语言学第6章习题
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Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50 ' s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker ' s intention.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. P _________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes s _______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.15. The notion of c ________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u .17. The meaning of a sentence is a _____ , and decontexualized.18. C _____ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.19. P _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.20. A l ______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.21. An i __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker 'instention; it is the act performed in saying something.22. A c _______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.23. An e ______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q ______ , the maxim of quality, themaxim of relati on and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices followi ng each stateme nt. Mark the choice that can best complete the stateme nt:25. _________ does not study mea ning in isolatio n, but in con text.C. i ntri nsic 27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is con sidered.D. con ceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of com muni cati on, it becomes a(n)A. con stative 30. Which of the followi ng is true?A. Uttera nces usually do not take the form of senten ces.B. Some uttera nces cannot be restored to complete senten ces.C. No uttera nces can take the form of senten ces.D. All uttera nces can be restored to complete senten ces.31. Speech act theory did not come into being un til ________ .A. in the late 50' s of the 20the century B. in the early 1950' s C. in the late 1960 ' sD. in the early 21st cen tury.32. ________ is the act performed by or result ing from say ing someth ing; it is the con seque nee of, or the cha ngebrought about by the uttera nee.A. A locuti onary actB. An illocutio nary actC. A perlocuti onary actD. A performative act33. Accord ing to Searle, the illocutio nary point of the represe ntative is ___ .A. PragmaticsB. Sema nticsC. Sense relati onD. Con cept 26. The mea ning of Ian guage was con sidered as somethi ngin traditi onal sema ntics. A. con textualB. behaviouristic D. logical A. refere nee B. speech actC. practical usageD. con text 28. A sentence is a con cept, and the mea ning of a sentence is ofte n studied in isolatio n.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mental B. directiveC. uttera neeD. expressiveA. to get the hearer to do somethi ngB. to commit the speaker to something ' s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of acti onD. to express the feeli ngs or attitude towards an exist ing state of affairs.34. All the acts that bel ong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ ________A. in their illocutionary acts.B. in their inten ti ons expressedC. i n their stre ngth or forceD. in their effect brought about35. _________ is adva need by Paul GriceA. Cooperative Prin cipleB. Polite ness Prin cipleC. The Gen eral Prin ciple of Uni versal GrammarD. Adjace ncy Prin ciple36. When any of the maxims un der the cooperative prin ciple is flouted, _____ might arise.A. impolite nessB. con tradictio nsC. mutual un dersta ndingD. conv ersati onal implicaturesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FII. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:13. Pragmatics 14. sema ntics 15. con text 16. uttera nee 17. abstract18.C on statives 19. Performatives 20. locuti onary 21. illocutio nary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. qua ntityIII. There are four choices follow ing each stateme nt. Mark the choice that can best complete the stateme nt:25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.B31.A 32.C 33.B 34.C 35. A 36.DIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics 38. con text 39. uttera nee meaning40. sentence meaning 41. con stative 42. performative43. locutio nary act 44. illocutio nary act 45. perlocutio nary act 46.. Cooperative Prin cipleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration ifn ecessary:47. How are sema ntics and pragmatics differe nt from each other?48. How does a sentence differ from an uttera nee?49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an uttera nee meaning?50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.52. What are the four maxims un der the cooperative prin ciple?53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?Suggested an swers to suppleme ntary exercises:IV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakersof a Ianguage use sentencesto effect successful com muni cati on.38. Con text: Gen erally speak in g, it con sists of the kno wledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared kno wledge is of two types: the kno wledge of the Ian guage they use, and the kno wledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic com muni cati on is tak ing place.39. utteranee meaning: the meaning of an utteranee is concrete, and context-dependent. Utteranee is based on sentence meaning; it is realizati on of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situati on of com muni cati on, or simply in a eon text.40. sen ten cemea ning: The mea ning of a senten ceis ofte n con sidered as the abstract, i ntrin sic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Con stative: Con statives were stateme nts that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were senten ces that did not state a fact or describe a state, andwere not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syn tax, lexic on and phono logy.44. illocutio nary act: An illocutio nary act is the act of express ing the speaker's in ten ti on; it is the act performed in say ing someth ing.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the con seque nee of, or the cha nge brought about by the uttera nee; it is the act performed by say ing someth ing.46. Cooperative Prin ciple: It is prin ciple adva need by Paul Grice. It is a prin ciple that guides our conv ersati onal behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk excha nge in which you are en gaged.V. An swer the followi ng questio ns as comprehe nsively as possible. Give examples for illustrati on if n ecessary: 47. How are sema ntics and pragmatics differe nt from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of Ianguage was considered as something intrinsic, and in here nt, i.e. a property attached to Ian guage itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sen ten ces were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the con text in which they were used. Pragmatics studies mea ning not in isolati on, but in con text. The esse ntial dist in ctio n betwee n sema ntics and pragmatics is whether the con text of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an uttera nee?A sentence is a grammatical con cept. It usually con sists of a subject and predicate. An uttera nee is the unit of com muni cati on .It is the smallest lin guistic unit that has a com muni cative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of com muni cati on, it becomes an uttera nee. Whether “ Mary isentence or an utteranee depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-ccontained unit in isolati on, the n it is a sen ten ce. If we look at it as somethi ng uttered in a certa in situati on with a certa in purpose, then it is an utteranee. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot eve n be restored to complete senten ces.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an uttera nee meaning?A sentence meaning is ofte n con sidered as the in tri nsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predicati on. It is abstract and in depe ndent of con text. The meaning of an uttera nee is con crete, and con text-depe nden t.The utteranee meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situati on of com muni cati on, or simply in a eon text. For example, “ There is a dog atathier d o old utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as awarning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the uttera nee meaning of “ There is a dog at the doo»e nds on”he!con text in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locuti onary act, illocutio nary act and perlocuti onary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syn tax, lexic on and phono logy. An illocutio nary act is the act of express ing the speaker's in ten ti on; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying someth ing; it is the con seque nee of, or the cha nge brought about by the uttera nee; it is the act performed by say ing someth ing. For example:You have left the door wide ope n.The locuti onary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left,"" open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocuti onary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an uttera nee, he has expressed his inten ti on of ask ing the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utteranee. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the cha nge in the real world he has inten ded to; the n the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) represe ntatives: represe ntatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutio nary point of the represe ntativesis to commit the speaker to someth in g's being the case, to the truth of what has bee n said. For example:(I swear) I have n ever see n the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the win dow!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speak ing, he puts himself un der obligati on. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the uttera nee. The speaker is express ing his feeli ngs or attitude towards an existi ng state of affairs, e.g. apologiz ing, thanking, con gratulat ing. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarati ons: Declarati ons have the characteristic that the successful performa nee of such an act brings about the corresp ondence betwee n what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeti ng ope n.52. What are the four maxims un der the cooperative prin ciple?The maxim of qua ntity1. Make your con tributi on as in formative as required (for the curre nt purpose of the excha nge).2. Do not make your con tributi on more in formative tha n is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evide nee.The maxim of relati onBe releva nt.The maxim of manner1. Avoid obscurity of expressi on.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unn ecessary prolixity).4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouti ng of the maxims give rise to con versati onal implicatures?A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?B: Somewhere in the souther n suburbs of the city.This is said whe n both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give eno ugh information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do n ot wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party toni ght?B: I'm afraid I'm not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality.The con versati onal implicature " I do not want to go to your party toni ght" is the n produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you thi nk?B: The roses in the garde n are beautiful, aren't they?This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. ThusB is say ing someth ing irreleva nt to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relati on. The conver- sati onal implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude mann er" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don ' t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is the n produced.。
