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PHNOLOGY
Jeri Jaeger suggested that phonemes are prototypebased categories of phones. Thus, the phoneme /k/ in English is the category consisting of the phones /k/,/kh/,/k'/,and /k'h/ with /k/ as the prototypical member. Phonemic categories in general are understood in terms of their protypical members. The nonprotypical phones are related to the prototype by phonlogical rules.
1.Markedness
markedness is a term used by lingustics to describe a kind of prototype effect. It arises from the fact that some morphological categories have a "mark" and others are "unmarked".
to stub one's toe
to hold one's breath to lose one's way
to take one's time
Subject,Agent, and Topic Basic Clause Types
Prototype Effects on Cognitive Model
focus on the cognitive model interpretation of prototype effects more on the nature of the effects.
Prototype Effects in Linguistic Categories
The study of prototype effecta has a long tradition in linguistics. The kinds of effects that have been studied the most are asymmetries within categories and gradations away from a best example.
Sources of Prototype Effects
- propositional structure, as in Fillmore's frames
- image-schematic structure, as in Langacker's cognitive grammar
- metaphoric mappings, as described by Lakoff and Johnson
eg. Plural number has a "mark", the morpheme -s, as in boys, while sigular number lacks any overt "mark", as in boy.
2. Other Prototype Effects
Prototype effects have shown up in all areas of language--phonology,morphology, syntax, and semantics. In all cases, they are inconsistent with the classical theory of categories and are in conflict with current orthodoxies in the field which assume the correctness of the classical theory. Here is a sampling of studies which have shown prototype efffects.
on the bases of the experimental results, they
argue that the category has a prototype with the following properi s follows by one or two consonants
Prototype Effects
Two Bodies of Relevant Studies
based on Phases I and II of Rosch`s research on prototype theory. It is concerned with demonstrating the existence of prototype effects in language.
MORPHOLOGY
Bybee and Moder have shown that English strong verbs like string/strung from a morphlogical category that displays prototype effects. The verba include: spin,win,cling,fling,sling,string,swing...
Mother
(Woman,Fire and Dangerous Things P.74)
- metonymic mappings, as described by Lakoff and Johnson
The Simplest Prototype
Bachelor
(Woman,Fire and Dangerous Things P.71)
Cluster Models: A Second Source of Prototype Effects
it ends with the velar nasal:/n/ it has a lax high front vowel: I
SYNTAX
John Robert Ross has shown that every syntactic category in the language shows prototype effects, including categories like noun,verb,adjective,clause,preposition,noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. consider the nouns toe, breath,way ,and time , as they occur in the expressions:
