道路工程外文翻译

Automotive navigation systemAn automotive avigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles. It typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the unit's map database. Using the road database, the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database. Dead reckoning using distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain, a gyroscope and an accelerometer can be used for greater reliability, as GPS signal loss and/or multipath can occur due to urban canyons or tunnels.Some sorts can be taken out of the car and used hand-held while walking. HistoryAutomotive navigation systems were the subject of extensive experimentation, including some efforts to reach mass markets, prior to the availability of commercialGPS.Most major technologies required for modern automobile navigation were already established when the microprocessor emerged in the 1970s to support their integration and enhancement by computer software. These technologies subsequently underwent extensive refinement, and a variety of system architectures had been explored by the time practical systems reached the market in the late 1980s. Among the other enhancements of the 1980s was the development of color displays for digital maps and of CD-ROMs for digital map storage.However, there is some question about who made the first commercially available automotive navigation system. There seems to be little room for doubt that Etak was first to make available a digital system that usedmap-matching to improve on dead reckoning instrumentation. Etak's systems, which accessed digital map information stored on standard cassette tapes, arguably made car navigation systems practical for the first time.[2] However, Japanese efforts on both digital and analog systems predate Etak's founding.Steven Lobbezoo developed the first commercially available satellite navigation system for cars. It was produced in Berlin from start 1984 to January 1986. Publicly presented first at the Hannover fair in 1985 in Germany, the system was shown in operation on the evening news from the first German television channel in that year. It used a modified IBM PC, a large disc for map data and a flat screen, built into the glove compartment. It was called Homer Alpine claims to have created the first automotive navigation system in 1981.However, according to the company's own historical timeline,[3] the company claims to have co-developed an analog automotive navigation product called the Electro Gyrocator, working with Honda. This engineering effort was abandoned in 1985. Although there are reports of the Electro Gyrocator being offered as a dealer option on the Honda Accord in 1981, it's not clear whether an actual product was released, whether any customers took delivery of an Electro Gyrocator-equipped Accord, or even whether the unit appeared in any dealer showrooms; Honda's own official history appears to pronounce the Electro Gyrocator as not practical.Honda claims[4] to have created the first navigation system starting in 1983, and culminating with general availability in the 1990 Acura Legend. The original analogElectro Gyrocator system used an accelerometer to navigate using inertial navigation, as the GPS system was not yet generally available. However, it appears from Honda's concessions in their own account of the Electro Gyrocator project that Etak actually trumped Honda's analog effort with a truly practical digital system, albeit one whose effective range of operation was limited by the availability of appropriately digitized street map data.TechnologyVisualizationNavigation systems may (or may not) use a combination of any of the following:▪top view for the map▪top view for the map with the map rotating with the automobile (so that "up" on the map always corresponds to "forward" in the vehicle)▪bird's-eye view for the map or the next curve▪linear gauge for distance, which is redundant if a rotating map is used ▪numbers for distance▪schematic pictograms▪voice promptsRoad databaseContentsThe road database is a vector map of some area of interest. Street names or numbers and house numbers are encoded as geographic coordinates so that the user can find some desired destination by street address .Points of interest will also be stored with their geographic coordinates. Point of interest specialties include speed cameras, fuel stations, publicparking, and "parked here".Contents can be produced by the user base as their cars drive along existing streets and communicating via the internet, yielding a free and up-to-date map.Physical Storage FormatThe Physical Storage Format (PSF) initiative is an industry grouping of car manufacturers, navigation system suppliers and map data suppliers whose objective is the standardization of the data format used in car navigation systems, as well as allow a map update capability. Standardization would improve interoperability, specifically by allowing the same navigation maps to be used in navigation systems from 19 manufacturers. Companies involved include BMW, Volkswagen, Daimler,Renault, ADIT, Aisin AW, Alpine Electronics, Navigon, Bosch, DENSO, Mitsubishi, Harman Becker, Panasonic, PTV, Continental AG, Clarion, Navteq, Tele Atlas and Zenrin.MediaThe road database may be stored in solid state read-only memory (ROM), optical media (CD or DVD), solid state flash memory, magnetic media (hard disk), or a combination. A common scheme is to have a basemap permanently stored in ROM that can be augmented with detailed information for a region the user is interested in. A ROM is always programmed at the factory; the other media may bepreprogrammed, downloaded from a CD or DVD viaa computer or wireless connection (bluetooth, Wi-Fi), or directly used utilizing a card reader.Some navigation device makers provide free map updates for their customers. These updates are often obtained from the vendor's website, which is accessed by connecting the navigation device to a PC.汽车导航系统汽车导航系统是一个设计供汽车使用的卫星导航系统。

（1）我国街道名称英译的现状我国街道名称的英译方法，目前大体上有三大类：一是“汉语拼音法”，二是“音意结合法”，三是“全盘意译法”。

所谓“汉语拼音法”，就象联合国教科文组织早已通过的中国专有名词的翻译采用汉语拼音方案那样，用汉语拼音方案来处理我国街道名称的英译。

例如：“亮马河南路”英译为Liangmahe Nanlu ，“ 东直门外大街”英译为Dongzhimenwai Dajie，“北十九道街”英译为Beishijiudao Jie，“沙面大街”英译为Shamian Dajie,等等。

有的还将每一个汉字单独译为一个词，如：“光华路”译为Guang Hua Lu。

所谓“音意结合法”，是指将专名部分作音译处理，通名部分作意译处理。

这是比较流行的译法。

象将“城中路”译为Chengzhong Road，“ 民主街”译成Minzhu Street这样的例子，已是众所周知，不必多举了。

问题是，事情并没有这么简单。

我们的祖宗，在“路”、“街”之前，还设有“大、干、正”，还有“东、西、南、北”，还有“上、中、下”，还有“前、后、内、外”，还有“支、横、新、旧”，还有“一、二、三、四．．．．．．”等等，不一而足。

有的则称“路”为“道”。

有人将“大道”、“大街”，一时译为main Road ,main Street，一时统译为Avenue，或译为法式的Boulevard，有时则视“大”如不见，干脆译为Road 和Street了事。

如“沙面大街”只译为Shamian Street。

至于对“东、西、南、北、中”的处理，则呈“三足鼎立”之势，把这些方位词分别放在前、中、后的位置上，如：同一条“天宁南路”就有South Tianning Road,Tianning South Road 和Tianning Road South，分别都有来自外国或香港地区的出处依据。

然而，已经逐渐有了将“东、西、南、北、中”并入专名部分去的倾向，如：将“解放中路”译为Jiefangzhong Road。

道路项目介绍范文(中英文实用版)英文文档内容：Road Project Introduction ExampleIntroduction:The road project we are introducing is a significant infrastructure development that aims to improve connectivity, enhance transportation efficiency, and promote economic growth in the region.This comprehensive project encompasses the construction, rehabilitation, and upgrading of various road segments, ensuring smoother traffic flow, safer travel, and better accessibility to essential services and facilities.Objectives:Our primary objective is to construct a new road that will connect two major cities, providing a direct and efficient route for commuters and goods transportation.Additionally, the project includes the widening and improvement of existing roads to accommodate increased traffic volume and promote safer driving conditions.Scope:The project scope includes the following key components:1.New road construction: We plan to build a new 60-kilometer road that will serve as a vital link between the two cities, reducing travel time and improving connectivity.2.Existing road rehabilitation: We will rehabilitate 40 kilometers of existing roads, including pavement repairs, resurfacing, and infrastructure upgrades.3.Intersection improvements: Enhancements to 10 major intersections along the road network will be made to improve traffic flow and reduce congestion.4.Safety features: The project will incorporate safety features such as traffic signals, sidewalks, bike lanes, and pedestrian crossings to ensure the well-being of all road users.5.Environmental considerations: We will implement measures to minimize the environmental impact, including the planting of trees along the roadside and the use of eco-friendly construction materials.Benefits:The road project will bring about numerous benefits to the region:1.Economic growth: Improved connectivity will attract investments, stimulate business growth, and create job opportunities in the area.2.Enhanced mobility: Commuters will experience reduced travel time and increased convenience, leading to better work-life balance.3.Safer travel: The rehabilitation and upgrading of roads will result in improved driving conditions, reducing the risk of accidents and fatalities.4.Accessibility: Better road infrastructure will provide easier access to essential services, healthcare facilities, and educational institutions forresidents in the region.5.Environmental sustainability: The implementation of safety features and eco-friendly practices will contribute to a safer and more environmentally conscious community.Conclusion:In conclusion, this road project is a vital infrastructure development that will significantly improve connectivity, efficiency, and economic growth in the region.With its comprehensive scope and numerous benefits, it is a testament to our commitment to building a better and more accessible future for all.中文文档内容：道路项目介绍范文引言：我们介绍的道路项目是一个重要基础设施发展项目，旨在提高连通性，增强交通效率，促进地区经济增长。

中英文资料对照外文翻译目录1 中文翻译 (1)1.1钢筋混凝土 (1)1.2土方工程 (2)1.3结构的安全度 (3)2 外文翻译 (6)2.1 Reinforced Concrete (6)2.2 Earthwork (7)2.3 Safety of Structures (9)1 中文翻译1.1钢筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。

将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。

其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。

其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。

因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。

由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。

将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。

这一要求是可以达到的。

因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。

如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。

浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。

对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。

浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。

一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。

必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。

水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。

建筑施工质量控制外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：建筑施工过程中质量管理的动机分析和控制方法的研究摘要在建筑施工过程中实施质量管理可以有效地防止在后续建筑产品使用过程中安全事故的发生。

与此同时可以减少建设供应链的总成本，这也有利于增强建筑施工企业的品牌知名度和声誉。

在建筑施工过程中结合质量管理过程和当前建筑施工阶段的主要质量问题，分析了建设过程中的管理动机，将供应链管理与目标管理理念和方法应用到质量管理中，最后提出了具体的质量控制措施。

这些都是为了在建筑施工过程中提高建筑产品的总体质量。

关键字——建筑施工、质量管理、质量动机、控制1.引言调查显示建筑施工企业主要采用现场控制的质量管理模式是预先控制。

大多企业常常使得建筑施工过程中与建设管理中的质量管理相同，他们通常忽略了施工准备阶段质量问题的预防，如供应商的选择、道路的规划和临时设施，这些因素在建筑施工过程中的质量管理上起着至关重要的作用。

建设质量事故频繁发生，引起了许多领域的高度关注，如各级政府部门、施工企业和业主，特别是重庆綦江虹桥的坍塌、五龙的滑坡和洪湖湿地路基施工中的一系列质量安全事故，人们开始对施工质量问题做全方位的思考。

通过研究李秀峰总结归纳了造成工程的质量问题并引入项目质量控制分析方法，Low Sui Pheng 和Jasmine Ann Teo[2] 建立了施工中的质量管理框架来通过经验分析实现项目的质量控制，SangHyun Lee and others[3] 利用系统质量动态结构和变更管理模型的编程方法和控制方法，最终实现了大规模的并行设计和施工项目的管理和控制。

方唐分析了建设项目质量管理的整个过程和控制方法，她认为应该实现对影响建设单位质量的人、材料、机械、方法和环境的完全控制；吴天翔研究出管理因素是影响建设项目质量控制的重要因素，强调了施工过程中需要严格控制的各个方面和整体实现加强管理的需要。

为了解决建设施工过程中的建设质量问题，韩伟建立了一个建筑项目的分析和处理程序。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：交通系统交通运输一直是土木工程最重要的一个方面。

古罗马工程师的巨大成就之一就是公路系统，它使罗马与帝国的各个省之间的快速交通成为可能。

在工程方面的第一所培训学校就是桥梁和公路学校，它于1747年创建于法国。

而在英国，一位道路建筑家，托马斯·泰尔福特于1820年担任了土木工程学会的第一任主席。

现代公路仍然根据18世纪及19世纪初法国人皮埃尔·特埃萨凯，英国人泰尔福特，以及苏格兰人约翰·L·马克当所制定的原则进行建造。

这些人设计出了最初的现代道路，这种道路具有坚实的垫层，基础就建在垫层的上面。

他们设计的道路还具有排水良好而且不渗水的磨耗层，即直接承受车辆交通磨耗的表层。

特埃萨凯和泰尔福特均采用较厚的石头基础，在其上面铺筑由较小碎石组成的基层和由更小的石头组成的磨耗层。

他们的道路还微微隆起成曲线，形成路拱和反拱以便使雨水流走。

马克当认识到当土壤被夯实或压紧之后，只要保证干燥，其本身就可承受道路的重量，因而他能够通过在压实的垫层上铺碎石基层来省掉建造石头基础所需要的昂贵费用。

当时车辆的铁质车轮把表层石头碾压成连续的，较为平整的，更加不透水的表面。

早19世纪，货车和客车都采用铁或钢制车轮，这种道路是适用的。

当汽车在20世纪初出现之后，其橡胶轮胎毁坏了这种平整的路面。

因此，就采用焦油或沥青掺拌碎石，使路面表层更坚固的黏合一起。

现在，遍布全世界的数百万公里的道路采用这种路面。

在20世纪，道路建设基本上仅在两方面进行了改进。

第一种改进是采用混凝土作为磨耗层。

另一种改进则是交通工程，即设计高速的大交通量的、造价经济并且对于车辆和旅客都安全的公路。

交通工程已建成了现代高速公路，这种公路具有限定的入口和最安全的管理。

老式道路常用的拐角形交叉已不使用，而采用互通式立体交叉或其他更为复杂的设计。

现代高速公路通常设有专门的车道，在那里当车辆要驶出公路时可减速驶入时可加速。

中国工程优质工程奖申报条件及要求一、申报项目规模应满足以下规定：（一）路桥工程包括公路、铁路、桥梁、隧道工程等。

工程规模和技术等级应满足如下条件之一：1.连续长度在10公里及以上的公路、铁路新建及改、扩建工程；2.连续长度在1000米及以上的隧道；3.连续长度在1000米及以上的桥梁；4.特大桥，大型公路立交桥合同额在人民币1亿元及以上的。

（二）住宅工程1.建筑面积3万平米以上的住宅小区或住宅小区组团。

2.非住宅小区内的建筑面积为3万平米以上的单体高层住宅。

（三）公共建筑工程1.2万座以上的体育场；2.3000座以上的体育馆；3.2000座以上的游泳馆；4.1000座以上的影剧院；5.投资2亿元以上的其他构筑工程；6.建筑面积2000平方米以上的单体或1万平方米以上的群体古建筑重建工程；7.建筑面积4万平米以上的学校、医院、科研等群体建筑工程。

上述1-7项未列入的，建筑面积3万平米以上的其他单体公共建筑工程。

（四）水运工程内河工程项目工程规模应满足合同额在人民币8000万元及以上，沿海工程项目工程规模应满足合同额在人民币1亿元及以上。

（五）其他工程市政、大型设备安装、水利、通信、环保等合同额在人民币1亿元及以上的工程项目。

（六）其他采用新技术、新工艺、新材料、新设备在社会上有重大影响，能促进局经营开发的工程，可不受上述规定限制，但必须从严掌握。

二、申报条件1.符合法定基本建设程序，经过立项批准、核准或备案，按合同约定完成全部工程内容，取得政府质监部门出具的质量鉴定书，并投入使用半年以上；公路项目自通过交工验收至申报时不超过两年，市政、建筑工程自通过竣工验收至申报时不超过三年。

2.符合职业健康、安全、环保要求。

工程建设中，未发生一般及以上质量事故，未发生较大及以上安全事故和重大环境污染与破坏事故，未发生在社会上造成恶劣影响的其他事件。

3.实际工期未超过合同工期（含批准延长的工期）。

4.成本管理严格，经济效益明显，并且取得了良好社会效益。

材料科学专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译文献摘要为了适应不断发展的材料科学领域，毕业设计需要参考一些权威的外文文献。

在这里，我们提供了一些与材料科学专业相关的外文文献，并附带简要翻译。

---文献1: "石墨烯在材料科学中的应用"作者: John Smith, Mary Johnson: John Smith, Mary Johnson摘要::本文综述了石墨烯在材料科学中的应用。

石墨烯是一种单层碳原子结构，具有独特的物理和化学性质。

我们讨论了石墨烯的制备方法、其在电子学、能源存储和生物医学领域中的应用。

石墨烯在材料科学中具有巨大的潜力，可以为未来的材料研究和应用开辟新的道路。

---文献2: "纳米材料的合成与性能研究"作者: David Brown, Emma Lee: David Brown, Emma Lee摘要::本文讨论了纳米材料的合成方法及其性能研究。

纳米材料是具有纳米尺度结构的材料，具有与宏观材料不同的性质。

我们介绍了几种常见的纳米材料合成方法，例如溶液法和气相法，并讨论了纳米材料的晶体结构、表面性质和力学性能。

研究纳米材料的性能对材料科学的发展和应用具有重要意义。

---文献3: "高温合金的热稳定性研究"作者: Jennifer Zhang, Michael Wang: Jennifer Zhang, Michael Wang摘要::本文研究了高温合金的热稳定性。

高温合金是一种用于高温环境的特殊材料，具有优异的耐热性能。

我们通过实验研究了高温合金的热膨胀性、热导率和高温力学性能。

通过了解高温合金的热稳定性，我们可以提高材料的耐高温性能，从而推动高温环境下的应用和工程技术发展。

---以上是几篇关于材料科学的外文文献摘要及简要翻译，希望对毕业设计的参考有所助益。

城市垃圾卫生填埋场摘要本工程设计的主要内容包括：城市生活垃圾卫生填埋场处理总平面布置（选址和场区总体设计等等），填埋工艺，防治工程，渗滤液收集导排工程，渗滤液处理工程，地下水、地表水导排处理工程，填埋气体收集与利用设计，环境监测设计，封场工程，辅助工程（如绿化、道路等），设备选型，二次污染防治设计，经济分析等等。

关键词垃圾卫生填埋设计渗滤液气体The Design Of Sanitary LandfillAbstractThis engineering design primary coverage includes: The city life trash health fill in bury the field to process the total plane arrangement (selected location and field area system design and so on), fills in buries the craft, the preventing and controlling project, the infiltration fluid collection leads a row of project, the infiltration fluid processing project, the ground water, the surface water leads the row of processing project, fills in buries the gathering of gas and the use design, the environmental monitoring design, seals the field project, auxiliary project (for example afforestation, path and so on), equipment shaping, two pollution preventing and controlling design, economic analysis and so on.Keywords Rubbish Landfill of hygiene Design Ooze and filtrate Gas目录摘要 (I)Abstract (II)第1章概论 (5)1.1设计背景 (5)1.1.1 生活垃圾的危害 (5)1.1.2生活垃圾的处理方法及国内外处理现状 (5)1.1.3卫生填埋法的类型及发展趋势 (7)1.2城市概况及自然条件 (8)1.2.1 城市概况 (8)1.2.2 自然条件 (9)1.3该城市垃圾的处理概况 (10)1.3.1 垃圾成分 (11)1.3.2 垃圾处理状况及存在问题 (11)1.4设计的必要性及依据 (15)1.4.1 设计的必要性 (15)1.4.2 设计的依据 (15)1.5设计的主要内容 (16)1.6本章小结 (16)第2章总体设计 (17)2.1填埋方案的确定 (17)2.2 设计规模 (18)2.2.1 服务人口 (18)2.2.2 垃圾产量 (18)2.3 场址选择 (19)2.3.1 填埋场址的选择原则 (19)2.3.2 垃圾填埋场场址的确定 (20)2.4 本章小结 (20)第3章垃圾收运系统 (21)3.1 垃圾的收运原则 (21)3.2 垃圾收运规模 (21)3.3 垃圾收运现状及设计收运方案的确定 (22)3.4 本章小结 (23)第4章垃圾处理场工程设计 (24)4.1 垃圾处理场的组成 (24)4.2 卫生填埋场工程设计 (24)4.2.1 垃圾场总库容及使用年限的确定 (24)4.2.2 垃圾坝 (24)4.2.3 渗滤液的收集系统 (26)4.2.4 渗滤液处理设备尺寸的计算 (37)4.2.5 填埋气导排 (48)4.2.6 终期封场 (49)4.3 配套工程 (50)4.3.1 道路工程 (50)4.3.2 围墙与绿化工程 (50)4.3.3 给水工程 (51)4.3.4 消防工程 (51)4.3.5 防洪工程 (51)4.3.6 防震工程 (51)4.3.7 通讯工程 (51)4.3.8 电气工程 (52)4.3.9 垃圾场主要机械设备 (52)4.4 本章小结 (52)第5章环境保护与环境监测 (53)5.1 环境保护 (53)5.1.1 污染来源 (53)5.1.2 环境保护标准和规定 (54)5.1.3 环境保护措施 (54)5.2 环境监测 (55)5.3 本章小结 (56)总结 (57)致谢 (60)参考文献 (61)英文翻译 (62)中文译文： (68)第1章概论1.1设计背景1.1.1生活垃圾的危害随着经济的发展，人们生活消费水平的提高，城市的生活垃圾产生量日渐增加。