Minimal pair:hen two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. pill and till , till and kill, kill and dill, [pen] and [ben]. Beat&bit, bet & bat, boot& but Sociolect: a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.Input Hypothesis:Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routs of second language learning acquisition and learningCritical Period Hypothesis :Eric erg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.Overgeneralization:is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations. Error: while error defined as unintentionally deviant from the target language and self_corrible by the learner suggest failure in competence.A phoneme(音位）----is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value;an abstract unit,not a particular sound,but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context,phoneme/p/,/t/;while phone[p],[t]pin vs bin(箱子);the phoneme/p/can be representedAssimilation rule(同化规则）----assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar,e.g.the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:indiscreet alveolar[n]inconceivable velar[k]input bilabial[p]Componential analysis-a way to analyze lexical meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.For example,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Predication analysis1)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words,e.g“The dog bites the man”is semantically differ ent from“The man bites the dog”though their components are exactly the same.There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning,e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Wh Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning(British G.Leech).Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)and predicate.An argument is a logical participant in a predication,largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.ether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictionsContext ntext----a basic concept in the study of pragmatics.It is generally considered as constituted knowleContext Context----a basic concept in the study of pragmatics.It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,such as culturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc.….dge shared by the speaker and the hearer,such as cultural background,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),the relationship between the s peaker and the hearer,etc.…. Idiolect(个人方言a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional,social,gender,and age variations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).Bilingualism In some speech communities,two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play;and language switching occurs when the situation changes.This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.What is culture?In a broad sense,culture means the total way of life of a people,including the patterns ofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,and language that characterizes the life of the human community.In a narrow sense,culture may refer to local or specific practice,beliefs or customs,which can be mostly found in folk culture,enterprise culture or food cultureSynchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point”in time.Diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.Arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. Duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels;meaningful units and meaningless segments. Competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.Performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.Langue:the language system shared by a“speech community”.Parole:the concrete utterances of speaker.Morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.Inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such asnumber,person,finiteness,aspect and cases to which they are attached.Root:refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity.Stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword. Syntax:the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure.Subordination:the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.Denotation:denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Connotation:properties of the entity a word denote. Synonymy:synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units,namely the sameness relation.Hyponymy:the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation,is a matter of class membership.Entailment:This a logic relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first,while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.Traffic light does not have duality.Obviously,it is not a double-level system.There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further.So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’call.Apocope:Apocope is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.Metathesis:Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.Derivation:It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems or words.back-formation:It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. semantic narrowing:Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.Protolanguage:It is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.Haplology:It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllablesEpenthesis:A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.Compounding:It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.Blending:It is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.semantic broadening:Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.semantic shift:Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new,sometimes related,meaning.Great Vowel Shift:It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved sevenlong vowels and consequently led to one of the majordiscrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.sound assimilation:Sound assimilation refers to thephysiological effect of one sound on another.In an assimilativeprocess,successive sounds are made identical,or moresimilar,to one another in terms of place or manner ofarticulation,or of haplology..Linguistics:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientificstudy of language.Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together andused in communication is called phonology.Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words arecombined to form sentences is called syntax.Pragmatics:The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics.Psycholinguistics:The study of language with reference tothe workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsused for human communication.Phonetics:The study of sounds which are used in linguisticcommunication is called phonetics.Morphology:The study of the way in which morphemes arearranged to form wordsSemantics:The study of meaning in language is calledsemantics.Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference tosociety is called sociolinguistics..Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories tolanguage teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense,it refers to theapplication of linguistic findings to the solution of practicalproblems such as the recovery of speech ability.Productivity:Language is productive or creative in that itmakes possible the con-struction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.Displacement:Displacement means that language can beused to refer to things which are present or not present,real orimagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-awayplaces.In other words,language can be used to refer tocontexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeakerDesign features:Design features refer to the definingproperties of human language that distinguish it from anyanimal system of communicationCompetence:Chomsky defines competence as the idealuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language,Performance:performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. langue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently Parole:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation to situation.。
