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英语音标教学教案Lesson 1第一课英语字母名称音Letters and abbreviations字母和缩写Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Letters(字母分类)Abbreviations(缩写单词)Lesson 2第二课15个辅音字母及a的短音音素Look, listen and say看,听和说Pronunciation掐头法学读音读下列辅音字母名称音,将其第一个音去掉,余下的音,即为该字母在单词中的读音。
Ff /ef/ Ll/el/ Mm /em/ Nn /en/ Ss /es/ Xx /eks/去尾法学读音读下列辅音字母名称音,将其后面的音去掉,余下的音,即为该字母在单词中的读音。
Bb /bi:/ Cc /si:/ Dd /di:/ Jj /dʒe I/ Kk /ke I/ Pp /pi:/Tt /ti:/ Vv /vi:/ Zz /zi:/Learn to read学习读一读f l m n s x b c d j k p t v z f l m n s x b c d j k p t v zAa/ æ/fat f-a-t fat cat c-a-t cat man m-a-n man flat fl-a-t flat肥的、胖的猫男人公寓A fat cat is in a man's hat.一只肥猫在一个男人的公寓里。
can c-a-n can fan f-a-n fan van v-a-n van 罐头电扇货车A can and a fan are on a van.一听罐头和一台电扇在一辆货车里。
cap c-a-p cap map m-a-p map lap l-a-p lap dad d-a-d dad帽子地图膝爸爸A cap and a map are on Dad's lap.一顶帽子和一张地图放在爸爸的膝盖上。
一、引言在英语语言中，我们经常会遇到一些缩写词或者简称词，比如UN、NASA、FBI等。
这些缩写词给我们的生活和工作带来了很大的便利。
但是，你知道这些缩写词都是从哪里来的吗？其实，这些缩写词大多数都是由词根组合而成的。
下面，我们就来详细了解一下abbreviation词根的由来和应用。
二、abbreviation词根的概念1. abbreviation词根的定义缩写词根是指可以独立存在，能够构成许多其他单词的子词根，是构成许多单词的基础。
2. abbreviation词根的特点（1）独立存在：abbreviation词根可以作为单词的基本构成部分，存在于词汇中。
（2）构成其他单词：abbreviation词根在组合不同的前缀、后缀和词根时，可以构成不同的词汇。
三、英语常见的abbreviation词根1. bio-（生命）bio是abbreviation词根的一个常见例子，它来源于希腊语，表示“生命”。
在英语中，我们经常可以看到以bio-为前缀的词汇，比如biology（生物学）、biography（传记）等。
2. geo-（地球）geo也是一个常见的abbreviation词根，它来源于希腊语，表示“地球”。
在英语中，以geo-为前缀的词汇也是非常常见的，比如geography（地理学）、geology（地质学）等。
3. chron-（时间）另一个常见的abbreviation词根是chron-，它来源于希腊语，表示“时间”。
在英语中，以chron-为前缀的词汇也很常见，比如chronology（编年史）、chronic（慢性的）等。
四、abbreviation词根在实际生活中的应用1. 科学领域在科学研究中，我们经常可以看到abbreviation词根的应用，比如在生物学、地质学、天文学等领域中，使用以bio-、geo-、astro-等abbreviation词根为前缀的词汇来描述各种科学概念。
语⾔学术语abbreviation缩写法acculturation语⾔⽂化移⼊acoustic phonetics声学语⾔学acronym词⾸字母缩略词address term称谓语addresser发话⼈addressee受话⼈adjacency毗邻Adjacency Condition毗邻条件Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数Affix词缀Affixation加词缀法Affricate塞擦⾳Afroasiatic⾮亚语系agreement rule⼀致关系规则allophone⾳位变体alveolar齿龈⾳alveolus齿龈angular gyrus⾓形脑回antonymy反义现象antonym反以词apocope词尾⾳脱落aphasia失语症aphasic失语症患者applied linguistics应⽤语⾔学arbitrariness任意性argument论元articulatory phonetics发⾳语⾳学articulatory variable发⾳变项aspiration送⽓assimilation同化approximation近似化auditory phonetics听觉语⾳学Austronesian…语系Babbling咿呀学语back-formation逆向构词法back vowel后元⾳Behaviorism⾏为主义Behaviorist learning theory⾏为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology⾏为主义⼼理学Bilabial双唇⾳Bilingualism双语现象Black English⿊⼈英语Blending混合法Borrowing借⽤bound morpheme黏着语素brain lateralization⼤脑左右半球侧化branching node分叉点broad transcription宽式⾳标Broca’s area布罗卡区caretaker speech保姆语case格Case Condition格条件case marking格标志causative verb使役动词central vowel中元⾳cerebral cortex⼤脑⽪层cerebral plasticity⼤脑弹性channel渠道classical language古典语⾔clipping略写法closed class word封闭类词code代码code-switching代码切换cognate同源词co-hyponyms并列下义词coinage创新词color word⾊彩词combinational rule组合规则commissives承诺类communicative competence交际能⼒comparative reconstruction⽐较重建法competence语⾔能⼒complement补语complement construction补⾜语complementarity互补性反义现象complementary distribution互补分布complex sentence复合句componential analysis成分分析法components of meaning意义成分compound word复合词compounding复合法computational linguistics计算语⾔学concept概念conceptualist view意念观consonant辅⾳constituent成分constituent structure成分结构constraint制约construction结构content word实词context语境;上下⽂contextualism语境论Contrastive Analysis对⽐分析法conversational implicature会话含义co-operative principle合作原则coordinate sentence并列句creativity创造性critical period关键期;临界期cultural transmission⽂化传播declaration宣告类deep structure深层结构dental齿⾳derivation派⽣法derivational morpheme派⽣语素derivative派⽣词descriptive linguistics描写语⾔学design feature识别特征determiner限定词diachronic linguistics历时语⾔学diacritics变⾳符号dialect⽅⾔dialectal synonym⽅⾔同义词dichotic listening test两⽿分听测试diglossia双⾔现象diphthong复合元⾳Directionalilty Parameter⽅位参数Directives指令类Displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctive feature区别性特征D-structure深层结构duality of structur结构⼆重性e double articulation结构⼆重性embedded clause⼦句emotive meaning表情意义entailment含义entity实体epenthesis插⼊⾳Error Analysis错误分析法euphemism委婉语evaluative meaning评价意义expressives表达类factive predicate叙述性谓词family tree谱系树feature symbol特征标记features of meaning意义特征finite clause定式字句finite verb定式动词formalize形式化fossilization语⾔僵化framework框架free morpheme⾃由语素fricative擦⾳front vowel前元⾳function word虚词functional shift功能性转换functor element起功能作⽤成分gender性Generative Grammar⽣成语法Generative Semantics⽣成语义学genetic predispotion基因先天条件genetic relationship亲缘关系glide滑⾳glottal喉⾳glottis声门graddabl opposites可分等级的反义词grammaticality语法性grammatical meaning语法意义Great Vowel Shift元⾳⼤变位hard palate硬腭head核⼼词hemispheric dominance for language⼤脑半球的语⾔优势hierarchical structure层次结构high variety⾼层次变体historical comparative linguistics历史⽐较语⾔学historical linguistics历史语⾔学holophrastic sentence独词句homography同形homonymy同⾳异义；同形异义homophony同⾳异义hyponymy下义关系hyponym下义词idiolect个⼈语⾔特点illocutionary act⾔外形为inconsistency⾃相⽭盾Indo-European印欧语系infinitive marker不定式标记inflection曲折变化inflectional morpheme曲折语素input输⼊instrumental motivation⼯具性学习动机intake接受integrativ emotivation介⼊性学习动机interference⼲扰interlanguage语际语internalize内在化International Phonetic Alphabet国际⾳标interpersonmal communication⼈际交际intuition语调labeled (unlabeled) tree diagram加标记树形图labial唇⾳LAD语⾔习得机制language acquisition语⾔习得language behavior语⾔⾏为language center语⾔中枢language faculty语⾔机制language family语系language perception语⾔感知language planning语⾔规划language variation语⾔变异larynx喉lax vowel松元⾳level层；平⾯level of language语⾔层次lexical category词类lexical structure词汇结构lexicology词汇学lexicon词汇linear structure线性结构linguistic competence语⾔能⼒linguistic determinism语⾔决定论linguistic lateralization语⾔侧化linguistic performance语⾔运⽤linguistic relativism语⾔相对论linguistic repertoire全部语⾔变体linguistic taboo禁忌语linguistics语⾔学liquid流⾳loan word外来词localization定位locutionary act⾔内⾏为low variety低层次变体manner of articulation发⾳⽅法matrix clause主句maxim of manner⽅式准则maxim of quality质量准则maxim of quantity数量准则maxim of relation关联准则meaning意义meaningfulness有意义meaning relation意义关系mentalism⼼理主义mentalistic theory精神论message信息metathesis语⾳变位Middle English中世纪英语minimal pair最⼩对⽴对Modern English现代英语Monophthong单元⾳Morpheme词素morphlogical rule形态学规则morphology形态学mother tongue母语Move α移动α规则movement rule移位规则naming theory命名论narrow transcription严式⾳标narrowing of meaning词义缩⼩nasal cavity⿐腔nasality⿐⾳化nasalize⿐⾳化natural route of development⾃然发展轨道negator否定词neurolinguist神经语⾔学家neuron神经元no-place predication空位述谓结构object宾语Old English古英语one-place predication⼀位述谓结构optimum age最佳学习年龄oral cavity⼝腔overextension扩展过度overgeneralization概括过度overt thought有声思维palatal腭⾳paralinguistic副语⾔学的parameter参数performance语⾔运⽤performance error语⾔运⽤错误perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为pharyngeal cavity咽腔phone⾳素phoneme⾳位phonemic contrast⾳位对⽴phonetic feature语⾳特征phonetics语⾳学phonological rule⾳位规则phonology⾳位学phrasal category词组类phrase structure rule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语place of articulation发⾳部位plosive爆破⾳polysemy多义性postpone后移prepose前移postvocalic元⾳后的pragmatics语⽤学predicate谓语predication述谓结构predication analysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀presprictive (grammar)规定语法presupposition前提proposition命题prepositional content命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics⼼理语⾔学puberty青春期qualifying predication修饰性述谓结构Received Pronunciation标准发⾳Recursiveness循环性Reference所指语义referring expression所指名词register语域relational opposites关系反义词representation表达；呈现representatives阐述类response反应retroflex卷⾆⾳rewrite rule重写规则rounded vowel圆唇元⾳SAE标准美国英语sapir-Whorf hypothesis…假设second language acquisition第⼆语⾔习得segment切分成分semantic anomaly语义异体semantic deviation语义变异semantic broadening语义⼴义化semantic narrowing语义狭义化semantic shift语义演变semantics语义学semantic structure语义结构semantic triangle语义三⾓sense意义sequential rule序列规则setting背景；环境sexist language性别歧视语sibilant咝⾳simple sentence简单句Sino-Tibetan汉藏语系situational dialect语域⽅⾔sociolect社会⽅⾔sociolinguistics社会语⾔学soft palate软腭species-specific capacity物种特有能⼒specifier指⽰语spectrograph频谱仪speech act⾔语⾏为speech community⾔语社区speech variety⾔语变体S-structure表层结构standard language标准语stem词⼲stimulus刺激stop爆破⾳stress重⾳structural constituency结构成分性structural linguistics结构主义语⾔学subject主语subordinate predication主从述谓性结构subscript下标subvocal predication⽆声⾔语suffix后缀superordinate上坐标词suprasegmental feature超切分特征surface structure表层结构synchronic linguistics共时语⾔synonymy同义词syntactic ambiguity句法歧义syntactic category句法类型syntactic rule句法规则syntax句法taboo word禁忌词target language⽬标语tautology同义反复teeth ridge齿龈隆⾻telegraphic speech电报式⾔语tense and aspect时和体tense vowel紧元⾳tone⾳调；声调tone language声调语⾔topic话题；主题transfer转移Transformational-Generative Grammar转换⽣成语法transformational rule转换规则tree diagram树形图two-place predication双位述谓结构unaspirated不送⽓underextension扩展不⾜Universal Grammar普遍语法Utterance话语utterance meaning话语意义uvula⼩⾆validity有效性variable变项velar软腭⾳velum软腭vernacular本地话；本国语vocal cord声带voiced浊⾳化的voiceless不带⾳的，清⾳的voicing带⾳化，浊⾳化vowel元⾳Wernicke’s area韦尼克区widening of meaning词义扩⼤X-bar theory X标杆理论。
语言学中英术语对照GlossaryandIndex Aabbreviation缩写词,略语Abercrombieablative夺格,离格abstractness抽象性accent重音（符）accuracy正确性accusative宾格achievementtest成绩测试acousticphonetics声学语音学acquisition习得acronym缩略语actionprocess动作过程actor动作者addition添加addressform称呼形式addressee受话人addresser发话人adjective形容词adjunct修饰成分;附加语adverb副词affix词缀affixhopping词缀跳跃affixation词缀附加法affricate塞擦音agreement一致关系airstream气流alliteration头韵allomorph词/语素变体allophone音位变体allophonicvariation音位变体allophony音位变体现象alveolarridge齿龈alveolar齿龈音ambiguity歧义ambiguous歧义的Americandescriptivelinguistics美国描写语言学AmericanEnglish美式英语AmericanIndianlanguages美国印第安族诸语言Americanstructuralism美国结构主义analogicalcreation类推造字anapest抑抑扬格anaphor前指替代anaphoricreference前指照应Anderson Animalcommunicationsystem动物交际系统animate有生命的annotation注解antecedent先行词;前在词anthropological人类学的anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学anticipatorycoarticulation逆化协同发音antonomasia换称;代类名antonym反义词antonymy反义（关系）appellative称谓性appliedlinguistics应用语言学appliedsociolinguistics应用社会语言学appropriacy适宜性appropriateness适宜性;得体性approximant无摩擦延续音Apteaptitudetest素质测试Arabic阿拉伯语arbitrariness任意性argument中项;中词;主目article冠词articulation发音articulator发音器官articulatoryphonetics发音语音学artificialspeech人工言语aspect体aspirated吐气;送气assimilation同化associative联想associativemeaning联想意义assonance准压韵;半谐音Atkinson,A.M.attributive属性;修饰语;定语auditoryphonetics听觉语音学Austin,JohnLangshawauthenticinput真实投入authorialstyle权威风格authoringprogram编程autonomy自主性auxiliary助词盪血里赵uJSi|enSui|!q互库@赵uoijisoddo|ejaje|iq昙leseu|eiqe|iq昙国赵leiqenqX王弘马lusunoiAeqaq葩耳¥马ssaDOjd|ejnolAeqaq jaAe M^q 切皋吧晋JuouodiuoDasequoijeujJo^DeqaSejsSui|qqeqaq」“人」ei|ixne binarydivision二分法binaryfeature二分特征binarytaxonomy二分分类学binding制约bindingtheory制约论BlackEnglish黑人英语blade舌叶;舌面前部blankverse无韵诗blending混成法borrowing借用;借词boundmorpheme粘着语素boundingtheory管辖论bracketing括号法brevitymaxim简洁准则bridging架接BritishEnglish英式英语broadtranscription宽式音标broadening词义扩大Browncorpus布朗语料库calculability可计算性calque仿造;仿造词语cancellability可删除cardinalnumeral基数cardinalvowel基本元音case格casegrammar格语法casetheory格理论category范畴categoricalcomponent范畴成分causative使役的;使投动词CD-I,compactdisk-interactive交互式激光视盘center中心词centraldeterminer中心限定词chainrelation链状关系chainsystem链状系统Chinese汉语choice选择choicesystem选择系统circumstance环境因子class词类classshift词性变换clause小句;从句click吸气音;咂音clipping截断法closedclass封闭类closedsyllable闭音节cluster音丛coarticulation协同发音coda结尾音节;符尾code语码;信码cognitivepsycholinguistics认知心理语言学cognitivepsychology认知心理学cognitivesystem认知系统coherence相关;关联cohension衔接co-hyponym同下义词colligation类连结collocativemeaning搭配意义colorword色彩词colorwordsystem色彩词系统command指令commoncore共核commonnoun普通名词communication交际communicativecompetence交际能力communicativedynamism,CD交际性动力communicativelanguageteaching,CLT交际语言教学法communicativeSentencePattern,CSP交际性句子模式communicativesyllabus交际教学大纲communicativetest交际性测试communicative-grammaticalapproach交际-语法教学法compactdisk激光盘COMPACTDISD-READONLYMEMORY,CD-ROM激光视盘comparativedegree比较级competence能力complement补语complementaryantonym互补反义词complementaryantonymy互补反义关系complementarydistribution互补分布complexpredicate复合谓语component成分componentialanalysis成分分析compositeproposition复合命题compositionality复合性compound复合词;复合句comprehension理解computation计算computationallinguistics计算语言学computationalsystem计算系统computer计算机;电脑computer-assistedlearning,CAL计算机辅助学习computercorpus计算机语料库computerhardware计算机硬件computerliteracy计算机操作能力computernetworks计算机网络computersystem计算机系统computer-assistedinstruction,CAI计算机辅助教学computer-assistedlearning,CALL计算机辅助语言学习conative意动的concept概念conceptualmeaning概念意concord一致（关系）concordance共现关系concretenoun具体名词concurrent同时发生的conjugation词形变化conjunct连接副词conjunction连接词conjunctionbuttressing连接词支撑connotation内涵consequent跟随成分consonance辅音韵consonant辅音constantopposition不变对立constative表述的constituentcommand成分指令constituentproposition成分命题constituentstructureanalysis成分结构分析constituent成分construct编制constructvalidity编制效度construction构建constructivism构建主义contact接触contentanalysis内容分析contentvalidity内容效度contentword实义词contextdependent语境依赖的contextofsituation情景语境context语境contextualanalyses语境分析contextualmeaning语境意义contrastiveanalysis对比分析controltheory控制理论controlledlanguage有控制的语言convention常规;规约conventionalmeaning常规意义;规约意义conventionality常规性;规约性conversationalimplicature会话含义conversationalmaxim会话准则converseantonymy相反反义现象conversion变换cooperativeprinciple,CP合作原则coordinateconstruction并列结构coordination并列Cordercoreferential互参的coronal舌面前音corpus(pl.corpora)语料;素材corpusdata语料库语料corpuslinguistics语料库语言学context上下文countable可数(名词) counterfactualproposition反事实命题couplet对句;对联creativity创造性;原创性Creole克里澳尔语;混和语cross-cultural跨文化cross-culturalcommunication跨文化交际cross-linguistic跨语言的culture文化culturally-specific文化特异的curriculum教学大纲customizing定制的Ddactyl扬抑抑格Danilanguage达尼语dataretrieval,DR资料检索database数据库dative(case)与格dativemovement与格移动declarative陈述句decoding解码deductive演绎的deepstructure深层结构defeasibility消除可行性definite有定的degeneratedata无用的语料deixis指称delicacy精密阶denotation外延;指称dental齿音dentalization齿音化derivation衍生derivationalaffix.衍生词汇derivationalmorphology派生形态学description描写descriptiveadequacy描写充分性descriptivelinguistics描写语言学designfeature结构特征determiner限定词developinggrammar发展语法deviant变体deviation偏离;变异devoicing清音化diachroniclinguistics历时语言学diachronic历时的diacritic附加符号;变音符diagnostictest诊断性测试dialect方言dialectology方言学dialogue对话dictionary词典digitizedsound数字化语音dimetre二音步诗行diphthong二合元音;双元音directobject直接宾语directspeech,DS直接言语directthought,DT直接思想directionality方向性discourse语篇;话语discourseanalysis语篇分析;话语分析discourseinterpretation语篇理解discrete分离的;离散的discrete-pointgrammar离散语法discretepointtest分立性测试disjunction分离关系displacement移位dissimilation异化（作用）distinctivefeature区别性特征distinguisher辩义成分distribution分布do-insertionruledo添加规则domain范围;领域dorsal舌背音;舌中音dorsum舌背（音）doublecomparative双重比较download下载drama戏剧drill-and-practicesoftware操练软件D-structureD结构dual双数dualisticview二分观点duality二重性economy经济性;简洁性earlyModernEnglish早期现代英语ejective爆发音electronicmail电子邮件ElizabethanEnglish伊利莎白时期英语ellipsis省略（法）ellipticalsentencestructure省略句子结构embeddedelement嵌入成分emic位学的emotive感情的emphasis强调empiricaldata经验主义的语料empirical经验主义的empiricalvalidity经验效度empiricism经验主义emptycategory,EC空范畴enablingskills使成技能化encoding编码endrhyme末端韵endocentricconstruction内向结构entailment蕴涵entrycondition入列条件epenthesis插音;增音equipollentopposition均等对立equivalence相等equivalencereliability相等信度erroranalysis错误分析EST科技英语ethnicityidentity民族认同ethnographyofcommunication交际民族学etic非位的;素的evaluation评估eventprocess事件过程example-basedmachinetranslation基于例句的机器翻译exchangeerror交换错误exchangesequence交际序列exchangestructure交际结构exhaustive穷尽的;彻底的existent存在物existential存在句existentialprocess存在过程existentialquantifier存在数量词exocentric外向的exocentricconstruction外向结构experiential经验的experientialfunction经验功能experimentalpsycholinguistics实验心理语言学explanatoryadequacy解释充分性explicitgrammarinstruction,EGI明显的语法教学法expressionminimization表达最底程度expressive表达的extendedstandardtheory,EST扩展标准理论extensive引申的;扩展的extent-conditionformat程度条件格式externalevaluation外部评估externalqualifier外部修饰语extrinsicsourcesoferror外在的错误来源eyemovement眼部移动。
Chapter 7 Language change⏹Sound change⏹Morphological and syntactic change⏹V ocabulary changeMorphological and syntactic change⏹Change in “agreement” rule⏹Change in negation rule⏹Process of simplification⏹Loss of inflectionsV ocabulary change⏹Addition of new words⏹Loss of words⏹Changes in the meaning of wordsAddition of new words⏹coinage(创新词)⏹clipped words(缩略词)⏹blending(紧缩法)⏹acronyms(词首字母缩略词)⏹back-formation(逆构词法)⏹functional shift⏹borrowingCoinage----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.⏹walkman⏹Kodak⏹Xerox⏹Ford⏹Benz⏹ToyotaClipped words----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g.⏹gym—gymnasium⏹memo—memorandum⏹disco—discotheque⏹fridge—refrigeratorBlending----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g.⏹smog—smoke + fog⏹motel—motor + hotel⏹camcorder—camera + recorderAcronyms----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words, e.g.⏹CBS---- Columbia Broad casting system⏹ISBN----International Standard Book Number⏹WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARSBack-formation----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.⏹edit ← editor⏹hawk ← hawker⏹beg ← beggar⏹baby-sit ← baby-sitterFunctional shift----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g.⏹Noun→verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…⏹Verb→noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…⏹Adj.→verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…⏹Adj.→noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible…Borrowing⏹----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101).⏹Latin bonus education exit⏹German beer waltz quartz⏹Chinese tea kowtow sampan⏹Russian sputnik commissar vodka⏹Arabic zero algebra alcoholLoss of words⏹Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.⏹Beseem →to be suitable⏹Wot →to know⏹Gyve → a fetter⏹Wherefore →whyChanges in the meaning of words⏹Widening of meaning⏹Narrowing of meaning⏹Meaning shiftWidening of meaning⏹Holiday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest day⏹Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animalOther examples: virtue, quarantine, companionNarrowing of meaning⏹hound: any doga special kind of dog⏹girl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex⏹deer: any animala particular kind of animal⏹meat: foodedible part of an animal⏹corn: graina particular grainOther examples: knight, wifeMeaning shift⏹inn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotel⏹nice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fine⏹lust: pleasurewith negative and sexual overtones⏹silly: happynaïve, foolishOther example: gay, CadillacSome recent trends⏹Moving towards greater informality⏹The influence of American English⏹The influence of science and technologyThe influence of science and technology⏹Space travel⏹Computer and internet language⏹EcologyCauses of the language change⏹The rapid development of science and technology;⏹More and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created;⏹“ Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification;⏹Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change.Causes of Lexical Change1. PoliticsGround Zero, Osamaniac, Blairism, CIS, Hamas, Tamil Tiger2. Science and TechnologyDVD, PDA, squark, hacker, cursor3. Economic DevelopmentBushnomics, Blairnomics, Blairnomicsdownsize, human resource, electronic commerce4. Social lifeYuppies, DINK, SOHO, physically challenged,5. Environmentbio-diversity, ecosystem, ecocide, green consumer, green speech, tree houses, twigloo, intensive farming, pesticide6. Health and Fitnessmad cow disease, bird flu, foot and mouth disease, SAD, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)7. Other Aspects: extreme skiing, bungee jumping, hydrospeeding。
语言学术语大全专业英语词汇(2)语言学术语：词汇a lexeme词位a lexical item词条a minimum free form最小自由形式a unit of vocabulary词汇单位abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法addition添加adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词affix词缀analogical creation类比构词法assimilation同化associative relations联想关系back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法blending混成法borrowing借词法bound morpheme黏着词素bound root morpheme黏着词根词素broadening词义扩大calque仿造词语cardinal number基数central determiners中置限定词class shift词性变换clipping截断法closed-class words封闭类词coinage/invention新创词语compound复合词contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化contracted form缩写形式conversion变换/变码derivational affix派生词缀derivational morphemes派生语素derivation派生词determiners限定词distant assimilation远距离同化domain范围/领域endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词finite element有定成分finiteness定式folk etymology俗词源free morpheme自由词素frequency count词频统计grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词hierarchy层次性infix中缀inflectional affix屈折词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素invariable words不变词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词lexicogrammar词汇语法lexis/vocabulary词汇表liaison连音loan translation翻译借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loanword借词logogram语标loss脱落meaning shift意义转移meaning shift词义转移metanalysis再分化metathesis换位monosyllabic单音节morpheme词素morpheme语素morpheme语素morphemic structure语素结构morphological change形态变化morphological conditioned形态的限制morphology形态学morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化multisemous多种意义narrowing词义缩小nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化nonomorphemic words单语素词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性obviative(that)远指代词opened-class words开放类词ordinal number序数词orthographic change拼写的变化paradigmatic relations聚合关系paradigm聚合体particles小品词passive vocabulary消极词汇phoneme音位phonological conditioned音位的限制phonological structure音素结构polymorphemic words多语素词polysyllabic多音节post determiners后置限定词predeterminers前置限定词prefix前缀pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-form代词形式pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词pro-verb(do/did)代副词proximate(this)近指代词register语域relative uninterruptibility相对连续性root morpheme词根语素root词根semantic change语义变化semiotics符号学sequential relations序列关系split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) stem词干suffix后缀syntactical change句法变化syntagmatic relations组合关系synthetic compound综合性复合词the maximum free form最大自由形式theory of least effort省力理论variable words可变词verbal compound动词性复合词word class词类word-formation构词语言学术语：句法a principle system原则系统a rule system规则系统ablative离格accessible subject可及主语accusative宾格across the board extraction抽取跨界移动actor动作者actual sentence division实义句子切分法adjunction加接affix hopping词缀越位anaphor照应语animate noun有生名词appellative/vocative function称呼功能arbitrariness任意性articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征aspect体ASPP is functional projection .ASPP 是功能投射associative relationship联想关系asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主binding domain约束语域binding约束bipartition二分法Bloomfield priori先天综合判断(康德Kant) Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派case格categories语类C-commanding condition成分统领条件checking domain检验区域communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力complement domain补足语区域complement IP=屈折短语conative function意欲功能concatenate联结conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制constituent morphemes成分规则constituent成分construction结构体Context culture 文化语境coordinate construction并列结构core computation核心运算covert component隐性部分crossing branch交叉分支CS(computational system)计算系统dative movement与格移位dative与格determiner限定词empiricism经验主义(洛克，白板说)empty category principle空范畴原则empty subject空主语endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exceptional case marking例外格标记existential process生存过程exocentric construction离心结构expressive function表情功能Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论external functionalism外部功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射Field语场full-interpretation完全解释原则functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设functional sentence perspective功能句子观gender性genitive属格government支配关系government管辖greed句法操作自利原则head parameter中心语参数hierarchical structure层级结构ideational function概念功能immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法imperative祈使语气imperfective未完成indicative直陈语气INFL(inflection)形态变化。
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
《语言学》缩写-A b b r e v i a t i o n[Expand]Support Wikipedia: a non-profit project —Donate Now AbbreviationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchFor the <abbr> HTML tag, see HTML element.For guidelines on making and editing abbreviation articles on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Disambiguation and abbreviations.This article needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)An abbreviation (from Latin brevis "short") is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word "abbreviation" can itself be represented by the abbreviation "abbr." or "abbrev."Contents[hide]• 1 History• 2 Types of abbreviationo 2.1 Syllabic abbreviation▪ 2.1.1 Use in various languages▪ 2.1.2 Syllabic abbreviations in names oforganizations• 3 Style conventions in Englisho 3.1 Lowercase letterso 3.2 Periods (full stops) and spaceso 3.3 Plural formso 3.4 Conventions followed by publications and newspapers▪ 3.4.1 United States▪ 3.4.2 United Kingdom▪ 3.4.3 Miscellaneous and general rules• 4 Measurement• 5 See also• 6 References•7 External links[edit] HistoryAbbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default.An increase in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation[1]. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example,specific phoneme sets like "er" were dropped from words and replaced with ɔ, like "mastɔ" instead of "master" or exacɔbate instead of "exacerbate". While this seems trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford university Register, 1503:Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔto quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ.In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a fad. For example, during the growth of philologicallinguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of "Father of modern etymology" J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and other members of Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.[2][3]After World War II, the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept its use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization ofsecret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive" — "S.O.,E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960.But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed thisrule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely.Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.[edit] Types of abbreviationApart from the common form of word-contraction, there are other types of abbreviation. These include acronym and initialism (including three-letter acronyms), apocope, clipping, elision, syncope, syllabic abbreviation, and portmanteau words.[edit] Syllabic abbreviationSee also: Clipping (morphology)A syllabic abbreviation (SA) is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol forInter national pol ice, but should be distinguished from portmanteau words. They are usually written in lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter.[edit] Use in various languagesSyllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English or French, but are common in certain languages, like German and Russian.They prevailed in Germany under the Nazis and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, Gestapo stands for Ge heime Sta ats-Po lizei, or "secret state police". This has given syllabic abbreviations a negative connotation, even though they were used in Germany before the Nazis, such as Schupo for Schutzpolizist. Even now Germans call part of their police Kripo for Kriminalpolizei. Syllabic abbreviations were also typical of German language used in the German Democratic Republic, for example, Stasifor Staatssicherheit ("state security", the secret police and secret service) or Vopo for Volkspolizist ("people's policeman").Some syllabic abbreviations from Russian that are familiar to English speakers include samizdat and kolkhoz. The English names for the Soviet "Comintern" (Com munist Intern ational) and "Milrevcom"(Mil itary Rev olution Com mittee) are further examples.Orwell's novel 1984 uses fictional syllabic abbreviations like "Ingsoc" (Eng lish Soc ialism) to evoke the use of language under the Nazi and Soviet regimes.East Asian languages whose writing uses Chinese-originated ideograms instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the termfor the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese. SAs are frequently used for names of universities: for instance, Beida (北大, Běidà) for Peking University (Beijing), Yondae (연대) for the Yonsei University, Seouldae (서울대) for the Seoul National University and Tōdai (東大) for the University of Tokyo. [edit] Syllabic abbreviations in names of organizationsSyllabic abbreviations are preferred by the U.S. Navy as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used(in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6," and COMNAVAIRLANT means "Commander, Naval Air Forces, Atlantic".[edit] Style conventions in EnglishIn modern English there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Questions which arise include those in the following subsections.[edit] Lowercase lettersIf the original word was capitalized, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no need for capitalization, therefore no need for a consistent rule.[edit] Periods (full stops) and spacesA period (full stop) is sometimes written after an abbreviated word, but there is much disagreement and many exceptions.There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, Tiberius is abbreviated as Tb. and not as T.b..In formal British English, according to Hart's Rules, it is more common to write abbreviations with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation but not otherwise: for example:•"Doctor" becomes "Dr" (for "D–r")•"Professor" becomes "Prof." (for "Prof...")•"The Reverend" becomes "Revd" (for "Rev–d")•"The Right Honourable" becomes "Rt Hon." (for "R–t Hon...")In American English, the period is usually added if the abbreviation might otherwise be interpreted as a word, but some American writers do not use a period here. Sometimes, periods are used for certain initialisms but not others; a notable instance in American English is to write United States, European Union, and United Nations as U.S., EU, and UN respectively.A third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (both "Saint" and "Street" become "St"). The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as partof a destination name. (For example, "Northwest Blvd", "W. Jefferson", and "PED XING" all follow this recommendation.)Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, and scuba.Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U. S.".When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, use only one period: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.[edit] Plural formsTo form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase s to the end.• A group of MPs•The roaring '20s•Mind your Ps and QsTo form the plural of an abbreviation with periods, a lowercaseletter used as a noun, and abbreviations or capital letters thatwould be ambiguous or confusing if the 's' alone were added, use an apostrophe and an s.• A group of Ph.D.'s•The x's of the equation•Sending SOS'sIn Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter, e.g. for footnotes.• d. didot — dd. didots (typography)•h. hand — hh. hands (horse height)•l. line — ll. lines•p. page — pp. pages•P. pope — PP. popes•v. volume — vv. volumes[edit] Conventions followed by publications and newspapers [edit] United StatesPublications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of the Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press.[verification needed] The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office.However, there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, evenwithin the same article.The New York Times is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrastwith the trend of British publications to omit periods for convenience.[edit] United KingdomMany British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:•For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done awaywith the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations.These include:•o Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would usually not have had full stops — see above) Capt, Prof, etc.;o Two-letter abbreviations for countries ("US", not "U.S.");o Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);o Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters ("PR", instead of "p.r.", or "pr")o Names ("FW de Klerk", "GB Whiteley", "Park JS"). Anotable exception is the newspaper The Economist whichwrites "Mr F. W. de Klerk".o Scientific units (see Measurement below).•Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the North AtlanticTreaty Organisation can be abbreviated as "Nato" or "NATO", and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as "Sars" or "SARS" (compare with "laser" which has made the full transition to an Englishword and is rarely capitalised at all).•Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the "British Broadcasting Corporation" is abbreviated to "BBC",never "Bbc". An initialism is similar to acronym but is notpronounced as a word.•When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This iscontrary to the SI standard, see below.)[edit] Miscellaneous and general rules•Plurals are often formed by doubling the last letter of the abbreviation. Most of these deal with writing and publishing:MS=manuscript, MSS=manuscripts; l=line, ll=lines; p=page,pp=pages; s=section, ss=sections; op.=opus, opp.=opera. Thisform, derived from Latin is used in Europe in many places:dd=didots. "The following (lines or pages)" is denoted by "ff".One example that does not concern printing is hh=hands.• A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll.George" for (British prime minister) Lloyd George.•Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon."respectively. This is true for most British publications, andsome in the United States.•It is usually advised to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader (UNESCO in a magazine aboutmusic, because it refers to the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization, whose work does notconcern the music).•It is considered acceptable to start off a sentence with an abbreviation, however it is then advised to "ignore" theabbreviation and start the sentence as if it had begun with noabbreviation, but only if it is not the name of a person, place, or thing. For example, "BTW There is a new office manager."would be acceptable, though even without capping the "T", thisinstance is still accepted.[edit] MeasurementThe International System of Units (SI) defines a set of base units, from which other "derived" units may be obtained. The abbreviations,or more accurately "symbols" (using Roman letters, or Greek in the case of ohm) for these units are also clearly defined together with a set of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols. There should never be a period after or inside a unit; both '10 k.m.' and '10 k.m' are wrong — the only correct form is '10 km' (only followed with a period when at the end of a sentence).A period "within" a compound unit denotes multiplication of the base units on each side of it. Ideally, this period should be raised tothe centre of the line, but often it is not. For instance, '5 ms' means 5 millisecond(s), whereas '5 m.s' means 5 metre·second(s).The "m.s" here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental SI units — metre and second.There should always be a (non-breaking) space between the number and the unit — '25 km' is correct, and '25km' is incorrect. In Section 5.3.3. of The International System of Units (SI), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) states "The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number. … The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle."[4]The case of letters (uppercase or lowercase) has meaning in the SI system, and should never be changed in a misguided attempt to follow an abbreviation style. For example, "10 S" denotes 10 siemens (aunit of conductance), while "10 s" denotes 10 seconds. Any unit named after a person is denoted by a symbol with an upper case first letter (S, Pa, A, V, N, Wb, W), but spelt out in full in lower case, (siemens, pascal, ampere, volt, newton, weber and watt). By contrast g, l, m, s, cd, ha represent gramme, litre, metre, second, candelaand hectare respectively. The one slight exception to this rule isthat the symbol for litre is allowed to be L to help avoid confusion精品文档with an upper case i or a one in some typefaces— compare l, I, and 1.Likewise, the abbreviations of the prefixes denoting powers of ten are case-sensitive: m (milli) represents a thousandth, but M (mega) represents a million, so by inadvertent changes of case one may introduce (in this example) an error of a factor of 1 000 000 000. When a unit is written in full, the whole unit is written in lowercase, including the prefix: millivolt for mV, nanometre for nm, gigacandela for Gcd.The above rules, if followed, ensure that the SI system is always unambiguous, so for instance mK denotes millikelvin, MK denotes megakelvin, K.m denotes kelvin.metre, and km denotes kilometre. Forms such as k.m and Km are ill-formed and technically meaningless in the SI system, although the intended meaning might be inferred from the context.[edit] See also收集于网络，如有侵权请联系管理员删除。
