第一章概述
语言是人类形成的过程中同步出现的，随着人类的发展而发展，是人类之所以为人类的主要条件。（page 1）
在语言学理论和流派中，基本上可以分为两大阵营，一为形式主义，一为功能主义。
功能语言学要描写的不是理想说话人究竟知道什么，而是真实的说话人再人们每天利用语言互动时是如何活动的。（page 2）
系统功能语言学吧语言看做有规律的资源，其基本原理认为语言描写的是系统，系统语言学着重说明语言作为系统的内部底层关系，它是与意义相关联的可供人们不断选择的若干个子系统组成的系统网络，又称“意义潜势”（meaning potential）。（page 3）
文化是由许多符号系统构成的意义潜势，如建筑、美术、舞蹈、音乐、文学、民俗、礼仪、商品交换方式中的一种。（page 9）
韩礼德把语言变异分为两类，一个是方言（dialect），一是语域（register）。方言是用不同的方法说同样的事情，语域是用不同的方法说不同的事情。（page 10）
系统功能语法的六个核心思想
1 元功能的思想
2 系统的思想
韩礼德的系统的思想是把语言系统解释成一种可以进行语义选择的网络，当有关系统的每个步骤一一实现后，便可产生结构。这就是说系统理论是在使用中演变的，离开语言使用者的实践，它不会存在。系统存在于所有语言层次，诸如语义层、词汇语法层和音系层，都各有自己的系统表示本层次的语义潜势。（page 15）
3 层次的思想
语言是有层次的，至少包括语义层、词汇语法层和音系层。各个层次之间存在着“体现”（realisation）的关系，即对“意义”的选择（语义层）体现于对“形式”（词汇语法层）的选择；对“形式”的选择又体现于对“实体”（音系层）的选择。（page 16）
4 功能的思想
5 语境的思想
6 近似的或盖然率的思想
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word
系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 作者：翁素贤提供 转贴自：摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》 您要打印的文件是：系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 打印本文 系统功能语言学英汉术语对照表 ―――摘自《系统功能语言学多维思考》 A Abitliy 能力 Actor 施动者 Addressee 受话者 Addresser 发话者 Agent 施事 Anaphoric 指前的 Antonym 反义词 Antonymy 反义意义 Autonomy 自治性 B Behavior 行为 Behavioral process 行为过程 Beneficiary 受益者 C Cataphoric 指后的 Categorical 绝对的 Categorization 范畴化 Central token 中心标志 Chain 链 Channel 渠道 Choice 选择 Clause 小句 Clause as theme 句项主位 Cleft sentence 分裂句 Closed system 封闭系统 Coclassisfication 相互区分
Coextension相互扩展Coherence连贯 Cohesion链接 Cohesive chain链接链Cohesive tie链接纽带Cohyponym共同下义词Collocation搭配Collocational chain搭配链Comeronym共同局部关系词Command命令 Comment述题 Competence（语言）能力Complementarity互补性Congruence一致性Conjunction连接，连词Consonant辅音 Consonant grammar协和语法Constructivism构建主义Context语境，上下文Context of culture文化语境Context of situation情境语境Continuity连续体Continuum连续体Conventional meaning常规意义Coocurrence同现Cooperative principle合作原则Coordination并列Coreference相互对应Correspondence对应 Critical linguistics批评语言学Cross-coupling交互匹配 D Decategorization非范畴化Declarative陈述的 Delicacy精密度 Dialect方言 Dialectal variety方言变体Diatypic variety功能变体Didactic教导性的 Direct speech act直接言语行为Discontinuity脱节，间断性Discourse话语 Discourse analysis话语分析
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免"支持"版：） 《语言学教程》重难点学习提示 第一章??语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章? ?? ?语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章? ?? ?语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章? ???音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。 第五章? ? 词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章? ? 词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。 第七章??句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章? ?语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章? ?语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章??语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章??语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。 1.1.??What is language? "Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
第五章韩礼德为代表的系统功能语言学派 韩礼德(M.A.K.Halliday)的系统功能语言理论是20世纪后半叶国际上最有影响的语言学理论之一,其旺盛的生命力显示,它加深了人们对语言的认识,并将在新世纪语言学研究中发挥更大作用。本文从伦敦学派及其奠基人弗斯的理论研究对韩礼德系统功能语言学的启迪和传承关系谈起,对韩氏理论的几个发展阶段和主要观点、重要成员作一综合性述评,以理清它的发展脉络和理论贡献。 1.弗斯与伦敦语言学派 伦敦学派奠基人弗斯曾在伦敦大学学院的语音系同著名语音学家琼斯(Daniel Jones,1881—1967)一起做研究。1938年,他受聘于伦敦大学东方与非洲研究学院,并于1944年成为英国历史上第一个普通语言学教授。弗斯的语言学理论是他在伦敦大学工作期间形成的,他和他的同事又长期在伦敦大学工作,因此以他为首的语言学派被称为“伦敦学派”。这个学派与美国结构主义语言学、乔姆斯基生成语法学派、布拉格学派、丹麦的哥本哈根学派等同为20世纪语言学界最为人瞩目的语言学派(王宗炎1985:94)。 弗斯的学生韩礼德继承和发展了弗斯的语言学理论,并建立了新弗斯学派。韩礼德在伦敦大学获得汉语语言文学学士学位后,于1947年到北京大学跟随罗常培教授学习汉语音系学、词典学和比较历史语言学。后来师从王力教授研究现代汉语方言。1949年回伦敦,被剑桥大学录取为博士研究生,导师便是伦敦大学东方与非洲研究学院的弗斯教授。 弗斯的语言学思想对韩礼德的影响特别大。弗斯(1957)认为,语言中的意义(即使用中的语言项目的功能)非常重要,语言中言语产生的社会语境也非常重要。弗斯受伦敦经济学院人类学教授马林诺夫斯基(B.Malinowski,1884—1942)语言研究的影响,强调言语使用的社会语境,其目标是根据马林诺夫斯基的“情景语境”(context of situation)建立一种语言学理论。遗憾的是,弗斯自己没有达到这个目标。 他的观点后来在弟子韩礼德手上获得发展。尽管弗斯的学术思想在很多方面有深刻见解,给人启迪,但他并未形成一个连贯的理论框架。对韩礼德这一代人来说,任务之一是把弗斯的学术观点建立成一个能解释“什么是语言”和“语言是怎样工作的”这样一种完整的理论体系。韩礼德面临的任务是:怎样用关于情景语境的观点建立一个能把语言中的范畴和它们之间的关系都解释清楚的语言学理论。 2.阶和范畴语法 在“现代汉语的语法范畴”(Halliday 1956)一文中,韩礼德建立了一个能比较好地处理语言单位之间关系的分析框架。这篇论文代表韩礼德语言理论研究的开始。他在文中提出,语言中有三个语法范畴,即:单位(unit),成分(element)和类别(class)。在这个分析框架中,“系统”从属于“类别”。韩礼德用汉语例子解释了单位与成分和类别之间的关系。他还讨论到汉语小句中“旧”(given)信息与“新”(new)信息的区别,并谈到“系统”选择中的“盖然”(proba-bilistic)问题。可以说,这篇论文的初步理论框架为以后的系统功能理论奠定了坚实基础。 韩礼德虽然在上文中已提出一个能很好处理语言单位之间关系的分析模式,但它并不是一个完整的理论框架,而且还存在一些问题(见Butler 1985: 14_15,王宗炎1985:136_148)。 这篇文章主要是对现代汉语进行研究,从那之后,韩礼德的研究开始真正进入普通语言学理论领域。1961年他发表了“语法理论的范畴”(Halliday 1961);一般认为,这是一篇能代表韩礼