A BRIEF introduction to english lexicology

本科生毕业设计（论文）封面（ 2016 届）论文（设计）题目作者学院、专业班级指导教师（职称）论文字数论文完成时间大学教务处制英语原创毕业论文参考选题(200个)一、论文说明本写作团队致力于英语毕业论文写作与辅导服务，精通前沿理论研究、仿真编程、数据图表制作，专业本科论文3000起，具体可以联系qq 805990749。

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二、原创论文参考题目1、(英语毕业论文)英式英语和美式英语中的词汇差异（开题报告+论文）2、(英语毕业论文)从广告层面比较研究中美文化差异（开题报告+论文）3、(英语系经贸英语)电子商务bc运营模式——以亚马逊为例4、(英语毕业论文)从文本类型角度看旅游宣传资料的汉英翻译（开题报告+论文）5、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我6、(英语毕业论文)浅析英语新闻语篇中的语法隐喻(开题报告+论文+文献综述)7、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我8、(英语毕业论文)运用言语行为理论分析哈佛校长德鲁•福斯特的演说词9、(英语毕业论文)李白对庞德和他的作品的影响10、(英语毕业论文)Yellow Peril–the Image of Fu Manchu in the West11、(英语毕业论文)《红字》中珠儿与《雷雨》中周萍之比较12、(英语毕业论文)A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese Gratitude Expressions （开题报告+论文+文献综述）13、(英语毕业论文)Oscar Wilde’s Aestheticism on The Picture of Dorian Gray14、(英语毕业论文)Which Woman is More Popular in Modern Society：A Comparative Study of Tess and Jane（开题报告+论文+文献综述）15、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我16、(英语毕业论文)论叶芝的写作风格（开题报告+论文）17、(英语毕业论文)目的论视角下旅游景区公示语误译的研究（开题报告+论文）18、(英语毕业论文)从功能翻译理论看汉语公示语的英译（开题报告+论文）19、(英语系经贸英语)浅析企业如何通过市场定位打开销售渠道20、(英语毕业论文)《蝴蝶君》中两位主角的心理冲突21、(英语毕业论文)《隐形人》中格里芬的心理剖析（开题报告+论文）22、(英语毕业论文)English-Chinese Advertisement Translation23、(英语毕业论文)从翻译目的论角度分析商务广告翻译24、(英语毕业论文)A Discussion of the Gothic Style as Applied in “A Rose for Emily”（开题报告+论文+文献综述）25、(英语毕业论文)从海尔的品牌成功探讨中国企业在全球化环境下的品牌战略26、(英语毕业论文)浅析王尔德《快乐王子》中基督教救赎的表现形式27、(英语毕业论文)霍桑及其矛盾思想在《红字》中的体现28、(英语毕业论文)隐喻在英语委婉语中的应用29、(英语毕业论文)从《简•爱》的多译本看中国两性关系的变化（开题报告+论文+文献综述）30、(英语毕业论文)《哈姆雷特》中不言而喻的隐喻魅力(开题报告+论文+文献综述)31、(英语毕业论文)从生态女性主义角度解读《宠儿》（开题报告+论文）32、(英语毕业论文)诸神形象折射中西方价值观不同（开题报告+论文+文献综述）33、(英语毕业论文)从动态对等角度分析中国旅游景点名称英译——以中国庐山网为例34、(英语毕业论文)《好人难寻》的冷漠主题分析35、(英语毕业论文)女性哥特视角下的《蝴蝶梦》研究（开题报告+论文）36、(英语毕业论文)合作原则在动画中的应用37、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我38、(英语毕业论文)关于《麦田里的守望者》主人公霍尔顿悲剧人生的分析39、(英语毕业论文)透过《德伯家的苔丝》看哈代托马斯的宗教观（开题报告+论文）40、(英语毕业论文)Cultural Differences and Idiomatic Expressions in Translation41、(英语毕业论文)《麦田里的守望者》霍尔顿•考尔菲德精神世界的分析42、(英语毕业论文)增译法在《水晶宫》英译汉翻译中的应用（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）43、(英语毕业论文)Gothic Romance: Inheritance and Development of Medieval Romance－－A Case Study of The Castle of Otranto44、(英语毕业论文)《围城》英译本中文化负载词的翻译研究（开题报告+论文）45、(英语毕业论文)浅析中国式英语问题及对策(开题报告+论文)46、(英语毕业论文)“金玉良缘”与“幸福终点”——浅析中西婚姻差异47、(英语毕业论文)中英公益广告修辞手法和效果的对比研究48、(英语毕业论文)功能对等视角下汉语广告的英译策略（开题报告+论文）49、(英语毕业论文)《人性的污点》中主要人物的悲剧命运与社会原因的分析50、(英语毕业论文)中文商标英译研究（开题报告+论文）51、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我52、(英语毕业论文)试析《旅游巴士》中的犹太文化内涵（开题报告+论文+文献综述）53、(英语毕业论文)探析《老人与海》的主题54、(英语毕业论文)中医在英语世界的翻译与传播：过去与现在55、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我56、(英语毕业论文)莎士比亚的悲剧对当代女性的影响57、(英语毕业论文)The Weakness of Human Nature in Gulliver’s Travels(开题报告+论文+文献综述)58、(英语毕业论文)从《一间自己的房间》分析弗吉尼亚•伍尔夫的女性主义思想(开题报告+论文+文献综述)59、(英语毕业论文)互文性理论指导下的公示语汉英翻译60、(英语毕业论文)On Self-destruction of Laura in Flowering Judas（开题报告+论文+文献综述）61、(英语毕业论文)《哈姆雷特》与《夜宴》中人物塑造的比较研究（开题报告+论文）62、(英语毕业论文)The Gothic Beauty and Spiritual Essence of Allan Poe’s Short Stories63、(英语毕业论文)从功能对等理论角度浅析有关“狗”的汉语四字格成语的英译及方法（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）64、(英语毕业论文)Analysis on Humors in Short Stories by Mark Twain65、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我66、(英语毕业论文)《圣经<箴言>》的修辞分析67、(英语毕业论文)Jane Austen’s Opinion towards Marriage in Pride and Prejudice68、(英语毕业论文)从归化异化的角度看《围城》中隐喻及其翻译研究(开题报告+论文)69、(英语毕业论文)浅析澳洲英语词汇文化的特色（开题报告+论文）70、(英语毕业论文)Analysis on Heathcliff's Personality in Wuthering Heights（开题报告+论文+文献综述）71、(英语毕业论文)Approaching English V ocabulary Teaching—a Lexicological Perspective72、(英语毕业论文)浅析《最蓝的眼睛》中的创伤和治愈（开题报告+论文）73、(英语毕业论文)析《远大前程》主人公性格之路74、(英语毕业论文)通过对比研究看电影《小红帽》对经典童话小红帽的颠覆（开题报告+论文+文献综述）75、(英语毕业论文)埃德加•爱伦•坡小说《黑猫》的写作技巧应用分析76、(英语毕业论文)意译在广告英语翻译中的重要性探析（开题报告+论文）77、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我78、(英语毕业论文)功能目的论视角下的企业外宣资料的英译研究（开题报告+论文）79、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我80、(英语毕业论文)从《芒果街上的小屋》透视女性自我意识的觉醒（开题报告+论文）81、(英语毕业论文)师生关系与学生英语学习积极性之关联性探析（开题报告+论文）82、(英语毕业论文)从文化无意识的角度分析《喜福会》中的边缘人83、(英语毕业论文)On the Differences of Jocasta Complex in Sons and Lovers and Jin Suo Ji（开题报告+论文+文献综述）84、(英语毕业论文)动物•荒原•牧场——生态视野下科马克•麦卡锡的《边疆三部曲》(开题报告+论文+文献综述)85、(英语毕业论文)人性的救赎——从电影《辛德勒的名单》看美国英雄主义的新侧面（开题报告+论文+文献综述）86、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我87、(英语毕业论文)对林语堂的《吾国与吾民》几种中译本比较研究（开题报告+论文+文献综述）88、(英语毕业论文)An American Nightmare: A Naturalistic Approach To Clyde in An American Tragedy（开题报告+论文+文献综述）89、(英语毕业论文)从《热爱生命》看杰克•伦敦的生命观90、(英语毕业论文)《黑暗之心》主人公马洛的性格分析（开题报告+论文+文献综述）91、(英语毕业论文)从对立到和谐—解读伍尔夫《到灯塔去》的女性主义92、(英语毕业论文)凯瑟琳•曼斯菲尔德短篇小说中的意识流技巧研究（开题报告+论文）93、(英语毕业论文)The Religious Thoughts in The Pilgrim’s Progress94、(英语毕业论文)论罗伯特•佩恩•沃伦《国王的人马》中对真理与自我认知的追求95、(英语毕业论文)《愤怒的葡萄》的生态主义分析（开题报告+论文+文献综述）96、(英语毕业论文)从《少年派的奇幻漂流记》论人性与兽性（开题报告+论文）97、(英语毕业论文)Principles in the Translation of Legal English98、(英语毕业论文)英语谚语的民族性及其艺术特色99、(英语毕业论文)《嘉莉妹妹》之悲剧性——基于嘉莉与赫斯特伍德的比较（开题报告+论文）100、(英语毕业论文)A Comparative Analysis Between Pride and Prejudice and The Portrait of a Lady from the Perspective of Feminism（开题报告+论文+文献综述）101、(英语毕业论文)Study on the Basic Principles of Legal English Translation102、(英语毕业论文)汉英习语中的文化差异及翻译103、(英语毕业论文)论《哈利•波特》系列小说中的哥特元素104、(英语毕业论文)西方吸血鬼与中国鬼的文学形象比较（开题报告+论）105、(英语毕业论文)浅析如何通过英语原版电影学习英语106、(英语毕业论文)中美个人理财规划的对比分析（开题报告+论文）107、(英语毕业论文)浅析《飘》中女主人公的性格特征108、(英语毕业论文)《西游记》两英译本宗教用语翻译比较：读者接受论视角(开题报告+论文)109、(英语毕业论文)Analysis on the Picaresque Elements in The Adventures ofHuckleberry Finn110、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我111、(英语毕业论文)从自然主义视角审视《嘉莉妹妹》中小人物嘉莉的命运抗争与幻灭（开题报告+论文）112、(英语毕业论文)商务英语翻译中的隐喻研究（开题报告+论文+文献综述）113、(英语毕业论文)纽马克交际翻译理论指导下的外宣材料英译(开题报告+论文) 114、(英语毕业论文)非英语专业大学生英语学习动机调查（开题报告+论文）115、(英语毕业论文)A Comparative Study of the Character of Tess and Jane Eyre(开题报告+论文+文献综述)116、(英语毕业论文)功能对等理论视角下《越狱》字幕翻译的研究（开题报告+论文）117、(英语毕业论文)英语广告双关语的语用分析（开题报告+论文）118、(英语毕业论文)A Brief Study of the Causes of Emily’s Tragedy in A Rose for Emily119、(英语毕业论文)浅析托尼.莫瑞森《最蓝的眼睛》中皮克拉悲剧命运的根源(开题报告+论文)120、(英语毕业论文)中国英语与中式英语的对比研究——从英汉民族思维差异的角度121、(英语毕业论文)功能对等理论在新闻英语翻译中的应用（开题报告+论文）122、(英语毕业论文)紧身胸衣和缠足：十八世纪欧洲和中国女性的社会角色解释123、(英语毕业论文)《简•爱》的简和《德伯家的苔丝》的苔丝的比较研究（开题报告+论文+文献综述）124、(英语毕业论文)《飘》中斯嘉丽的主要性格特征浅析125、(英语毕业论文)《老人与海》中的存在主义分析（开题报告+论文）126、(英语毕业论文)目的论在电影字幕翻译中的应用——以《功夫熊猫》为例（开题报告+论文）127、(英语毕业论文)场独立和场依存对不同主题阅读材料的影响研究（开题报告+论文）128、(英语毕业论文)Problems Occured in the Process of the Chinese Learning English and Its Possible Solution129、(英语毕业论文)在孤独中寻找自我——析《没有指针的钟》J.T.马龙的救赎130、(英语毕业论文)从许渊冲“三美论”评析《声声慢》三个译本（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）131、(英语毕业论文)《霍乱时期的爱情》中象征手法的解析（开题报告+论文）132、(英语毕业论文)从关联理论看《茶馆》两个英译本中修辞格的处理（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）133、(英语毕业论文)中西方商务礼仪的差异（开题报告+论文）134、(英语毕业论文)幽默元素在英语电影和电视剧中的翻译（开题报告+论文+文献综述）135、(英语毕业论文)浅析《两个新嫁娘》中的不同婚姻观136、(英语毕业论文)功能对等理论视角下英语言语幽默的翻译—以《老友记》为例（开题报告+论文）137、(英语毕业论文)《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观（开题报告+论文+文献综述）138、(英语毕业论文)希望失落的机械天堂——析《加算器》中的人性失落主题(开题报告+论文)139、(英语系经贸英语)成本领先战略与英国易捷航空140、(英语毕业论文)《围城》英译本中文化负载词的翻译研究（开题报告+论文）141、(英语毕业论文)从“狗”和“龙”的谚语看中西方文化差异142、(英语毕业论文)Cross-cultural Differences in Business Etiquette Between China and America143、(英语毕业论文)文化负迁移对翻译的影响（开题报告+论文）144、(英语毕业论文)An Analysis of Fagin in Oliver Twist145、(英语毕业论文)从《红字》看霍桑的政治观146、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我147、(英语毕业论文)从《百舌鸟之死》探析美国种族冲突148、(英语毕业论文)A Study on the Cross-Cultural Management in the Sino-American Joint-Venture Enterprises－－With Special Reference to Changan & Ford Motor Company 149、(英语毕业论文)从高校课桌文化透视当代大学生的内心压力（开题报告+论文+文献综述）150、(英语毕业论文)爱伦•坡的《乌鸦》中的浪漫主义分析（开题报告+论文+文献综述）151、(英语毕业论文)浅析《紫色》中西丽的成长历程152、(英语毕业论文)中英花卉隐喻下的情感叙事对比研究（开题报告+论文）153、(英语毕业论文)英语动画片中的中国元素探究（开题报告+论文）154、(英语毕业论文)浅析《贫民窟的百万富翁》中的宿命论色彩155、(英语毕业论文)从十字军东征看中世纪宗教冲突（开题报告+论文+文献综述）156、(英语毕业论文)Growing Pains—An Analysis of J. D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye as a Bildungsroman157、(英语毕业论文)英语混成新词建构新解：多元理论视域（开题报告+论文）158、(英语毕业论文)归化和异化策略在《红楼梦》文化负载词翻译中的应用（开题报告+论文+文献综述）159、(英语毕业论文)论《爱玛》中简•奥斯丁的女性主义观（开题报告+论文）160、(英语毕业论文)从《厄舍古屋的倒塌》看爱伦坡写作的哥特式风格（开题报告+论文）161、(英语毕业论文)海明威在《永别了，武器》中的反战情绪（开题报告+论文）162、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我163、(英语毕业论文)维多利亚时期英国女性文学作品的三个男性形象分析164、(英语毕业论文)跨文化视角下中西方选秀文化对比研究——以达人秀为例（开题报告+论文）165、(英语毕业论文)功能对等理论下的英语动物习语翻译(开题报告+论文)166、(英语毕业论文)The Analysis of Narrative Techniques in William Faulkner’s “A Rose for Emily”167、(英语毕业论文)On Dynamic Equivalence and Theory of “Three Beauties”—with Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of Tang Poems as an Illustration（开题报告+论文）168、(英语毕业论文)托尼•莫里森《秀拉》中的女性主义（开题报告+论文）169、(英语毕业论文)简•奥斯汀《诺桑觉寺》中人物对爱情和婚姻的不同态度（开题报告+论文+文献综述）170、(英语毕业论文)从饮食角度透析中西方文化差异171、(英语毕业论文)Application of Foregrounding Theory to Translation of Simile and Metaphor172、(英语毕业论文)中国文化特色词的英译——以《阿Q正传》的两个译本为例173、(英语毕业论文)A Study on Intercultural Communication of American TV Series 174、(英语毕业论文)英汉基本姿势动词（立、坐、躺）的语义实证比较研究（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）175、(英语毕业论文)《老人与海》的象征意义分析（开题报告+论文+文献综述）176、(英语毕业论文)中式菜谱英译策略研究177、(英语毕业论文)跨文化交际中非语言沟通的文化差异性研究178、(英语毕业论文)从《没有国家的人》看一个无政府主义者对人性的呼唤（开题报告+论文+文献综述）179、(英语毕业论文)从生态批评角度分析《野性的呼唤》180、(英语毕业论文)英汉数字之间的文化对比研究(开题报告+论文)181、(英语毕业论文)The Analysis of Feminism in Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights 182、(英语毕业论文)An Analysis of Language Features of Desperate Housewives（开题报告+论文+文献综述）183、(英语毕业论文)论童话《小王子》的象征创作（开题报告+论文）184、(英语毕业论文)论海明威《死在午后》的悲观主义色彩185、(英语毕业论文)A Comparative Study of Western Knight and Chinese Knight in Idylls of the King and Eight Heavenly Deities（开题报告+论文+文献综述）186、(英语毕业论文)《哈利波特》系列里哈利波特与伏地魔的二元对立分析187、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我188、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯•思特里克兰德的追寻自我189、(英语毕业论文)《大衣》中定语从句的翻译策略（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译）190、(英语毕业论文)澳大利亚英语词汇和澳大利亚文化（开题报告+论）191、(英语毕业论文)The Interpretation to Captain Ahab in Moby Dick through Abnormal Psychology192、(英语毕业论文)《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿的成长三部曲（开题报告+论文+文献综述）193、(英语毕业论文)《威尼斯商人》中的种族及宗教冲突（开题报告+论文+文献综述）194、(英语毕业论文)从传递文化信息视角探讨《红楼梦》翻译中“异化”与“归化”策略（开题报告+论文）195、(英语毕业论文)艾米丽•狄金森诗歌的心理分析（开题报告+论文）196、(英语毕业论文)从颜色词看中西方的文化差异197、(英语毕业论文)分析《悲惨世界》中冉•阿让的人物形象198、(英语毕业论文)英语新闻的用词和翻译（开题报告+论文+文献综述）199、(英语毕业论文)欧内斯特•海明威《雨中猫》和田纳西•威廉斯《热铁皮屋顶上的猫》中的女主人公的对比分析（开题报告+论文）200、(英语毕业论文)中国人和美国人特征的比较。

北方民族大学学士学位论文论文题目:古希腊罗马神话对英语词汇的影响院(部)名称:外国语学院学生姓名: AAAAAA AA专业:英语语言文学学号:201020AA指导教师姓名:AAAAAAA论文提交时间: 2014年5月论文答辩时间:2014年5月学位授予时间:2014年6月北方民族大学教务处制On the Impact of Greco-Roman Mythology on EnglishVocabularyByAA LAASubmitted toThe School of Foreign Language and LiteratureBeifang University of NationalitiesIn Partial Fulfillment ofThe Requirements forThe Bachelor Degree of Arts in EnglishUnder the Supervision of ZAAAMay 2014AcknowledgmentsIn the process of composing this paper, I would like to extend my deepest and sincerest gratitude to all teachers in the foreign language department of Beifang University of Nationalities, especially my supervisor, Mrs. Zhang. She is really a very responsible, knowledgeable and kind-hearted scholar. During the course of writing the thesis, she has provided me with a lot of extremely valuable suggestions and delicate instructions with patience. Her serious attitude towards work and students has influenced me with heart and soul. She read and corrected my mistakes of this paper again and again very carefully. Without her instruction and assistance, it would be definitely impossible for me to complete this paper.Besides, I would also show my thanks to Mrs. Yang who in last semester was my teacher of the course Guidance on Writing Graduating Paper. She supervised me to finish the first draft of this paper and also gave me some helpful advice.At last, I would express my great appreciation to all my friends, especially my three lovely roommates, for their encouragement and support.摘要作为西方文化两大源头之一，古希腊罗马神话不仅对世界文化社会，而且对语言也产生了深远的影响。

A Brief History of the English LanguageEnglish is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family includes several major branches:Latin and the modern Romance languages (French etc.);the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish etc.);the Indo-Iranian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.);the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech etc.);the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian;the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.); Greek. The influence of the original Indo-European language can be seen today, even though no written record of it exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different languages that share the same root.Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, as far as the study of the development of English is concerned, of paramount importance, the Germanic and the Romance (called that because the Romance languages derive from Latin, the language of ancient Rome). English is a member of the Germanic group of languages. It is believed that this group began as a common language in the Elbe river region about 3,000 years ago. By the second century BC, this Common Germanic language had split into three distinct sub-groups:•East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back tosoutheastern Europe. No East Germanic language is spokentoday, and the only written East Germanic language thatsurvives is Gothic.•North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (butnot Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and Estonian and isnot an Indo-European language).•West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English.Old English (500-1100 AD)CLICK HERE TO SEE A MAP OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLANDWest Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began to settle in the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of the northeastern region of the Netherlands - that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast.These invaders pushed the original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker died in 1777) Also influencing English at this time were the Vikings. Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples are dream, which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live alongside its native English cognate shirt. The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics would indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English roots.Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. Shortly after the most important event in the development and history of the English language, the Norman Conquest.The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. TheNormans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic influences in addition to the basic Latin roots. Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury , and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Take for instance this Old English (c. 1000) sample:Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonumsi þin nama gehalgod tobecume þin rice gewurþe þin willa on eorðan swa swa on heofonumurne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dægand forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendumand ne gelæd þu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele soþlice. Rendered in Middle English (Wyclif, 1384), the same text is recognizable to the modern eye:Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name;þi reume or kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herþe as it is doun in heuene.yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.And foryeue to us oure dettis þat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris þat is to men þat han synned in us.And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl.Finally, in Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) the same text is completely intelligible:Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name.Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen. Giue us this day our daily bread.And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters.And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen.For a lengthier comparison of the three stages in the development of English click here!In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman.This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-speaking people.By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament.The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern English.Early Modern English (1500-1800)The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The revival of classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language. These borrowings were deliberate and many bemoaned the adoption of these "inkhorn" terms, but many survive to this day. Shakespeare's character Holofernes in Loves Labor Lost is a satire of an overenthusiastic schoolmaster who is too fond of Latinisms.Many students having difficulty understanding Shakespeare would be surprised to learn that he wrote in modern English. But, as can be seen in the earlier example of the Lord's Prayer, Elizabethan English has much more in common with our language today than it does with the language of Chaucer. Many familiar words and phrases were coined or first recorded by Shakespeare, some 2,000 words and countless idioms are his. Newcomers to Shakespeare are often shocked at the number of cliches contained in his plays, until they realize that he coined them and they became cliches afterwards. "One fell swoop," "vanish into thin air," and "flesh and blood" are all Shakespeare's. Words he bequeathed to the language include "critical," "leapfrog," "majestic," "dwindle," and "pedant."Two other major factors influenced the language and served to separate Middle and Modern English. The first was the Great Vowel Shift. This was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. While modern English speakers can read Chaucer with some difficulty, Chaucer's pronunciation would have been completely unintelligible to the modern ear. Shakespeare, on the other hand, would be accented, but understandable. Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the mouth and the letter "e" at the end of words became silent. Chaucer's Lyf (pronounced "leef") became the modern life. In Middle English name was pronounced "nam-a," five was pronounced "feef," and down was pronounced "doon." In linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over, however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become considerably more gradual.The last major factor in the development of Modern English was the advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476. Books became cheaper and as a result, literacy became more common. Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise, and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more common. Finally, the printing press broughtstandardization to English. The dialect of London, where most publishing houses were located, became the standard. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the first English dictionary was published in 1604.Late-Modern English (1800-Present)The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is vocabulary. Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English has many more words. These words are the result of two historical factors. The first is the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technological society. This necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the British Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, and English adopted many foreign words and made them its own.The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for neologisms to describe the new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek. Words like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and vaccine did not exist in the classical languages, but they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Such neologisms were not exclusively created from classical roots though, English roots were used for such terms as horsepower, airplane, and typewriter.This burst of neologisms continues today, perhaps most visible in the field of electronics and computers. Byte, cyber-, bios, hard-drive, and microchip are good examples.Also, the rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade served not only to introduce English to the world, but to introduce words into English. Hindi, and the other languages of the Indian subcontinent, provided many words, such as pundit, shampoo, pajamas, and juggernaut. Virtually every language on Earth has contributed to the development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon) to the vast contributions of French and Latin.The British Empire was a maritime empire, and the influence of nautical terms on the English language has been great. Phrases like three sheets to the wind have their origins onboard ships.Finally, the military influence on the language during the latter half of twentieth century was significant. Before the Great War, militaryservice for English-speaking persons was rare; both Britain and the United States maintained small, volunteer militaries. Military slang existed, but with the exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard English. During the mid-20th century, however, a large number of British and American men served in the military. And consequently military slang entered the language like never before. Blockbuster, nose dive, camouflage, radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing strip are all military terms that made their way into standard English.American English and other varietiesAlso significant beginning around 1600 AD was the English colonization of North America and the subsequent creation of American English. Some pronunciations and usages "froze" when they reached the American shore. In certain respects, some varieties of American English are closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern Standard English ('English English' or as it is often incorrectly termed 'British English') is. Some "Americanisms" are actually originally English English expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as a synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish, and loan as a verb instead of lend).The American dialect also served as the route of introduction for many native American words into the English language. Most often, these were place names like Mississippi, Roanoke, and Iowa.Indian-sounding names like Idaho were sometimes created that had no native-American roots. But, names for other things besides places were also common. Raccoon, tomato, canoe, barbecue, savanna, and hickory have native American roots, although in many cases the original Indian words were mangled almost beyond recognition. Spanish has also been great influence on American English. M ustang, canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are all examples of Spanish words that made their way into English through the settlement of the American West.A lesser number of words have entered American English from French and West African languages.Likewise dialects of English have developed in many of the former colonies of the British Empire. There are distinct forms of the Englishlanguage spoken in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India and many other parts of the world.Global EnglishEnglish has now inarguably achieved global status. Whenever we turn on the news to find out what's happening in East Asia, or the Balkans, or Africa, or South America, or practically anywhere, local people are being interviewed and telling us about it in English. To illustrate the point when Pope John Paul II arrived in the Middle East recently to retrace Christ's footsteps and addressed Christians, Muslims and Jews, the pontiff spoke not Latin, not Arabic, not Italian, not Hebrew, not his native Polish. He spoke in English.Indeed, if one looks at some of the facts about the amazing reachof the English language many would be surprised. English is used in over 90 countries as an official or semi-official language. English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN. It is the de facto working language of 98 percent of international research physicists and research chemists. It is the official language of the European Central Bank, even though the bank is in Frankfurt and neither Britain nor any other predominantly English-speaking country is a member of the European Monetary Union. It is the language in which Indian parents and black parents in South Africa overwhelmingly wish their children to be educated. It is believed that over one billion people worldwide are currently learning English.One of the more remarkable aspects of the spread of English around the world has been the extent to which Europeans are adopting it as their internal lingua franca. English is spreading from northern Europe to the south and is now firmly entrenched as a second language in countries such as Sweden, Norway, Netherlands and Denmark. Although not an official language in any of these countries if one visits any of them it would seem that almost everyone there can communicate with ease in English. Indeed, if one switches on a television in Holland one would find as many channels in English (albeit subtitled), as there are in Dutch.As part of the European Year of Languages, a special survey of European attitudes towards and their use of languages has just published. The report confirms that at the beginning of 2001 English is the most widely known foreign or second language, with 43% ofEuropeans claiming they speak it in addition to their mother tongue. Sweden now heads the league table of English speakers, with over 89% of the population saying they can speak the language well or very well. However, in contrast, only 36% of Spanish and Portuguese nationals speak English. What's more, English is the language rated as most useful to know, with over 77% of Europeans who do not speak English as their first language, rating it as useful. French rated 38%, German 23% and Spanish 6%English has without a doubt become the global language.A Chronology of the English Language449Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain begins450-480Earliest Old English inscriptions date from this period597St. Augustine arrives in Britain. Beginning of Christian conversion731The Venerable Bede publishes The Ecclesiastical History of the English People in Latin792Viking raids and settlements begin871Alfred becomes king of Wessex. He has Latin works translated into English and begins practice of English prose. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle is begun911Charles II of France grants Normandy to the Viking chief Hrolf the Ganger. The beginning of Norman Frenchc. 1000The oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf dates from this period1066The Norman conquestc. 1150The oldest surviving manuscripts of Middle English date from this period1171Henry II conquers Ireland1204King John loses the province of Normandy to France1348English replaces Latin as the medium of instruction in schools, other than Oxford and Cambridge which retain Latin1362The Statute of Pleading replaces French with English as the language of law. Records continue to be kept in Latin. English is used in Parliament for the first time1384Wyclif publishes his English translation of the Bible c. 1388Chaucer begins The Canterbury Tales1476William Caxton establishes the first English printing press 1492Columbus discovers the New World1549First version of The Book of Common Prayer1604Robert Cawdrey publishes the first English dictionary, Table Alphabeticall1607Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the New World, established1611The Authorized, or King James Version, of the Bible is published1702Publication of the first daily, English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, in London1755Samuel Johnson publishes his dictionary 1770Cook discovers Australia1928The Oxford English Dictionary is published。

A-Brief-History-of-EnglishA Brief History of EnglishN o understanding of the English language can be very satisfactory without a notion of the history of the language. But we shall have to make do with just a notion. The history of English is long and complicated, and we can only hit the higl1 spots.不了解英语的历史很难真正掌握这门语言，然而对此我们只能做到略有所知。

因为英语的历史既漫长又复杂，我们只能抓住其发展过程中的几个关键时期。

At the time of the Ro1nan Empire, the speakers of what was to become English were scattered along the northern coast of Europe. They spoke a dialect of Low German. More exactly, they spoke several different dialects, since they were several different tribes. The names given to the tribes who got to England are Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who are referred to collectively as Anglo-Saxons4.在罗马帝国时期，散居在欧洲北部沿海的居民说一种西部德语的方言，这就是英语的前身。

更确切地说，由于隶属于不同的部落，他们说的是几种不同的方言。

Lexicology (from lexiko-, in the Late Greek lexikon) is that partof linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon.The term first appeared in the 1820s, though there were lexicologists in essence before the term wascoined. Computational lexicology as a related field (in the same way that computational linguistics is related to linguistics) deals with the computational study of dictionaries and their contents. An allied science to lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words in relation with dictionaries - it is actually concerned with the inclusion of words in dictionaries and from that perspective with the whole lexicon. Therefore lexicography is the theory and practice of composing dictionaries. Sometimes lexicography is considered to be a part or a branch of lexicology, but the two disciplines should not be mistaken:lexicographers are the people who write dictionaries, they are at the same time lexicologists too, but notall lexicologists are lexicographers. It is said that lexicography is the practical lexicology, it is practically oriented though it has its own theory, while the pure lexicology is mainly theoretical.[hide]1 Lexical semanticso 1.1 Domaino 1.2 History▪ 1.2.1 Prestructuralist semantics▪ 1.2.2 Structuralist and neostructuralist semantics▪ 1.2.3 Chomskyan school▪ 1.2.4 Cognitive semantics2 Phraseology3 Etymology4 Lexicographyo 4.1 Noted lexicographers5 Lexicologists6 Bibliography7 References8 See also9 External linkso9.1 Societieso9.2 Theory[edit]Lexical semanticsMain article: Semantics[edit]DomainSemantical relations between words are manifested in respectof homonymy, antonymy, paronymy, etc. Semantics usually involved in lexicological work is called lexical semantics. Lexical semantics is somewhat different from other linguistic types of semantics like phrase semantics, semantics of sentence, and text semantics, as they take the notion of meaning in much broader sense. There are outside (although sometimes related to) linguistics types of semantics like cultural semantics and computational semantics, as the latest is not relatedto computational lexicology but to mathematical logic. Among semantics of language, lexical semantics is most robust, and to some extend the phrase semantics too, while other types of linguistic semantics are new and not quite examined.[edit]HistoryLexical semantics may not be understood without a brief exploration of its history.[edit]Prestructuralist semanticsSemantics as a linguistic discipline has its beginning in the middle of the 19th century, and because linguistics at the time was predominantly diachronic, thus lexical semantics was diachronic too - it dominated the scene between the years of 1870 and 1930.[1] Diachronic lexical semantics was interested without a doubt in the change of meaning withpredominantly semasiological approach, taking the notion of meaning in a psychological aspect: lexical meanings were considered to be psychological entities), thoughts and ideas, and meaning changes are explained as resulting from psychological processes.[edit]Structuralist and neostructuralist semanticsWith the rise of new ideas after the ground break of Saussure's work, prestructuralist diachronic semantics was considerably criticized for the atomic study of words, the diachronic approach and the mingle of nonlinguistics spheres of investigation. The study became synchronic, concerned with semantic structures and narrowly linguistic.Semantic structural relations of lexical entities can be seen in three ways:▪semantic similarity▪lexical relations such as synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy▪syntagmatic lexical relations were identifiedAs structuralist lexical semantics was revived by neostructuralist not much work was done by them, it is actually admitted by the followers.It may be seen that WordNet "is a type of an online electronic lexical database organized on relational principles, which now comprises nearly 100,000 concepts" as Dirk Geeraerts[2] states it. [edit]Chomskyan schoolMain article: Generative semanticsFollowers of Chomskyan generative approach to grammar soon investigated two different types of semantics, which, unfortunately, clashed in an effusive debate[3], these were interpretativeand generative semantics.[edit]Cognitive semanticsMain article: Cognitive semanticsCognitive lexical semantics is thought to be most productive of the current approaches.[edit]PhraseologyMain article: PhraseologyAnother branch of lexicology, together with lexicographyis phraseology. It studies compound meanings of two or more words, as in "raining cats and dogs". Because the whole meaning of that phrase is much different from the meaning of words included alone, phraseology examines how and why such meanings come in everyday use, and what possibly are the laws governing these word combinations. Phraseology also investigates idioms.[edit]EtymologyMain article: EtymologySince lexicology studies the meaning of words and their semantic relations, it often explores the origin and history of a word, i.e. its etymology. Etymologists analyse related languages using a technique known as the comparative method. In this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family. However, the comparative method is unhelpful in the case of "multiplecausation"[4], when a word derives from several sources simultaneously as in phono-semantic matching.[5]Etymology can be helpful in clarifying some questionable meanings, spellings, etc., and is also used in lexicography. For example, etymological dictionaries provide words with their historical origins, change and development.[edit]LexicographyMain article: LexicographyA good example of lexicology at work, that everyone is familiar with, is that of dictionaries and thesaurus. Dictionaries are books or computer programs (or databases) that actually represent lexicographical work, they are opened and purposed for the use of public.As there are many different types of dictionaries, there are many different types of lexicographers.Questions that lexicographers are concerned with are for example the difficulties in defining what simple words such as 'the' mean, and how compound or complex words, or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. Also which words to keep in and which not to include in a dictionary.[edit]Noted lexicographersMain article: LexicographerSome noted lexicographers include:▪Dr. Samuel Johnson (September 18, 1709 – December 13, 1784)▪French lexicographer Pierre Larousse (October 23, 1817-January 3, 1875)▪Noah Webster (October 16, 1758 – May 28, 1843)▪Russian lexicographer Vladimir Dal (November 10, 1801 –September 22, 1872)[edit]Lexicologists▪Damaso Alonso, (Oct. 22, 1898-) Spanish literary critic and lexicologist▪Roland Barthes, (Nov. 12, 1915-Mar. 25, 1980) French writer, critic and lexicologist[edit]Bibliography▪Lexicology/Lexikologie: International Handbook on the Nature and Structure of Words and Vocabulary/EinInternationales Handbuch Zur Natur and Struktur Von Wortern Und Wortschatzen, Vol 1. & Vol 2. (Eds. A. Cruse et al.)▪Words, Meaning, and Vocabulary: An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology, (ed. H. Jackson); ISBN 0-304-70396-6▪Toward a Functional Lexicology, (ed. G. Wotjak); ISBN 0-8204-3526-0▪Lexicology, Semantics, and Lexicography, (ed. J.Coleman); ISBN 1-55619-972-4▪English Lexicology: Lexical Structure, Word Semantics & Word-formation,(Leonhard Lipka.); ISBN 9783823349952▪Outline of English Lexicology , (Leonhard Lipka.); ISBN 3484410035[edit]References1. ^ Dirk Geeraerts, The theoretical and descriptivedevelopment of lexical semantics, Prestructuralist semantics, Published in: The Lexicon in Focus. Competition andConvergence in Current Lexicology, ed. Leila Behrens andDietmar Zaefferer, p. 23-422. ^ Dirk Geeraerts, The theoretical and descriptivedevelopment of lexical semantics, Structuralist andneostructuralist semantics, Published in: The Lexicon inFocus. Competition and Convergence in Current Lexicology, ed. Leila Behrens and Dietmar Zaefferer, p. 23-423. ^ Harris, Randy Allen (1993) The Linguistics Wars, Oxford,New York: Oxford University Press4. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009), Hybridity versusRevivability: Multiple Causation, Forms andPatterns, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: 40-67.5. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), ‘‘Language Contact andLexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History andLanguage Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN1-4039-1723-X.。

给美国人介绍我是如何学英语英语作文There is a growing concern about English learning. English can be a hard language to grasp if it isn't your first language. As we all know, learning English can’t accomplish at one stroke.At the meantime, English presents a number of issues to non-native speakers, such as verb tenses, irregular verbs, writing system, syntax and so on.With a plethora of grammar rules and a handful of exceptions to the rules that are virtually impossible to remember, the best way to grasp the basics of English is through constant exposure to the language and loads of practice.As the saying goes, practice makes perfect. You’d better listen and read English as often as you can. In my opinion, reading is a must for those who want to learn English.It's great for visual learners and can not only help expand one's vocabulary, but can subsequently improve grammar. And I think watching English TV program is a good way to learn English. You also can choose to listen English songs.English is not so difficult as you imagine. So, be confident and find your own way to learn English well!。