Identifying the relationship between suspension parameters of underframe equipment and car

Grey Correlation AnalysisIntroductionGrey correlation analysis is a statistical method used to measure the correlation between two or more variables when the data is limited or uncertain. It was developed by Deng Julong in China in the 1980s and has since been widely applied in various fields including finance, economics, engineering, and social sciences.Grey correlation analysis is particularly useful when dealing with incomplete or uncertain data. It can provide valuable insights and helpin decision-making processes when traditional correlation analysis methods may not be applicable.Principles of Grey Correlation AnalysisGrey correlation analysis is based on the principles of grey system theory, which aims to study systems with limited information and uncertain data. The method involves four main steps:1.Data Organization: The first step in grey correlation analysis isto organize the available data. This may involve collecting datafrom various sources and arranging it in a systematic manner.2.Data Comparison: Once the data is organized, the next step is tocompare the different variables or factors under consideration.This can be done using various statistical measures such as mean,range, and standard deviation.3.Grey Correlation Coefficient Calculation: The grey correlationcoefficient is calculated to measure the correlation between thevariables. It is a value between 0 and 1, where a higher valueindicates a stronger correlation. The grey correlation coefficient takes into account the uncertainties and variations in the data.4.Grey Correlation Analysis: Finally, the grey correlation analysisis performed to determine the relationships between the variables.This can help in identifying the most influential factors andmaking predictions or forecasts based on the available data.Applications of Grey Correlation AnalysisGrey correlation analysis has been widely used in various fields for different purposes. Some of the applications include:1. Financial AnalysisGrey correlation analysis has been applied in financial analysis to study the relationships between different financial indicators. It can help in identifying the key factors influencing the financial performance of companies or investment portfolios. For example, it can be used to analyze the correlation between stock prices and economic indicators such as inflation rates or interest rates.2. Engineering DesignIn engineering design, grey correlation analysis can be used to evaluate the relationship between various design parameters and the performance of a system or product. It can help in optimizing the design process by identifying the most critical factors and their impact on the overall performance. For example, it can be used to analyze the correlation between different manufacturing parameters and the strength of a material.3. Economic ForecastingGrey correlation analysis has also been used in economic forecasting to predict future trends based on historical data. It can help in identifying the key factors influencing economic growth or decline and making accurate predictions. For example, it can be used to analyze the correlation between GDP growth and factors such as consumer spending, investment, and government policies.4. Social SciencesIn social sciences, grey correlation analysis can be used to study the relationships between different social or demographic variables. It can help in understanding the factors influencing social phenomena and making informed policy decisions. For example, it can be used to analyze the correlation between education levels, income levels, and crime rates in a specific region.Advantages and LimitationsGrey correlation analysis has several advantages over traditional correlation analysis methods. Some of the advantages include:•Suitable for limited or uncertain data: Grey correlation analysis can handle situations where the data is incomplete or uncertain,making it useful in real-world applications.•Provides insights in complex systems: Grey correlation analysis can provide valuable insights in complex systems where traditional correlation analysis methods may not be effective.•Helps in decision-making: Grey correlation analysis can help in decision-making processes by identifying the most influentialfactors and their impact on the outcomes.However, grey correlation analysis also has some limitations. These include:•Subject to data quality: The accuracy and reliability of the results obtained through grey correlation analysis are highlydependent on the quality of the data used.•Limited to linear relationships: Grey correlation analysis assumesa linear relationship between the variables under consideration.It may not be suitable for analyzing non-linear relationships.•Interpretation challenges: Interpreting the results of greycorrelation analysis can be challenging due to the complexity ofthe method and the uncertainties involved.ConclusionGrey correlation analysis is a valuable statistical method for measuring the correlation between variables when data is limited or uncertain. It has been widely applied in various fields and has provided valuable insights in complex systems. However, it is important to consider the limitations and challenges associated with grey correlation analysis when using it for decision-making processes. Overall, grey correlation analysis is a useful tool that complements traditional correlation analysis methods and helps in addressing real-world challenges.。

19 COSTING AND THE VALUE CHAIN Chapter SummaryThe value chain is used to organize the discussion of several aspects of strategic cost management. These include activity-based management, target costing, just-in-time inventory procedures, and total quality management.Activity based management utilizes cost information from ABC systems to identify and eliminate non-value-added activities. While Chapter 17 focused on activity-based product costs, this chapter develops an extensive illustration to demonstrate the management of activities associated with period costs. This is done to emphasize the application of activity-based management across all phases of the value chain.Target costing begins with planning and market analysis of customer needs, then proceeds to product development to generate a target price. Value engineering leads to the most economically efficient combination of resources to create the product. Finally, the target cost is attained through production and continuous improvement. A straightforward example illustrates the execution of the four phases of the target costing process.The development of just-in-time inventory and production systems was one of the earliest efforts of management to identify non-value-adding activities. The realization that investment of resources in inventory added no value to the customer initiated the development of the just-in-time philosophy. This philosophy emphasizes that all production is driven by customer demand. The chapter centers on the importance of supplier relationships, product quality, and flexible manufacturing in achieving the JIT objective of controlling product costs.The chapter concludes with a discussion of the components of quality costs and the tradeoffs between prevention and appraisal costs on one hand and the costs of internal and external failure on the other.Learning Objectives1.Define the value chain and describe its basic components.2.Distinguish between non-value-added and value-added activities.3.Explain how activity-based management is related to activity-based costing (ABC).4.Describe the target costing process and list its components.5.Identify the relationship between target costing and the value chain.6.Explain the nature and goals of a just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing system.7.Identify the components of the cost of quality.8.Describe the characteristics of quality measures.Brief Topical OutlineA The value chain1 International financial reporting standards and the value chain2Value- and non-value-added activities - see Your Turn (page 845)B Activity-based management1Activity-based management across the value chaina Managing activities: an illustration (pages 846 - 848) - see Case inPoint (page 849)2 ABC: A subset of activity-based managementC The target costing process1Components of the target costing process2 Target costing: an illustration - see Your Turn (page 852)3Characteristics of the target costing processD Just-in-time inventory procedures1 JIT, supplier relationships, and product quality2Measures of efficiency in a JIT systema Measuring qualityE Total quality management and the value chain1Components of the cost of quality - see Case in Point (page 857)2Measuring the cost of quality3Productivity and quality –see Ethics, Fraud & Corporate Governance (page 858)F Concluding remarksTopical coverage and suggested assignmentComments and observationsTeaching objectives for Chapter 19Our goal in presenting this material is to help students to begin to think strategically about the development and use of cost information. In so doing our objectives are to:1 Introduce the value chain as a structure for strategic cost management.2Explain the distinction between value-added and non-value-added activities across the value chain.3 Show that activity-based costs are important to reducing and eliminating non-value-addedactivities.4 Explain how activity-based costs can be used to manage not only production, but alsoactivities across all components of the value chain.5 Introduce target costing and its components.6 Explain the JIT approach to identifying and reducing non-value-added activities.7 Present measures of efficiency in a JIT manufacturing system.8 Explain the trade-offs that exist among components of quality costs, and how thosetrade-offs change with technical progress.General commentsManaging activities across the value chain represents a comprehensive integrated approach to the traditional management functions of planning and control. Eliminating non-value-added activities from the chain is central to this strategic approach to cost management. Exercise 3 is designed to acquaint students with the value chain and the identification of non-value-added activities in the chain.We have emphasized that the ABC model developed in a previous chapter can be usefully extended beyond product costing to a wide variety of period costs. Doing so provides an opportunity to use ABC information to manage across the entire value chain. This can be illustrated using Exercise 4. Although Problem 2requires the calculation of target costs, it provides a comprehensive opportunity for students to use cost information to address activity- based management issues. We highly recommend reviewing this problem in class. Case 1 is a more extensive alternative.Target costing illustrates the use of cost information in planning and designing new products as well as reengineering existing ones. Problem 3 captures the use of cost estimates and budgets in the planning process. It also addresses the issue of process design to minimize production costs.Quality costing, like ABM, emphasizes activity management across the value chain. Prevention costs apply to the research and design phase, as well as in working with suppliers and vendors. Appraisal costs and internal failures are most closely identified with the suppliers and production component. Finally, external failure costs exert a significant impact on customer service. Managing quality activities across the value chain highlights the tradeoffs among these costs.Supplemental ExercisesInternet ExerciseDid you ever stop to notice that all the credit, debit, and ATM cards that you carry have exactly the same thickness. This is true worldwide and is crucial to transactions processing. How did this worldwide coordination come to be? Explore the website of the International Organization for Standardization at What are the goals of this organization? Write a brief report describing the information you are able to obtain from this site.CHAPTER 19 NAME #10-MINUTE QUIZ A SECTIONIndicate the best answer for each question in the space provided.1Examples of value-added activities include all of the following except:a Product design.b Material movement.c Assembly activities.d Establish an effective distribution network.2Of the following components of total quality cost, which is most damaging to a company attempting to achieve a reputation as a world-class manufacturer?a Prevention costs.b Appraisal costs.c Internal failure costs.d External failure costs3Of the following processes, which is chiefly concerned with products and services that have not yet been developed?a Just-in-time manufacturing.b Activity-based management.c Target costing.d Total quality management.4For a furniture manufacturer, which of the following activities could not be eliminated without changing the customer’s perception of the product’sdesirability?a Inspection of incoming shipments of wood and fabrics.b Movement of work-in-process from one work station to another.c Set-up of machinery to produce different pieces of furniture.d Reducing the product’s distribution network.5The cost borne by the customer of disposing of nickel-cadmium batteries is a component of the batteries’:a Life-cycle cost.b Overhead cost.c Cost of quality.d Direct production cost.CHAPTER 19 NAME #10-MINUTE QUIZ B SECTIONListed below are eight technical accounting terms introduced or emphasized in this chapter: Activity-based management Life-cycle costingValue-added activity Non-value-added activityTarget costing Total quality managementJust-in-time manufacturing system Cycle timeEach of the following statements may (or may not) describe one of these technical terms. In the space provided below each statement, indicate the accounting term described, or answer “None” if the statement does not correctly describe any of the terms.a The process of using activity-based costs to help reduce or eliminate non-value-addedactivities.______________________________b Can be eliminated without affecting the desirability of the product from the perspectiveof the customer.______________________________c The length of time for a product to pass completely through a specific manufacturingprocess.______________________________d If eliminated, the desirability of the product to consumers is decreased.______________________________e Consideration of all potential resources that will be consumed by a product fromdevelopment through disposal.______________________________f A method in which a product’s selling price is determined by adding a fixed profitmargin to its production cost.______________________________g An approach that explicitly monitors quality costs and rewards quality enhancingbehavior.______________________________CHAPTER 19 NAME # ______ 10-MINUTE QUIZ C SECTIONListed below are eight components of the total cost of quality. In the space provided identify each as a cost of prevention, appraisal, internal failure, or external failure.1.Product design2.Product returns due to defects3.Inspection of raw materials shipments4.Employee training5.Rework of defective units prior to shipment6.Estimated lost sales due to poor quality7.Warranty expense8.Inspection of finished goods9.ScrapCHAPTER 19 NAME #10-MINUTE QUIZ D SECTIONResourceful Corporation is considering the implementation of a JIT inventory system. The company recently analyzed its cycle time to determine the average number of days spent in each activity of its production process. A summary of the analysis is shown below:Production Activity Number of Days Receiving materials 1Inspecting materials 4Storing materials 9Moving materials into production 6Setting-up production equipment 7Cutting materials 6Assembling materials 7Painting finished products 4Packaging finished products 1a Resourceful’s value-adding production activities include:b Resourceful’s total cycle time is __________ days.c Resourceful’s manufacturing efficiency ratio is __________%.d Which activities might be reduced or eliminated should Efficient implement a JITsystem?SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 19 10-MINUTE QUIZZESQUIZ A1 B2 D3 C4 D5 ALearning Objective: 2, 3, 4. 6, 7QUIZ Ba Activity based managementb Non-value-added activitiesc Cycle timed Value-added activitye Life cycle costingf Target costingg Total quality managementLearning Objective: 1 - 8QUIZ CPreventionExternal failureAppraisalPreventionInternal failureExternal failureExternal failureAppraisalInternal failureLearning Objective: 7, 8QUIZ Da Cutting materials, Assembling materials, Painting finished products, Packaging finished products.b 45 daysc 18/45 = 40%d Receiving materials, storing materials, moving materials into productionLearning Objective: 6Chapter 19 - Costing and The Value ChainAssignment Guide to Chapter 1919-10 Instructor’s Resource Manual Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.。

root cause与root reason的用法Root cause and root reason are two terms commonly used inproblem-solving and analysis. While they may seem similar, there are slight differences in their usage. In this article, we will delve into the definitions and application of root cause and root reason, providing a step-by-step explanation of their importance in problem-solving.To understand the concepts of root cause and root reason, we should first comprehend the definition of a problem. A problem can be defined as a deviation from the expected or desired outcome, which requires investigation and resolution. When encountering a problem, it is crucial to identify the underlying cause or reason for its occurrence to prevent future recurrences.1. Defining root cause:Root cause refers to the fundamental reason behind the occurrence of a problem. It represents the originating factor or factors that, when addressed, would eliminate or significantly reduce the problem. Identifying the root cause requires a thorough analysis of the problem's symptoms and triggers, going beyond the surface level. It aims to reach the core issue that, if resolved, would stop the problem from happening.2. Understanding root reason:Root reason, on the other hand, represents the principal motivation or cause behind an action or decision that leads to a problem. Unlike root cause, which focuses on the problem itself, root reason explores the human factor behind the problem. It aims to understand the underlying motivations, intentions, or drivers that influenced the decisions or actions which eventually triggered the problem. Root reason helps in addressing the behavioral or cultural aspects that contributed to the occurrence of the problem.3. The relationship between root cause and root reason:Root cause and root reason are closely related as they both seek to uncover the fundamental factors related to a problem. While root cause is more focused on the technical or functional aspect of the problem, root reason delves into the underlying human behavior ordecision-making process that led to the problem. Root cause and root reason complement each other in comprehensively understanding and resolving a problem.4. The process of identifying root cause and root reason:Identifying the root cause and root reason of a problem is a systematic process. It involves several steps:Step 1: Problem identification:Clearly define the problem at hand. What are the symptoms, effects, or consequences of the problem? It is essential to have a precise understanding of the problem before proceeding with the analysis.Step 2: Analysis of symptoms:Analyze the symptoms or manifestations of the problem. This step requires gathering relevant data, conducting interviews, or engaging in observations to gain a comprehensive understanding of the problem.Step 3: Identification of potential causes:Generate a list of potential causes based on the analysis of symptoms. Brainstorm and record all possible factors that could contribute to the problem, considering technical, organizational, cultural, or human aspects.Step 4: Causal analysis:Conduct a detailed analysis of each potential cause. This step involves investigating the relationship between each cause and the problem, seeking evidence or data to support or eliminate potential causes.Step 5: Decision on root cause:Based on the analytical findings, determine the root cause of the problem. The root cause should possess the characteristics of being significant, actionable, and directly linked to the problem.Step 6: Analysis of root reason:While addressing the root cause, it is essential to identify the root reason behind the problem. Analyze the decisions, behaviors, or cultural factors that contributed to the occurrence of the root cause. This step helps in designing appropriate preventive measures.Step 7: Solution implementation:After identifying both the root cause and root reason, develop and implement appropriate solutions to address the problem. These solutions should focus on eliminating the root cause while addressing any root reason-related factors.5. Importance of distinguishing root cause and root reason: Distinguishing between root cause and root reason is crucial for comprehensive problem-solving. It helps in identifying and rectifying the underlying technical, organizational, cultural, or human factors that contribute to the problem. By addressing both root cause and rootreason, organizations can implement more effective preventive measures and improve their overall performance.In conclusion, root cause and root reason are central concepts in problem-solving and analysis. While root cause refers to the fundamental reason behind a problem's occurrence, root reason explores the human factors that influenced decisions or actions leading to the problem. Identifying both root cause and root reason helps in developing more effective solutions and preventing future recurrences. By following a systematic analytical process, organizations can gain a better understanding of problems and implement appropriate measures to address them.。

思辨作文五种结构模式英文回答：When it comes to the structure of a persuasive essay, there are five common patterns that can be used. These patterns help to organize the ideas and arguments in a logical and coherent manner, making it easier for the reader to follow and understand the writer's point of view. Let's explore these five structures in more detail.1. Problem-Solution Structure: This structure is used when the writer wants to highlight a problem and propose a solution to it. The essay begins by presenting the problem and its significance, and then moves on to discuss possible solutions. The writer provides evidence and examples to support the proposed solution and concludes by emphasizing its effectiveness.For example, imagine I am writing an essay about the problem of pollution in cities. I would start by describingthe negative effects of pollution on people's health and the environment. Then, I would propose solutions such as implementing stricter regulations on emissions, promoting the use of renewable energy sources, and encouraging public transportation. I would provide evidence and examples to support each solution and conclude by highlighting the importance of taking action to address the issue.2. Cause and Effect Structure: This structure is used when the writer wants to explain the causes and effects of a particular phenomenon or event. The essay begins by identifying the causes and then explores the effects that result from these causes. The writer provides evidence and examples to illustrate the relationship between the causes and effects.For instance, let's say I am writing an essay about the causes and effects of global warming. I would start by discussing the causes, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Then, I would explore the effects, such as rising temperatures, melting ice caps, and extreme weather events. I would provide evidence and examples todemonstrate how these causes lead to these effects.3. Comparison and Contrast Structure: This structure is used when the writer wants to compare and contrast two or more ideas, concepts, or objects. The essay begins by introducing the topics to be compared and contrasted, and then explores their similarities and differences. Thewriter provides evidence and examples to support the comparisons and contrasts made.For example, let's say I am writing an essay comparing and contrasting two different education systems. I would start by introducing the education systems and their key features. Then, I would explore their similarities, such as the subjects taught and the goals of education. Next, I would discuss their differences, such as the teaching methods used and the emphasis on standardized testing. I would provide evidence and examples to support each comparison and contrast made.4. Chronological Structure: This structure is used when the writer wants to present information or events in theorder in which they occur. The essay follows a chronological sequence, starting from the earliest event or piece of information and progressing to the most recent. The writer provides evidence and examples to support the chronological progression.For instance, let's say I am writing an essay about the history of the civil rights movement. I would start by discussing the events that led to the movement, such as the abolition of slavery and the Jim Crow laws. Then, I would explore the key figures and events of the movement, such as Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Finally, I would discuss the impact and legacy of the movement, such as the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. I would provide evidence and examples to support each chronological stage.5. Pro-Con Structure: This structure is used when the writer wants to present both the pros and cons of a particular issue or argument. The essay starts by introducing the topic and presenting the pros, or arguments in favor of it. Then, it explores the cons, or arguments against it. The writer provides evidence and examples tosupport each pro and con.For example, let's say I am writing an essay about the pros and cons of social media. I would start by discussing the benefits of social media, such as connecting peoplefrom around the world and facilitating the spread of information. Then, I would explore the drawbacks, such as the negative impact on mental health and the spread of fake news. I would provide evidence and examples to support each pro and con.中文回答：谈到一篇有说服力的文章的结构，有五种常见的模式可供选择。

An Early Reading First Resource SamplerThe following bibliography represents a small sample of the scientifically based research and resources available that support the Early Reading First goals. The list is not exhaustive, and the Department will add other relevant research and resources in the future.These resources are provided for the reader’s convenience, and are intended merely to be examples of resources that may be useful in the administration of an Early Reading First grant. There are many other relevant resources that may be helpful as well, and any mentioned here are just a few of the options available on the subjects relevant to Early Reading First implementation. Their inclusion does not reflect their relative importance nor is it intended as an endorsement or recommendation by the U.S. Department of Education (Department) of any products, author, publisher, supplier, services, or views that are mentioned. In addition, their inclusion is not intended to mandate, direct, or control the grantee's specific instructional content, academic achievement system and assessments, curriculum, or program of instruction.Adams, M.J., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic Awareness in Young Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.This book addresses the "research to practice" issue in phonemic awareness and includes activities that stimulate the development of "phonemic awareness" in early education programs. While MOST teachers are familiar with the term "phonemic awareness" and its importance in the process of acquiring literacy, but knowing how to teach and support "phonemic awareness" learning has been a challenge for many. The authors intend to close the gap between the research findings and classroom instruction by providing a developmental curriculum in "phonemic awareness" based upon validated classroom research that originated in Sweden and Denmark, and was then adapted and researched in classrooms in the United States.Apel, K., & Masterson, J. (2001). Beyond Baby Talk: From Sounds to Sentences - A Parent's Guide to Language Development. California: Prima Publishing.Sponsored by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, this book describes how children develop language from their earliest words to sentences. With the understanding that parents are the primary language role models for their children, the authors provide parents with a guide to understanding language development as well as ways in which they can interact with their children to promote language development. Burns, M.S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C.E. (Eds.). (1999). Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children's Reading Success. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.This book is edited by members of the Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children. It is intended for parents, teachers, policymakers, and community members. The book addresses the following central questions: ∙What kinds of language and literacy experiences should be part of all preschool and childcare settings?∙What should reading instruction look like in kindergarten and the early grades?∙What questions should be asked of school boards, principals, elected officials and other policymakers who make decisions regarding early reading instruction?∙Is my child making progress in reading related skills and early reading?The goal of the book is to share a wealth of knowledge based upon extensive guidelines, program descriptions, advice on resources, and strategies that can be used in everyday life.Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A.N., & Kuhl, P.K. (1999). The Scientist in the Crib. New York: Morrow.This book looks with great detail into the relationship between science and young children's development. There have been many rigorous scientific studies conducted that have helped us better understand how babies think and learn. The latest research on early childhood development tells us that babies and young children know and learn much more about the world around them than we ever have imagined. This book is not the typical parenting advice or "how to" book. Rather, it strives to take a different road and look at the science of babies' minds.Hart, B., & Risley, T.R. (1999). The Social World of Children: Learning to Talk. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.This book follows the groundbreaking study reported by Hart and Risley in their earlier book, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experiences of Young American Children. It goes beyond the discussion in the earlier book on the role of language experience in the intergenerational transmission of language competence and examines the patterns in that transmission. The authors provide tables and figures with their data and thoroughly discuss their findings. Hart and Risley state that they have a simple message for parents: their conversation matters when their children are young. Talking with children provides them with experiences that are important to both their cognitive and their social/emotional learning. The authors provide evidence that the language tools provided to children through conversation can contribute at least as much to a child's future success as their heredity and their choice of friends .Neuman, S., & Copple, C., Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. Washington D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.This book is the product of a professional collaboration between early childhood educators and reading specialists. It explains the position statement of the International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children on the all important and controversial topic of when and how to teach young children to read and write. Also included is a summary of effective teaching practices for preschool teachers, a section on frequently asked questions, and a glossary of terms in early literacy. Finally, to help teachers consider the value of what they are doing across the dimensions of literacy, there is a brief self-inventory (Taking Stock of What You Do to Promote Children's Literacy).Neuman, S.B., & Dickinson, D.K. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press.This volume examines current research on early literacy and intervention. The Handbook begins by addressing broad questions about the nature of early literacy, and then continues by summarizing current knowledge on cognitive development, and emphasizing the importance of cultural contexts in the acquisition of literacy. Subsequent chapters focus on various skills and knowledge that emerge as children become literate as well as the roles of peers and families in this process. The book devotes attention to the importance of meeting the literacy needs of all children and emphasizes the importanceof coordinated school, family, and social services to provide the necessary support for those children who struggle most in school.Various approaches to instruction, assessment, and early intervention and research on the efficacy of these approaches are described.Snow, C.E., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.This book is a summary report developed from the findings of the Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children. It examines research findings to provide an "integrated picture of how reading develops and how reading instruction should proceed (p. vi)." The core message of the book with regard to reading instruction is: "that reading instruction should integrate attention to the alphabetic principle with attention to the construction of meaning and opportunities to develop fluency (p. vii)."The research reviewed in this book includes studies on normal reading development and instruction; on risk factors that can be useful in identifying children at risk for reading failure; and on prevention, intervention, and instructional approaches to ensuring the most optimal reading outcomes. The committee emphasizes the importance ofhigh-quality preschool and kindergarten environments and their contribution to providing a critical foundation to facilitate children's acquisition of essential reading skills.。

Lecture 1 The Nature of English LearningLearning guidance:Goals:1.to understand the concept of language learning2.to understand what is the nature of language learning3.to understand the tasks for L2 learners4.to distinguish different types of cognitive learning and to distinguish different learning styles of learners5.to know how to use these two terms—acquisition and learning appropriatelyKey Points:understanding the nature of language learningDifficulties:1.identifying the differences of different types of cognitive learning2.understanding the differences between "acquisition" and "learning"Periods: One period1. The Nature of Learning in GeneralIn our daily life, we often come to one word—learning. We learn to ride a bike, to use a computer, to speak a foreign language, and so on. But we seldom think over some problems or questions about "learning", such as: "what is learning", "which kind of activity can be called 'learning'", "why is there something that we can remember for a long time, while other things are forgotten", "how can we make our learning more efficiently". Many questions like these need us to think over. They seem to be easy, but in fact it is difficult to answer these questions. However, to be a successful teacher, to know more details about these questions is necessary, because only getting some knowledge about how to teach is obviously not enough. Nowadays, more attention is paid to the problems of "learning". As teachers, we should equip ourselves with more theories about learning in order to guide our students to learn in a more efficient way. So firstly, we should know what the definition of "learning" is.We always tend to think that "learning" means the improvement of our behaviors. But the term "learning" we are talking about here is different. It includes the learning of human beings as well as the learning of animals.Behaviorism views learning as the connection and intensification of stimulation and response. Cognitive Theory views learning as a change of cognitive structure. And Humanism views learning as the polish of one's concepts. To know "learning" better, we have to distinguish several concepts from "learning".(1)The instinct and learning. Some patterns of behavior are not theresults of learning, and they may come from human beings' or animals' instinct, like birds processing the ability of building up their nests. Generally speaking, Shi Liangfang(2001) mentioned two whethers that can help us to distinguish instinct from learning. Firstly, whether this behavior belongs to all members of this species. In the above example, all birds can build their nests, so building nests is their instinct, while only some people are able to build houses and they get this ability through learning. Secondly, whether one can have this kind of behavior or not, even when he is isolated from others. For example, no matter where one is, he must take food, so taking food is his instinct. Accordingly, speaking is not his instinct but he needs learning. One may not learn to speak if he is isolated from other human beings. These two concepts are helpful but not absolutely true.Sometimes the division between instinct and learning is not very clear.Some experience may also change the innate behaviors.(2)The mature and learning. Mature means the development in our physiology and learning means the development in our psychology. In other words, development of human beings is the combination of development both in physiology and psychology. On one hand, mature is different from learning. When a child is too small, he can not hold something. When he becomes older, holding things will turn out to be a very easy job for him. But we can not call this improvement learning, for every people can have this improvement with his getting mature. On the other hand, to some extent, the way one carries out his learning subordinates to his physiology's development. If a child is too young to hold a pen, how can you teach him to write?(3)Temporary changes of behavior and long-lasting changes of behavior. Learning means the relatively long-lasting changes and those temporary changes can not be called learning. For example, some athletes get a highmark with the help of stimulants. Their behaviors really changed at that time, but the changes are temporary, therefore, these changes cannot be called a kind of learning.GarmezySo far, we have had various definitions of learning. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English says that learning is "acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction". Kimble and Garmezy (Kimble & Garmezy 1963) generalized learning as a relatively permanent change in one's behavioral tendency and the result of reinforced practice. And there is another more specialized definition as follows: Learning refers to those relatively long-lasting changes of one's behaviors, abilities and tendencies of psychology caused by learners' experience. These changes are not caused by mature, diseases, or drugs, and besides, they may even not explicit behaviors. The concept of learning is closely related to the following six elements, and through analyzing these elements, we can have a better understanding of learning's characteristics.(1) Learning is to acquire or to get.(2) Learning is to maintain information, knowledge or skills.(3) Learning involves organizing events both outside and inside the organism actively and consciously.(4) Learning is relatively long-lasting, but it permits to be forgotten.(5) Learning involves practice, or even reinforced practice.(6) Learning changes behavior. (Wang Lifei, 2000)Let's look at the forth point. Since we were children, we have learned a lot of things. But can you recall all of them? If you are common people, you will find that a lot of information has been missing, however, with the help of some hints, you may recall a piece of memory. Or you may also find that you could recall many details like when, where, and how you meet with the knowledge, but you can not remember what exactly the knowledge is. No matter whatcondition you are now standing in, and no matter whether you remembered it or not, one thing you can never change is that you have learned it. Even if you have forgotten the content of it, it may also influence you. It can be some abilities, some attitudes, or even some reflections. So we can see that what matters here is that the concept of learning also includes abstract and psychological aspects in it. We are learning to recognize, to remember, to balance the relationship between our social values and our social roles, and we are even learning how to learn.2. Cognitive LearningThere are different types of learning, and there are different ways to distinguish them. One of these ways which is commonly accepted is to distinguish the different types from the perspective of the nature of learning tasks. From this perspective, we can have three general types of learning.1)Skill learning. This refers to the learning of skills,such as riding a bicycle; 2) Affective and social learning. It means that through learning, learners acquire social attitudes, find out their own interests and values.… For example, through the learning of Chinese history, students will be proud of our country; and 3) Cognitive learning. Language learning is a very good example of cognitive learning, which we are going to discuss in the following part.Wang LifeiIn Wang Lifei 's words(2000,114),"Cognitive learning refers to conceptual and verbal learning that includes information, knowledge, ideas, concepts and systems of thought." In cognitive learning, learners' cognition is used to organize and machining knowledge. There are two typical ways of cognitive learning. The first one is discovery learning which involves learners' active thinking and through their cognitive efforts, they could find out things to be learned by themselves. The second one is meaningful reception learning which means when accepting new knowledge learners organize the new knowledge with the help of their former knowledge. The common feature these two kinds of learning share is that learners' mind and cognition are involved to think and organize information. And this is what cognitive learning emphasizes.When coming to cognitive learning, what we should discuss firstly is which kind of learning belongs to this category, or in other words, how many types dose cognitive learning have. In Bloom's point of view (1956), there are six types of cognitive learning: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. They are listed from relatively simple to difficult. And it is also a process of organizing knowledge, from accepting knowledge to using it.We are very familiar with the concept "knowledge" and there are several fields that knowledge covers. It means all the information, understandings and skills that you gain through education or experience. And owing knowledge is the basis for you to enter into other levels of cognitive learning.Comprehension means listeners can understand speakers immediately without any assistance.For example, when you talked with someone, he told you that he planted a tree yesterday, and then you would understand him immediately. Under this circumstance, no gestures, behaviors or anything related were needed to help you understand him. Comprehension is the lowest level of understanding.Application refers to the practical use of something, especially a theory, discovery, etc. After acquiring some knowledge of language, we surely need to use the language in real life.Analysis is to breakdown a whole into pieces, and learners should analyze the pieces one by one.The pieces include not only elements but also relations between different elements. While Synthesis means the act of combining all the separate pieces together, like: ideas, beliefs, styles…. Synthesis is necessary because we should add pieces to a whole, so that we could make judgments in a whole picture.And finally, we come to evaluation. Evaluation means to form an opinion to a thing's quantity, quality or value after thinking about it carefully with a certain purpose. Both internal criteria and external evidence should be taken into consideration when evaluating something.R. M. GagneAn educational psychologist, R. M. Gagne also identified eight types of learning and it is identified from the perspective of the complexity of learning tasks. And from the simplest level to the most complex level, they are Signal Learning, Stimulus-response Learning, Chaining, Verbal Association, Multiple Discrimination, Concept Learning, Principle Learning, and Problem Solving. The details are as follows:(1) Signal Learning (符号学习).Learners learn to make a general diffuse response to a signal. It is the simplest level of learning and we can understand it through Pavlov's experiment of conditioned salivary responses in dogs. This kind of response has a truly involuntary nature, which means that at this level, learners respond to something unconsciously.So at this stage, L2 learners are learning to set up an immediate response to signals they were not familiar. The signal learning can occur through the whole process of language learning.(2) Stimulus-Response Learning (刺激-反应学习).Learners acquire a precise response to a discriminated stimulus. What are learned at this level are connections between stimuli and responses and Skinner's operant conditioning response can help us have a better understanding of it. In foreign language learning, stimulus-response learning becomes quite evident when it comes to the acquisition of sound system.While trying and making errors, learners are setting connections between what they said and what they wanted to express so that they can get responses or feedback from others and finally, they can make closer and closer approximations to native-like pronunciation.(3) Chaining(链状连接).Chaining is the combination of two or even more stimulus-response connections. Chaining is an ability to complete a series of connected things. It may be quite simple, like tying shoelaces and it may also be quite complex, like carrying on an experiment. Through the signal learning and stimulus-response learning, learners learn to respond distinctively to different signals or stimuli. However, when different signals are combined together into a long sentence or a paragraph, learners should also put their different responses together, and organize these different responses in a proper way. This is the ability of chaining.(4) Verbal Association (言语联想). Verbal association is the learning of chains that are verbal. It means that in language learning, when we hear some words, sentences, or paragraphs, we can make them associate to the real objects butwithout the needs to see the real objects. Students need an internal condition when acquiring verbal association in second language acquisition—being familiar with what the words mean in advance. Teachers' job is to reinforce the learners' ability of associating so that learners could associate the verbal words to the realities immediately.(5) Multiple Discrimination (多重辨别).Learners learn to make different identifying responses to many different stimuli which may, to some degree, be similar to each other in physical appearances or in meanings. Although the learning of each stimulus-response connection is simple, too many connections of stimulus-response together may make learning confusing because they could interfere with one another. Multiple discrimination works at this time.We are familiar with the concept of "minimal pair", and to distinguish the differences between them, multiple discrimination is needed.For example, to distinguish two pairs of English letters "b/d", "q/p" we should use multiple discrimination and then we will have a better understanding and memorize these letters better. Multiple discrimination is useful especially when a word has several meanings or when learners have to reshape the native language's rules into a second language's rules.(6) Concept Learning(概念学习).Learners acquire a capability of making a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. The learner is able to make a response that identifies an entire class of objects or events. This type of learning refers to the learning of concrete concepts. While in L2 learning, it means the acquisition of linguistic concepts, such as rules of syntax, rules of conversation….(7) Principle Learning (规则学习).In simplest terms, a principle is a chain of two or more concepts and the relations between these concepts. It functions as to organize behaviors and experiences. And in Ausubel's terminology, a principle is a "subsumer", which means a cluster of related concepts. This type of learning is very important in language learning. Learners have to learn concepts such as noun, verb, subject, predicate, etc. And they also have to learn rules of pronouncing, spelling, and constructing sentences.In other words, principle learning means that learners should learn the principles of how to connect different concepts.(8) Problem Solving(解决问题).This is the highest level of cognitive learning, so it is the most complex, because it involves "thinking". When we meet problems, we combine the previously learned concepts and principles together,and we also use our mind and our thinking to solve them. Problem solving is also important in L2 learning, because we also encounter a lot of problems in language learning. Problem solving is a real ability. To find out the solutions to some problems, it involves not only problem solving, but also all the other types of learning. Learners use all the information, knowledge or even some imagination and creation in order to correctly determine the solutions to the problems, like the meaning of a word, the interpretation of utterances,the meaning between lines of a speaker's words, the translation from one language to another and so on.It is very necessary to identify different types of cognitive learning. For learner's part, knowing different types of cognitive learning can help them build up a whole structure of cognition. If they combine different types of learning together, they will get a better structure of cognition, which will be more useful in solving problems. For teacher's part, knowing different types of the cognitive learning, they will comprehend their students' current level better, and they will organize the instruction with a clearer purpose, so that the goals of teaching can be reached easily.3. The Nature of L2 LearningWe have discussed the nature of learning in general. Let's move to the learning of a language and the nature of it in particular, especially something about learning a foreign language.Language is so familiar a feature in our daily life that we rarely take some time to think about it and to try to define it. However, as students learning language or as teachers teaching language, we should try to analyze what a language really is, native or foreign language, how to acquire a language in a more efficient way and many other aspects of language as well.3.1 What is Language?Firstly, of course, we should know what language is. Different linguistic scholars view language from different perspectives, so different definitions are presented.In the early 19th century Hermann Paul provides a rather primitive view of language to us, and he regards language as a living organism, because language at that time is not very mature, and it changes and grows now and then. Among all the changes, speech changes the most, so people think speech is ephemeral and degenerate and should not be trusted. It is writingthat should be thought highly of. Besides, language is invented and improved with people's needs and convenience. And once it is set up, it can not be changed at will. So language is conventional.At the turn of the century, linguists begin to recognize that language is a system. They think that each language has its elements and these elements are connected by certain rules of its own. Both elements and rules together build up a special system which only belongs to this language. Besides, they also try to explain language synchronically. It means that language should not be compared with those of long time ago, but with the languages at the same period. Speech is the most useful and can be found everywhere. So at this time, people change their mind and begin to think speech as the most important aspect of language.SaussureIn the late 19th and early 20th, structuralists like Saussure , view language as a system of signs, while a sign is a union of the sound image and the idea. There are no natural or inevitable connections between them. So their relations are arbitrary. This is the central idea of Saussure's. For example, we call a chair "chair" arbitrarily and there are absolutely no relations between the word "chair" and the real object chair. This period, writing is still secondary to speech.Then it comes to 1940s, behaviorist like Skinner holds that language is a system of verbal operants, which means that language is a process of stimulus, response and reinforcement. Teachers' job is to help students set up the connections between stimuli and responses with lots of repetition of exercises and reinforcement.ChomskyTransformationalists represented by Chomsky view language as a set of rules or deep structures and these rules and structures underlie the surface structure. In other words, all the languages share common and universal rules together. What makes them different from each other is the way in which the universal rules are transferred into different languages. Besides, people are born to have the potential of speaking. The ability of learning to speak language is innate, and it is this ability that distinguishes people's communication and animals' communication.Halliday (cited from Hu Zhuanglin,2009), an outstanding representative of sociolinguists and functional linguists, regards language as a dynamic and open system. By using language, communities can exchange mind or ideas and communicate with each other. He outlined seven different functions of language:(1) the instrumental function: It means the words can make something happen and relate to a certain action. Like, "Close the door", then the door should be closed by someone.(2) the regulatory function: It means to make things under control. For example, if it is very noisy in a classroom, the monitor should make it quiet and regulate the class with words like "be quiet" or "calm down". Besides, setting laws and rules is using language to regulate something, like "no parking", which means parking is not allowed here.(3) the representational function: It means we use language to convey ideas, knowledge, facts, or to explain, to report and so on. For example, as English teachers, if we want our students to know the concept of present continuous, we should say some sentences like "'present continuous' means the behaviors or affairs happening right now when you are speaking the words…"(4) the interactional function: Language is a way to maintain social relationship, because with the help of language, people can communicate with others and establish social contact with others. For example, if we want to start a conversation with someone, we should firstly greet him by saying "hi" or "morning". And then we can interact with each other.(5) the personal function: Language can be used to express one's feelings, emotions and personalities. For example, one says "I'm unhappy", and then we can recognize his sadness through his words.(6) the heuristic function: In class, teachers ask a lot of questions by using language. While students find answers, they are thinking and this is a heuristic process.(7) the imaginative function: Sometimes, we are expressing our imaginations, telling fairy tales, joking, writing novels. All these activities are done with the help of language, and this function of language is called imaginative function.With the help of these conclusions, a most commonly accepted definition of language is introduced. It comes from Wardhaugh (1977): "Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication." To make sure that we could have a better understanding, we divide this definition into three parts to analyze.Firstly, through "system", here we mean that no matter which language you are speaking, it is arranged in a certain manner according to some certain rules. You can not arrange the elements at random if you want your words to be acceptable and understandable.Secondly, by "arbitrary vocal symbols" it means that any word that represents something is a symbol. The relationship between the sound symbols and the objects or ideas that these symbols represent are arbitrary. For example, "pen" refers to the tool we use to write with. This is an arbitrary reference, and we call it "pen" without any particular reasons. However, in order to have a fluent conversation and a convenient communication, people fix all the arbitrary references and make them become conventions.Finally, we come to "use for human communication". Language is possessed only by human beings, and language is used to communicate with other people whether it is written or spoken. Language is used to convey information. We do know some animals' ways of conveying some certain information, but because of the limitation of information, theirs can not be called language.Now we have known language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. So no matter which language you are speaking, no matter which family your language belongs to and which rules your language should follow, the nature of language can not be changed, and it means that language should always be a system used for human beings' communication, and the relationships between pronunciations and their references are arbitrary.3.2 The Nature of L2 LearningAs teachers, we should keep it in our mind that your teaching should meet the demands of students instead of asking students to follow your instruction blindly. Teaching techniques are set up based on the theories of learning, so learning is the prerequisite and the basis of teaching. To know the nature of students' ways of learning is as important as to know the teaching techniques. Since we have talked about what learning is and we have also talked about what language is. Now it's time to talk about what the nature of L2 learning is in particular.As to the nature of L2 learning, the core of the discussion should be focused on the question that in L2 learning, what a learner acquires is a new language system or a new cognitive system.The answer to this question is essential when discussing the nature of L2 learning.Although cultures in different countries are different, people around the world judge whether things are moral or immoral basically in the same way.So as Human beings, we can see, no matter which country does a person come from, our cognitive systems are almost the same and they develop with a similar process. In a second language, there are many different concepts like some slang, proverb, which do not exist in our own language, but there is no need to change our cognitive systems to suit different concepts. What we really need to do is to add the new concepts to our existed cognitive systems. And we have ways of assimilation which means to accept or absorb the information into our existed mind, and accommodation which means to make a convenient arrangement or a compromise in order to make the new information be accepted easily.So the nature of L2 learning is to add new concepts to our already existed cognitive system rather than build up a new one.From this perspective of the nature of L2 learning, the task that L2 learners confront is to realize the language-independent and deep-structure conceptual system. And for this purpose, learners should equip themselves with some knowledge about a language's phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and so on. In other words,second language learning is to acquire a new set of rules, from how to pronounce words, to how to build up sentences. With the help of these different rules, we can gradually find out the universal rules of all languages sharing.For example,we share the same "earth", the same "sun", the same "sky"all around the world. We have the same concepts of these phenomena if we have enough knowledge about them, and what our Chinese differentiates from other languages is that we have different words and different pronunciations representing these phenomena. We have the word "Yue Liang" in our Chinese, in English there is the word "the moon", and in Japanese, it is pronounced "つき". Although different words are used, they mean the same object and we share the same idea of what they all refer to. L2 learners' job is to get over the difficulties of different and confused pronunciations and to find out the same references. We have a sentence in philosophy: to see through the appearance, to perceive the essence, which can be fully applied here. In one word, L2 learners' task is to acquire the linguistic competence, and words and expressions instead of a whole new cognitive system.Richards makes us a conclusion of the tasks of L2 learners, which can be divided into two levels: the competence level and the performance level. On the competence side, there is no doubt that the L2 learner should get the competence of the L2. He has to learn to discover the grammatical rules of the new language he is learning, which may be totally different from his mother tongue. He has to readjust the reference in his mind to new words or new phrases. He has to fill the blanks in his mind with the concepts which do not exist in his mother tongue. And he has also to perceive a different sound which does not have a distinctive feature in his L1. In one word, he has to do everything needed so that he can get the ability of the L2. On the performance side,however, L2 learners need to learn to perform a new language. That is to say a L2 learner should learn how to use a new language, and what does this side highlight is learners' output. When we mention the output of a language, we can think of speaking and writing immediately. So from the side of performance, learners have to learn to get familiar with the unfamiliar sounds and rules and learn how to speak or write with these unfamiliar sounds and rules.Then we come to another question: which level should be more stressed in L2 learning, the competence level or the performance level? The answer to this question mostly depends on the purpose of L2 learners. If his purpose is just to analyze the new language, maybe the competence is enough, and on the contrary, if the purpose is to go abroad, he should pay more attention to the performance level, and he should get the ability to communicate with others even if he can not explain the rules clearly.However, generally speaking, we shift the stressed levels according to。