affairsexecutive with English as first language. Between the countries in the world political statement, talks, with English as the original agreement.Science and technology: global scientific and technological activities and data, dominated by English, are estimated to be around 70%. So far as the most advanced Inter-Net is available, without English is illiteracy.Traffic: the Russian Airlines entered the airport in Cairo, Egypt, and the German Airlines flight flew into the Japanese air district. The language they used to exchange flights was not Russian, German or japanese. They must all use english. Maritime traffic is also true.Media: five continents, no matter where the identity of the English language, public or foreign language, there are English newspapers or magazines in distribution or circulation, radio or television station have English programs in the broadcast, broadcast, or by listening to the program.In the light of all the listed above, English has undoubtedly been recognized as the most widely used, the most applied and the most efficient Esperanto language in the world today.Third sections of British English and American English(British, English, and, American, English)In the process of development of early modern English originally there is no British English and American English(BritishEnglis----BrE) (American English AmE) of the division, but in twentieth Century, because the United States began to participate in world affairs, to the second world war more fully demonstrated the strong force in playing a leading role on the world stage, Americans naturally speak English all over the world, even in the United Kingdom have attracted attention, considerable discussion and research from all walks of life.So, since the beginning of the seventeenth Century, when the British came to America with the colonial trend of the new world into America, what changes have taken place in the new environment for about four hundred years to form today's American English?According to the study of linguists, there are three main reasons:(1) snowclones: those colonists to the new world to cope with the new environment and the original word refers to the new things around that approximate. For example, "corn" in Britain means "grain", especially a region's staple grain, which means "wheat" ("wheat") in britain". But at that time the British people to see in the new world, the Indians are not the staple food grains of wheat and corn (maize), but then they still call to "corn", and in front of a "Indian" in contrast to the British "corn". This "Indian corn" use case first appeared in 1697, and later "Indian" gradually "no", and only "corn" directed at "corn"". Today we say "popcorn" for "pop-corn", absolutely no one says "pop-Indian-corn"".(2) in situ absorption of Aboriginal Language: AmE has absorbeda lot of Native American vocabulary, with more names of plants and animals and geographical names. Such as:Name: Ohio[o (>O%! O (] Ohio (originally referred to the Ohio River, beautiful is water "); Mississippi[P! K! >K! A!" (originally referred to the Mississippi River Mississippi, Father is of waters "); Kentucky[E+Q>C) E!] Kentucky (land of tomorrow). Etc.Animal name: moose[P (K]:: raccoon[T->E (Q]: moose; raccoons; skunk[KE) RE] skunks; etc.Botanical name: hickory[>O! E+T! "Hickory; sequoia[K! >EV&! Squash[KEV&M] +] Sequoia; pumpkin like; etc.(3) shift group: a new blend of the national language, early colonists and the founding of the United States after the naturalization of immigrants to the United States not only from the UK, the number of immigrants actually from European countries around the world and far beyond the british. These immigrants from all over the world continue to blend their native language with English, which is one of the main causes of the AmE. Such as:Chop-suey[>CM&A>su:i]: chop (a meat or chicken, onions and Steamed Rice American Chinese dishes, from Cantonese, Webster's dictionary has been officially included)Long time no see: long time no see (included in NIC's, Dictionary, of, American, English, Phrases, Idioms, Essential, American, II)Some linguists worry that the dividing line between BrE and AmE will grow as time goes by. But since the end of the two World War after half a century, because of the traffic, and the rapid development of information media and communication, the fact is that BrE and AmE have also followed the differences between each other blend, more and more narrow. For example, AmE "fall (Qiu Tian), OK (All right), etc." in Britain today is also very smooth, in turn BrE lift (lift), sweets (candy), etc. "in the United States there is no misfits phenomenon (details refer to the twenty-fourth chapter).Today, the trend of English Teaching in the mainland is still in the BrE dominated stage, but in the expected future, AmE will tend to increase its impact with the increasing activity of Americans on the mainland.。