Circuit properties ofthe cortico-mesocortical

Boron Dipyrromethene Chromophores:Next Generation Triplet Acceptors/Annihilators for Low Power Upconversion SchemesTanya N.Singh-Rachford,†Alexandre Haefele,‡Raymond Ziessel,*,‡and Felix N.Castellano*,†Department of Chemistry and Center for Photochemical Sciences,Bowling Green State Uni V ersity,Bowling Green, Ohio43403,and Laboratoire de Chimie Mole´culaire associe´au Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (LCM-CNRS),Ecole de Chimie,Polyme`res,Mate´riaux(ECPM),25rue Becquerel67087Strasbourg Cedex,France Received September5,2008;E-mail:castell@;ziessel@chimie.u-strasbg.frPhoton upconversion based on sensitized triplet-triplet annihila-tion(TTA)continues to emerge as a promising wavelength-shiftingtechnology.The sensitized TTA mechanism permits nonlinearupconversion phenomena to become linked to sequential highlyallowed one-photon absorptions,thereby permitting the use of low-power noncoherent continuous-wave excitation sources.Thisstrategy has proven exceedingly effective when late transition metal-based sensitizers are combined in concert with aromatic hydrocarbon-based triplet acceptors/annihilators.1,2In many recent examples,the sensitized TTA upconversion process is readily visualized bythe naked eye in a lighted room.1e-g In addition to thesetechnologically relevant light-producing reactions,we recentlysucceeded in the realization of“photochemical”upconversion topromote the[4+4]dimerization of anthracene,a photochemicalreaction traditionally requiring ultraviolet light excitation.1d Whatshould be immediately recognized is the fact that in every singleexample of upconversion via sensitized TTA,the acceptor/annihila-tor molecules have been exclusively limited to aromatic hydrocar-bons,largely based on anthracene derivatives.1,2This represents astrategic choice since aromatic hydrocarbons conveniently possesslarge splitting in their singlet-triplet energy gaps,permitting therelevant sensitizer levels to be sandwiched between,facilitating thenecessary thermodynamics.This limiting experimental reality hasseverely restricted both fundamental research and the broaderapplicability of low-power upconversion phenomena. Fortunately,recent efforts have revealed the presence of largesinglet-triplet energy gaps in the boron dipyrromethene(BODIPY)class offluorophores,E T≈1.6eV.3BODIPY chromophores are popular molecular probes exhibiting highfluorescence quantumyields and are strongly resistant to photobleaching thereby makingthem suitable candidates for incorporation into upconversionschemes.4-6In the present study,the red-light absorbing platinu-m(II)tetraphenyltetrabenzoporphyrin(PtTPBP)was used as thetriplet sensitizer(Φp)0.7,7τ)40.6µs in benzene)in conjunctionwith two distinct iodophenyl-bearing BODIPY derivatives BD-18(ΦF)0.69)and BD-29(ΦF)0.78),producing highly efficient,stable green(ΦUC)0.0313(0.0005)and yellow(ΦUC)0.0753 (0.0036)upconverted emissions in benzene,respectively.Notably, the nature of the current photochemical systems afforded highly reproducible upconversion quantum efficiency determinations, which to the best of our knowledge are thefirst time such quantitative measurements have been reported.The two BODIPY chromophores were synthesized using standardprocedures4,5,8,9and the associated characterization data areconsistent with their respective structures,see Supporting Informa-tion for details.Figure1presents the normalized absorption and emission spectra of the three chromophores used in the present study measured in benzene,the solvent utilized for all measurements herein.PtTPBP exhibits prominent visible absorptions with a Q-band maximum at614nm which tails to∼650nm.BD-1and BD-2have similar absorption band shapes with maxima at505 and518nm,respectively.Thefluorescence spectra of BD-1and BD-2exhibit an almost mirror-image symmetry with their corre-sponding absorption spectra,λmax)527and548nm,respectively. Selective excitation of PtTPBP at635(5nm leads to the generation of long-lived phosphorescence at766nm,which has the ability to sensitize triplet state formation in either BD-1or BD-2 through diffusive energy transfer,eventually leading to TTA of the3BODIPY*chromophores.Triplet energy transfer rate constants from the PtTPBP sensitizer were established using dynamic Stern-Volmer analysis(Figures S3and S4),yielding bimolecular quenching constants of4.18×108and1.06×109M-1s-1for BD-1and BD-2,respectively.The attenuated quenching constant in the former is attributed to the smaller driving force for triplet energy transfer from the PtTPBP sensitizer.Displayed in Figure2a,b is the typical emission intensity power dependence of a solution containing PtTPBP and BD-1or BD-2 upon635(5nm excitation using a635(10nm notchfilter in the emission path.The sensitized anti-Stokes upconvertedfluores-cence of BD-1or BD-2is clearly visible and quantitatively reproduces the features of the singletfluorescence spectra resulting from direct excitation of BD-1or BD-2in benzene.Analysis of the sensitized upconverted integrated emission intensity of BD-1 or BD-2as a function of the incident light intensity is shown in Figure2panels c and d,respectively.The solid lines represent the†Bowling Green State University.‡Ecole de Chimie,polyme`res,Mate´riaux.Figure1.Normalized absorption and emission spectra of PtTPBP,BD-1,and BD-2inbenzene.Published on Web11/11/200810.1021/ja807056a CCC:$40.75 2008American Chemical Society 161649J.AM.CHEM.SOC.2008,130,16164–16165best quadratic fits (x 2)to the data,illustrative of the nonlinear photochemistry driving these processes.Clearly,the upconverted fluorescence intensity is proportional to the square of the incident light power at 635nm and hence to the square of the triplet BODIPY concentration.The percent quantum efficiency of upconverted fluorescence was measured as a function of the concentration of both BD-1and BD-2,determined relative to a methylene blue quantum counter (Φf )0.03)10with excitation at 635(5nm,11Figures S1and S2.Although the emission profile of methylene blue does not effectively overlap that of BD-1or BD-2,highly reproducible quantum yield data were obtained in both instances over many independent measurements in our conventional single photon counting fluorim-eter (see Supporting Information for details).Figure 3a displays the increase in the observed upconverted fluorescence of BD-1with increasing its concentration.A plateau in quantum efficiency is observed beyond 3.65×10-4M BD-1and similar results were obtained across the BD-2concentration profile.With measured upconversionquantumefficienciesinhandanddynamicStern -Volmer quenching established,the TTA quantum efficiency with a theoreti-cal maximum of 11.1%,12can be calculated from these data.If we assume that ΦUC )Φq ΦTTA Φf ,where the upconversion quantum efficiency is the product of the quantum efficiencies of PtTPBP triplet quenching,BODIPY triplet -triplet annihilation,and singlet BODIPY fluorescence,respectively,then ΦTTA is readily calculated from the remaining three experimentally determined quantities,yielding ΦTTA )0.049and 0.099for BD-1and BD-2,respectively.Since these values are below the theoretical maximum,it stands to reason that our experimentally measured ΦUC quantities are quite reasonable.To the best of our knowledge the current observations represent the first examples of the use of the boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY)acceptors/annihilators in upconverting schemes,completely elimi-nating the need for aromatic hydrocarbons.This advance is significant as it truly generalizes the phenomenon of low power photon upconversion and promotes the practical possibilities of this technology.In terms of the latter,we note that the present PtTPBP/BODIPY systems are readily incorporated into low T g polymericsolid-state materials 1e and successfully upconvert red photons.The solution-based properties of the current donor -acceptor/annihilator pairs permitted highly reproducible red-to-green and red-to-yellow upconversion quantum yields to be experimentally determined.The observed upconversion processes in both instances were extremely stable as a function of irradiation time.In concert with dynamic Stern -Volmer data,TTA quantum efficiencies are reliably esti-mated from upconverted fluorescence data and can approach theoretical limits.We hope that the present work inspires researchers to identify other viable donor -acceptor/annihilator chromophore compositions for utilization in upconversion-based wavelength-shifting ventures.Acknowledgment.This work was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (Grant FA9550-05-1-0276).We thank Dr.Gilles Ulrich for his skilled expertise in the synthesis of the BODIPY dyes.Supporting Information Available:Additional experimental and synthetic details,NMR spectra,Stern -Volmer analyses,and upcon-version quantum yield determinations.This material is available free of charge via the Internet at .References(1)(a)Koslov,D.V.;Castellano,mun.2004,2860–2861.(b)Islangulov,R.R.;Koslov,D.V.;Castellano,mun.2005,3776–3778.(c)Zhao,W.;Castellano,F.N.J.Phys.Chem.A 2006,110,11440–11445.(d)Islangulov,R.R.;Castellano,F.N.Angew.Chem.,Int.Ed.2006,45,5957–5959.(e)Islangulov,R.R.;Lott,J.;Weder,C.;Castellano,F.N.J.Am.Chem.Soc.2007,129,12652–12653.(f)Singh-Rachford,T.N.;Castellano,F.N.J.Phys.Chem.A 2008,112,3550–3556.(g)Singh-Rachford,T.N.;Islangulov,R.R.J.Phys.Chem.A 2008,112,3906–3910.(2)(a)Keivanidis,P.E.;Baluschev,S.;Miteva,T.;Nelles,G.;Scherf,U.;Yasuda,A.;Wegner,G.Ad V .Mater.2003,15,2095–2098.(b)Baluschev,S.;Yu,F.;Miteva,T.;Ahl,S.;Yasuda,A.;Nelles,G.;Knoll,W.;Wegner,G.Nano Lett.2005,5,2482–2484.(c)Baluschev,S.;Jacob,J.;Avlasevich,Y.S.;Keivanidis,P.E.;Miteva,T.;Yasuda,A.;Nelles,G.;Grimsdale,A.C.;Mu ¨llen,A.;Wegner,G.Chem.Phys.Chem.2005,6,1250–1253.(d)Baluschev,S.;Miteva,T.;Yakutkin,V.;Nelles,G.;Yasuda,A.;Wegner,G.Phys.Re V .Lett.2006,97,143903.(e)Baluschev,S.;Yakutkin,V.;Wegner,G.Appl.Phys.Lett.2007,90,181103–181103-3.(3)(a)Harriman,A.;Rostron,J.P.;Cesario,M.;Ulrich,G.;Ziessel,R.J.Phys.Chem.A 2006,110,7994–8002.(b)Nastasi,F.;Puntoriero,F.;Campagna,S.;Diring,S.;Ziessel,R.Phys.Chem.Chem.Phys.2008,10,3982–3986.(4)Loudet,A.;Burgess,K.Chem.Re V .2007,107,4891–4932.(5)Ulrich,G.;Ziessel,R.;Harriman,A.Angew.Chem.,Int.Ed.2008,47,1184–1201.(6)Yogo,T.;Urano,Y.;Ishitsuka,Y.;Maniwa,F.;Nagano,T.J.Am.Chem.Soc.2005,127,12162–12163.(7)Borek,C.;Hanson,K.;Djurovich,P.I.;Thompson,M.E.;Aznavour,K.;Bau,R.;Sun,Y.;Forrest,S.R.;Brooks,J.;Michalski,L.;Brown,J.Angew.Chem.,Int.Ed.2007,46,1109–1112.(8)Tahtaoui,C.;Thomas,C.;Rohmer,F.;Klotz,P.;Duportail,G.;Me ´ly,Y.;Bonnet,D.;Hibert,.Chem.2007,72,269–272.(9)Azov,V.A.;Schlegel,A.;Diederich,F.Bull.Chem.Soc.Jpn.2006,79,1926–1940.(10)Olmsted III,J.J.Phys.Chem.1979,83,2581–2584.(11)Demas,J.N.;Crosby,G.A.J.Phys.Chem.1971,75,991–1024.(12)Birks,J.B.Phys.Lett.A 1967,24,479–480.JA807056AFigure 2.(a,b)Normalized upconverted emission intensity profile of BD-1and BD-2,respectively,following selective excitation of PtTPBP (λex )635(5nm)measured as a function of incident power density with a notch filter in the emission path;(c,d)normalized integrated emission intensity from panels a and b,respectively,plotted as a function of the normalized incident light power.The black line in panels c and d represents the best quadratic fit to the data,x 2.Figure 3.Relative upconverted fluorescence quantum yield of (a)BD-1and (b)BD-2as a function of increasing concentration of the dyes under selective excitation of PtTPBP (635(5nm)in deaerated benzene.J.AM.CHEM.SOC.9VOL.130,NO.48,200816165C O M M U N I C A T I O N S。

小学上册英语第6单元测验试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1. A ______ (生态保护) program can save endangered species.2.The Earth's surface is constantly being __________.3. A ____ has soft, fluffy fur and enjoys being petted.4.What is 7 2?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 3B5.What do you call the person who teaches students?A. DoctorB. TeacherC. ChefD. DriverB Teacher6.What is the tallest mountain in the world?A. K2B. KilimanjaroC. EverestD. Denali7.I have a _____ of stickers in my book. (collection)8.What is the main ingredient in a Caesar salad?A. Romaine lettuceB. SpinachC. KaleD. Arugula9.I like to ride my ______ (自行车) around the neighborhood. It is very ______ (放松).10.My toy ____ helps me remember special moments. (玩具名称)11.I always say, "Thank you, __," when someone helps me. (当有人帮助我时，我总是说：“谢谢，。

”)12. A _____ (小狐狸) is very cunning.13.What do you call a small, round fruit that is usually sweet?A. AppleB. CherryC. GrapeD. All of the aboveD14.Which famous scientist formulated the laws of motion?A. EinsteinB. NewtonC. GalileoD. CurieB15.Many plants have _____ (药用) properties that can heal.16.The __________ (元素) table organizes all known elements.17.The _______ can be used for creating art.18.I like to smell the ________.19.The Earth's crust is divided into large sections called ______ plates.20.The __________ (历史的探讨) invites engagement.21.The iguana basks in the ______ (阳光).22.The first modern Olympic Games were held in _______. (1896年)23.What is the name of the famous painting by Leonardo da Vinci?A. The Starry NightB. The Last SupperC. Mona LisaD. The ScreamC24.Many cultures use plants in __________ (传统医学).25.The chemical symbol for cobalt is ______.26.I want to learn how to ________ (做衣服).27.The dog is ___ the house. (near)28.What is the name of the famous dinosaur?A. VelociraptorB. Tyrannosaurus RexC. StegosaurusD. TriceratopsB Tyrannosaurus Rex29.The squirrel is known for its _______ (灵活性).30.What is the third planet from the sun?A. MarsB. VenusC. EarthD. JupiterC31.The hamster stores food in its ______ (脸颊).32.What is the capital of Italy?A. VeniceB. MilanC. RomeD. FlorenceC33.What do you call a single unit of sound?A. ToneB. NoteC. BeatD. RhythmB34.My sister is a ______. She enjoys studying animals.35. A ________ (气候) is the average weather in an area over a long time.36. A ______ is a small creature that can be very fast.37.My ________ (玩具) is very colorful and bright.38.canyon) can be formed by river erosion. The ____39.What is 2 + 2?A. 3B. 4C. 5D. 640.The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is ________.41.What is the main function of the heart?A. To filter bloodB. To pump bloodC. To digest foodD. To produce energyB42.What is the opposite of empty?A. FullB. LightC. HeavyD. ClearA43.My ________ (玩具名称) has many different colors.44.I have a lovely ________ (洋娃娃) that wears a pink dress. I like to take her to the ________ (公园).45.The book is _____ (interesting/boring).46.The main gas produced during photosynthesis is ______.47.My brother loves to play __________. (排球)48.What is the name of the famous American artist known for his paintings of the American West?A. Frederic RemingtonB. Georgia O'KeeffeC. Thomas Hart BentonD. All of the aboveD49.小蜘蛛) spins a web in the corner. The ___50.The chemical formula for potassium permanganate is _____.51. A ______ can be trained to help humans.52.My favorite dessert is ______ (brownies).53.The turtle swims slowly in the _________. (水)54.In winter, I wear ______ (靴子) to keep my feet warm.55.My ______ enjoys reading and sharing books.56.The ________ has soft fur.57.What do you call a young goose?A. GoslingB. ChickC. DucklingD. Fawn58.My _______ (狗) follows me everywhere.59.I feel safe at home when __________ because __________.60.The ________ (生态教育活动) raises awareness.61.What do you call a young crocodile?A. HatchlingB. PupC. CalfD. KitA62.What is the name of the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas?A. EvaporationB. CondensationC. SublimationD. FreezingA63.He _______ (总是) helps me with my homework.64.What is the process of a seed growing into a plant called?A. GerminationB. PollinationC. FertilizationD. GrowthA65.The ________ loves to play tag with its friends.66.Every Saturday, I go to my friend's house and we play with our ________ (玩具名) together. It’s always a great time!67.My brother is a big fan of _______ (运动). 他喜欢 _______ (动词).68.What is the term for the gradual change of stars over time?A. Stellar EvolutionB. Cosmic ChangeC. Galactic ShiftD. Celestial Movement69. A __________ is a large canyon carved by a river.70.What is the capital city of Italy?A. VeniceB. RomeC. MilanD. FlorenceB71. A baby dog is called a ______.72.The __________ is a part of the plant that anchors it to the ground.73. A ______ is a small animal that can climb.74.The chemical formula for aluminum hydroxide is __________.75.What is the capital of Thailand?A. BangkokB. PhuketC. Chiang MaiD. PattayaA76.My grandma knits beautiful __________ (毛衣) for us.77.What do we call the place where we watch sports?A. TheaterB. StadiumC. ParkD. GymB78.What is the name of the famous landmark in Agra, India?A. Taj MahalB. Red FortC. Qutub MinarD. Hawa MahalA79.In a chemical equation, the products are shown on the _______.80.The ________ is a friend to everyone it meets.81.How many legs does a spider have?A. 6B. 8C. 10D. 12B82.What is the capital of Turkey?A. IstanbulB. AnkaraC. IzmirD. BursaB83.What is the capital city of the United Kingdom?A. LondonB. DublinC. EdinburghD. Cardiff84. A butterfly floats gently in the _______.85.What is the opposite of "big"?A. SmallB. TallC. HugeD. LargeA86.What is the name of the famous bridge in San Francisco?A. Brooklyn BridgeB. Golden Gate BridgeC. London BridgeD. Sydney Harbour Bridge87.The __________ is beautiful when covered with snow. (大地)88. A ______ (城市花园) can be a community project.89.What do you call the first book of the Bible?A. ExodusB. GenesisC. LeviticusD. Numbers90.What is the capital of France?A. BerlinB. MadridC. ParisD. LisbonC Paris91.What is the name of the famous ancient city in Romania?A. SighisoaraB. BucharestC. SibiuD. ConstantaA Sighisoara92.What do we call a young cow?A. CalfB. HeiferC. BullD. SteerA93.What is the name of the famous river that runs through Egypt?A. AmazonB. MississippiC. NileD. YangtzeC Nile94.The __________ (十字军东征) were a series of religious wars in the Middle Ages.95.What do we call the science of studying living things?A. BiologyB. ChemistryC. PhysicsD. AstronomyA96.What is the name of the largest rainforest in the world?A. Amazon RainforestB. Congo RainforestC. TaigaD. Temperate RainforestA97. A thermometer measures how hot or cold something is in ______.98.The _______ (小金狮) roars softly when playing.99.The chemical formula for dodecane is _____.100.The ____ is a tiny creature that can be found in almost every garden.。

The open circuit voltage (OCV) is widely used to estimate the state of charge (SOC) in many SOC estimation algorithms. But the relationship between the OCV and SOC can not be exactly same for all batteries. Because the conventional OCV-SOC differs between batteries, there is a problem in that the OCV-SOC data should be measured to accurately estimate the SOC in different batteries. Therefore, the conventional OCV-SOC should be modified. In this paper, a new OCV-SOC that is independent of the battery conditions is proposed. Thus, problems resulting from the defects of the EKF can be avoided by preventing the OCV-SOC data from varying. In this paper, the SOC and battery capacity are estimated using the dual EKF with the proposed OCV-SOC.开路电压法（OCV）被广泛使用在许多的SOC估计算法中。

不过，不是所有电池的OCV 和SOC之间的关系都一样的。

因为常规的OCV-SOC方法对不同的电池不一定相同，所以用常规OCV来预测电池SOC有一定问题，需要对常规的OCV-SOC进行修改。

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as IC, chip, and microchip) is an electronic circuit manufactured by diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuitsIntegrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a packaged IC die than a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and positioned close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2.In the early days of integrated circuits, only a few transistors could be placed on a chip, as the scale used was large because of the contemporary technology. As the degree of integration was small, the design was done easily. Later on, millions, and today billions,[10] of transistors could be placed on one chip, and to make a good design became a task to be planned thoroughly. This gave rise to new design methods.SSI, MSI and LSI The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The term Large Scale Integration was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept[citation needed], from there came the terms for SSI, MSI, VLSI, and ULSI.SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology,[11] while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government space and defense spending still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production. The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow firms to penetrate the industrial and eventually the consumer markets. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[12] Integrated Circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.VLSIMain article: Very-large-scale integrationUpper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die.The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was "very large-scale integration" (VLSI). The development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2009. Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, so that they could make chips with more transistors and maintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers, among other factors.In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005.[13] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[14]ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-ICTo reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors.Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electroniccomponents that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.ClassificationA CMOS 4000 IC in a DIPIntegrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.ManufacturingFabricationThe semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material.Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps: ImagingDepositionEtchingThe main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning.Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications, silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenidewafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them.Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers.In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer.Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs.Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance.More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices.A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate –with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process.Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are welded and/or Thermosonic Bonded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices.PackagingThe earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit -- a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package (TSOP) packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages.Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery.Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.。

关于集成电路的英语作文英文回答：Integrated circuits (ICs), also known as microchips, are small electronic devices that contain a large number of transistors and other electronic components packed into a small space. They are used in a wide range of electronic devices, from computers and smartphones to cars and medical devices.The main components of an IC are transistors, which act as switches or amplifiers, and resistors and capacitors, which control the flow of electricity. ICs are manufactured using a process called photolithography, in which a pattern is created on a silicon wafer using ultraviolet light. The pattern is then etched into the silicon wafer to create the transistors and other components.The first IC was developed in 1958 by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. It contained only a few transistors, butit was the foundation for the development of more complex ICs. In the 1970s, the development of large-scale integration (LSI) technology allowed for the creation of ICs with thousands of transistors. This led to the development of microprocessors, which are the central processing units (CPUs) of computers.Today, ICs are used in a wide range of applications, including:Computers.Smartphones.Cars.Medical devices.Industrial automation.Military equipment.ICs have revolutionized the electronics industry and made it possible to create devices that are smaller, faster, and more efficient. They are essential for the developmentof new technologies and will continue to play a vital rolein the future of electronics.中文回答：什么是集成电路。

英语作文-掌握集成电路设计中的关键技术与方法Integrated Circuit (IC) design plays a pivotal role in modern electronics, serving as the foundation for virtually all electronic devices we use today. Mastering the key techniques and methods in IC design is crucial for engineers and researchers in this field. This article explores the essential aspects of IC design, highlighting the methodologies and technologies that drive innovation and efficiency in this complex discipline.### Understanding IC Design Fundamentals。

At its core, IC design involves the creation of miniature electronic circuits that integrate thousands to billions of components onto a single semiconductor chip. This integration enables devices to perform complex functions while minimizing size and power consumption. The process begins with conceptualizing the circuit's functionality and architecture, followed by detailed design and verification stages.### Key Stages in IC Design。

半导体器件机理英文Semiconductor Device Mechanisms.Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. This unique property makes them essential for a wide range of electronic devices, including transistors, diodes, and solar cells.The electrical properties of semiconductors are determined by their electronic band structure. In a semiconductor, the valence band is the highest energy band that is occupied by electrons, while the conduction band is the lowest energy band that is unoccupied. The band gap is the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band.At room temperature, most semiconductors have a relatively large band gap, which means that there are very few electrons in the conduction band. This makessemiconductors poor conductors of electricity. However, the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by doping it with impurities.Donor impurities are atoms that have one more valence electron than the semiconductor atoms they replace. When a donor impurity is added to a semiconductor, the extra electron is donated to the conduction band, increasing the number of charge carriers and the electrical conductivityof the semiconductor.Acceptor impurities are atoms that have one lessvalence electron than the semiconductor atoms they replace. When an acceptor impurity is added to a semiconductor, the missing electron creates a hole in the valence band. Holes are positively charged, and they can move through the semiconductor by accepting electrons from neighboring atoms. This also increases the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor.The type of impurity that is added to a semiconductor determines whether it becomes an n-type semiconductor (witha majority of electrons as charge carriers) or a p-type semiconductor (with a majority of holes as charge carriers).The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors is used to create a wide range of electronic devices,including transistors, diodes, and solar cells.Transistors.Transistors are three-terminal devices that can be used to amplify or switch electronic signals. The threeterminals are the emitter, the base, and the collector.In a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the emitter is an n-type semiconductor, the base is a p-type semiconductor, and the collector is another n-type semiconductor. When a small current is applied to the base, it causes a large current to flow between the emitter and the collector. This makes BJTs ideal for use as amplifiers.In a field-effect transistor (FET), the gate is a metal electrode that is insulated from the channel. When avoltage is applied to the gate, it creates an electricfield that attracts or repels electrons in the channel. This changes the conductivity of the channel, which in turn controls the flow of current between the source and the drain. FETs are ideal for use as switches.Diodes.Diodes are two-terminal devices that allow current to flow in only one direction. The two terminals are the anode and the cathode.In a p-n diode, the anode is a p-type semiconductor and the cathode is an n-type semiconductor. When a voltage is applied to the diode, it causes electrons to flow from the n-type semiconductor to the p-type semiconductor, but not vice versa. This makes diodes ideal for use as rectifiers, which convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).Solar Cells.Solar cells are devices that convert light energy into electrical energy. They are made of a semiconductor material, such as silicon, that has a p-n junction.When light strikes the solar cell, it creates electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor. The electrons areattracted to the n-type semiconductor, while the holes are attracted to the p-type semiconductor. This creates a voltage difference between the two semiconductors, which causes current to flow.Solar cells are used to power a wide range of devices, including calculators, watches, and satellites. They are also used to generate electricity for homes and businesses.Conclusion.Semiconductors are essential for a wide range of electronic devices. Their unique electrical properties make them ideal for use in transistors, diodes, and solar cells. As semiconductor technology continues to develop, we canexpect to see even more innovative and efficient electronic devices in the future.。