Modeling Crossing Behavior and Accident
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如何安全过马路英语作文七年级Navigating the Crosswalk: A Guide to Pedestrian SafetyCrossing the street is a daily task that we often take for granted, but it can also be a treacherous endeavor if not done with caution and awareness. As pedestrians, we have a responsibility to ourselves and others to ensure our safety when traversing the roads. This is especially true for younger individuals, such as those in the seventh grade, who may not have the same level of experience or understanding of traffic patterns and safety protocols. In this essay, we will explore the essential steps and considerations for safely crossing the road as a pedestrian.The first and most crucial step in safely crossing the road is to be aware of your surroundings. This means taking a moment to scan the area, looking both ways for approaching vehicles, and ensuring that the path is clear before attempting to cross. It is important to avoid being distracted by electronic devices, conversations, or other activities that may divert your attention from the task at hand. Staying focused and alert is the foundation of pedestrian safety.Once you have assessed the situation and determined that it is safeto cross, the next step is to follow the appropriate crossing signals and markings. In many areas, there are designated crosswalks, traffic lights, and crossing signals that provide guidance and instructionsfor pedestrians. It is essential to obey these signals and only cross when the light is green or the "walk" signal is illuminated. Crossing against the light or in an unmarked area can be extremely dangerous and increases the risk of being involved in a collision with a vehicle.Another important consideration is the speed and flow of traffic. Even if you have the right-of-way, it is crucial to be mindful of the speed at which vehicles are traveling and the overall volume of traffic. If the road is particularly busy or the vehicles are moving at a high rate of speed, it may be prudent to wait for a lull in traffic or seek an alternative crossing location that is safer and more manageable.When crossing the road, it is also important to maintain a consistent and predictable pace. Sudden stops, hesitations, or erratic movements can confuse drivers and increase the risk of an accident. Instead, walk at a steady, confident pace, making eye contact with drivers whenever possible to ensure that they are aware of your presence and intentions.In addition to the physical act of crossing the road, it is also essential to be aware of the potential hazards that may be present. This includes being mindful of obstacles, such as parked cars, trees, orother obstructions that may limit your visibility or the visibility of drivers. It is also important to be cautious of turning vehicles, as they may not always yield to pedestrians, even in designated crossing areas.Another crucial aspect of pedestrian safety is the use of reflective or brightly colored clothing, especially in low-light conditions or during inclement weather. This helps to increase your visibility to drivers and reduces the risk of being struck by a vehicle. Additionally, it is advisable to carry a flashlight or wear a reflective vest when walking at night or in dimly lit areas.Finally, it is essential to teach and reinforce pedestrian safety practices to younger individuals, such as those in the seventh grade. This can be done through educational programs, safety campaigns, and the modeling of safe behaviors by parents, teachers, and other authority figures. By instilling these principles at a young age, we can help to ensure that future generations of pedestrians are well-equipped to navigate the roads safely and confidently.In conclusion, safely crossing the road as a pedestrian requires a combination of awareness, caution, and adherence to established safety protocols. By staying focused, obeying traffic signals, maintaining a consistent pace, and being mindful of potential hazards, we can significantly reduce the risk of being involved in apedestrian-vehicle collision. Through education and the promotion of safe practices, we can empower individuals of all ages to become responsible and confident pedestrians, ultimately contributing to a safer and more inclusive transportation system for all.。
When discussing the causes of traffic accidents,it is essential to consider a variety of factors that contribute to these unfortunate events.Here are some key reasons that are often cited:1.Distracted Driving:One of the leading causes of traffic accidents is distracted driving. This includes activities such as texting,talking on the phone,eating,or adjusting the radio while driving.The drivers attention is diverted from the road,increasing the risk of an accident.2.Speeding:Driving at excessive speeds reduces the drivers ability to react to sudden changes in traffic conditions.It also increases the likelihood of a severe crash due to the higher kinetic energy involved.3.Intoxication:Alcohol or drug impairment can significantly impair a drivers judgment, coordination,and reaction time.Drunk driving is a major cause of fatal accidents.4.Fatigue:Drowsy driving can be as dangerous as driving under the influence.Fatigue can lead to slower reaction times and a lack of awareness of the road environment.5.Poor Weather Conditions:Adverse weather such as rain,snow,fog,or ice can reduce visibility and traction,making it difficult for drivers to maintain control of their vehicles.6.Defective Vehicles:Mechanical failures,such as brake failure or tire blowouts,can lead to accidents.Regular vehicle maintenance is crucial to prevent such issues.7.Aggressive Driving:Behaviors like tailgating,weaving through traffic,and excessive honking can lead to road rage and increase the risk of collisions.8.Inexperienced Drivers:New drivers may lack the experience to handle complex traffic situations or to react appropriately to unexpected events.9.Poor Road Conditions:Potholes,uneven surfaces,or inadequate road markings can contribute to accidents by making it difficult for drivers to navigate safely.10.Failure to Obey Traffic Rules:Not following traffic signals,signs,or rules can lead to confusion and accidents.This includes running red lights,ignoring stop signs,or failing to yield.11.Pedestrian and Cyclist Behavior:Not following traffic rules or being inattentive while crossing the road can also lead to accidents involving pedestrians and cyclists.12.Animals on the Road:Encountering animals on the road can surprise drivers and lead to sudden evasive maneuvers,potentially causing accidents.Understanding these causes can help in developing strategies for preventing traffic accidents,such as stricter enforcement of traffic laws,better driver education,and improved road infrastructure.It is the collective responsibility of drivers,pedestrians, cyclists,and road authorities to work towards safer roads for everyone.。
六年级英语安全会画作文过马路Crossing the street is a routine activity that we all engage in on a daily basis yet it is also one of the most dangerous activities we can undertake. As students in 6th grade, we are at a critical age where we are becoming more independent and mobile, spending more time outside of our homes and schools. With this newfreedom comes greater responsibility to ensure our own safety and the safety of those around us when crossing the street. This essay will explore the key considerations and best practices for safely crossing the street as a 6th grade student.The first and most important factor to consider when crossing the street is visibility. As smaller pedestrians, it is crucial that we make ourselves as visible as possible to approaching drivers. This means avoiding crossing in dark or poorly lit areas, wearing bright or reflective clothing, and making eye contact with drivers before proceeding. Drivers have a responsibility to watch for pedestrians, but we as pedestrians must also do our part to ensure we are seen.In addition to visibility, timing is critical when crossing the street. Weshould always look both ways before crossing, scanning for any approaching vehicles. Even if the road appears clear, we must remain vigilant and continue to monitor the situation as we cross. It is never safe to assume a driver has seen us or will stop in time. We should cross at designated crosswalks or intersections whenever possible, as these areas are designed to prioritize pedestrian safety. If no crosswalk is available, we should find the most well-lit and unobstructed location to cross.Once we have determined it is safe to cross, it is important that we cross the street in a direct and decisive manner. Hesitating or changing direction midway can confuse drivers and increase the risk of an accident. We should walk, not run, across the street, maintaining a steady pace. It is also crucial that we avoid being distracted by mobile devices or other diversions while crossing, as this can impair our ability to stay alert and responsive.Another key consideration is obeying all traffic signals and signs. Red lights and "Don't Walk" signals are there for a reason - to protect us from oncoming traffic. We must always obey these signals, even if the road appears clear. Likewise, we should heed all street signs, such as those indicating school zones or reduced speed limits. Drivers are required to follow these signs, but we as pedestrians must also do our part to ensure everyone's safety.Beyond the immediate act of crossing the street, there are also broader safety habits we should cultivate as 6th grade students. This includes walking on the sidewalk whenever possible, facing oncoming traffic if no sidewalk is available, and avoiding shortcuts through parking lots or other high-risk areas. We should also be aware of our surroundings and any potential hazards, such as icy patches or uneven pavement, that could cause us to trip or fall while crossing.Finally, it is important that we set a good example for younger students and encourage our peers to practice safe crossing habits as well. We can do this by modeling responsible behavior, speaking up if we see someone engaging in unsafe practices, and educating others on the importance of street safety. By working together as a community, we can help ensure that everyone, regardless of age or mode of transportation, can navigate our streets safely and confidently.In conclusion, crossing the street is a deceptively complex task that requires vigilance, responsiveness, and a commitment to safety. As 6th grade students, we have a responsibility to ourselves and to those around us to develop and practice safe crossing habits. By prioritizing visibility, timing, decisiveness, and obedience to traffic signals and signs, we can significantly reduce the risk of accidents and injuries. Moreover, by cultivating broader safety habits andencouraging our peers to do the same, we can help create a culture of pedestrian safety that benefits our entire community. With the right knowledge and mindset, crossing the street can be a simple and routine activity - one that we can all navigate with confidence and care.。
Title: Children's Compliance with Traffic Rules:A Crucial MatterTraffic rules are essential for ensuring the safety and smooth flow of traffic on our roads. However, it's concerning to note that many primary school students do not fully comply with these rules, putting themselves andothers at risk. This lack of compliance could lead to accidents and serious injuries, making it crucial to address this issue.One common violation among primary school students is not crossing the road at designated crossings. Instead,they often choose to cross the road wherever it seems convenient, ignoring the potential dangers. Additionally, many students fail to look both ways before crossing the road or fail to use pedestrian crossings altogether. This lack of caution can lead to tragic consequences.Another concerning behavior is playing on the road. Many primary school students enjoy playing games or engaging in other activities on the road, oblivious to the potential dangers. This not only puts themselves at riskbut also poses a threat to other road users.To improve compliance with traffic rules among primary school students, several measures can be taken. Firstly, schools should conduct regular traffic safety education sessions to teach students the importance of following traffic rules. These sessions should include interactive activities that make the information more engaging and memorable for the students.Secondly, parents and guardians play a crucial role in modeling safe traffic behaviors for their children. They should set a good example by following traffic rules themselves and encourage their children to do the same. Regular discussions about traffic safety can also help raise awareness among children.Lastly, enforcement agencies should step up efforts to enforce traffic rules in school areas. This includes regular patrols and strict enforcement of traffic violations, particularly those committed by primary school students. By doing so, it sends a clear message thattraffic rules are non-negotiable and must be followed at all times.In conclusion, compliance with traffic rules among primary school students is crucial for their safety and the safety of others. By educating students, involving parents, and enforcing traffic rules, we can create a safer environment for everyone on our roads.**小学生遵守交通规则的重要性**交通规则对于确保我们道路上交通的安全和顺畅至关重要。
全国交通安全日英语作文带翻译全国交通安全日英语作文带翻译(通用24篇)Traffic safety and our relationship is very close, it is like our friends. Days and nights are kept at our side, education we, admonish us.Life is precious, life is only one life, we should cherish life. Pay attention to traffic safety and the value of a part of life. Now because there are too many people in the traffic accident and killed, aren't they die too wronged?Traffic safety, we should keep in mind. More important, is to know the traffic safety common sense: first of all, pedestrians must walk on the pedestrian passageway, no pavement on the right to walk; Cross the road must take crossings (zebra crossing); Through the pedestrian crossing traffic signal control, must abide by the provisions of the signal; Through the no traffic signal control of the pavement and to glance left and right, pay attention to traffic, not chasing, running; When someone line bridge or tunnel crossing the street, you must go to bridge or tunnel pedestrian street; And are not allowed to climb the road guardrail, police in the road, allowed to pull cars on the road, chase cars, or forced lanche parabolic blow cars.So, under the condition of traffic light, what should you do? Don't try so hard, please see: when the green light to allow pedestrians through the zebra crossing; Green light flashing, no pedestrians entering the crosswalk, but has entered the pedestrian crossing can continue to pass; No pedestrians into the pedestrian crossing when the red light is on.As long as you take these traffic safety in mind in the heart, then it is your best best friend. It will always protect you, to giveyou happiness.交通安全与我们的关系是非常密切的,它就像我们的朋友。
以道路安全为主题写一篇英语作文90词全文共6篇示例,供读者参考篇1Road Safety: Keeping Safe on Our StreetsHi there! My name is Emily and I'm 10 years old. Today I want to talk to you about something really important - road safety. It's so crucial that we all know how to stay safe whenwe're walking, riding our bikes, or even just playing near roads. The streets can be dangerous places if we're not being careful and following the rules.Let me start by talking about walking near roads. Whenever I'm out walking, I always make sure to use the sidewalk or trail. If there isn't a sidewalk, I walk facing traffic so I can see the cars coming. My mom taught me that it's safer that way. I also never run out into the street chasing a ball or pet, because a car could come really fast and not see me. If I have to cross the street, I go to a corner or crosswalk and wait for the crossing signal. Then I look left篇2Road Safety: A Lesson for AllHello friends! My name is Jamie and I'm in the 5th grade. Today I want to talk to you about something really important - road safety. It's a big deal and can even save lives if we all follow the rules.First, let's talk about crossing the street. I can't tell you how many times I've seen kids running across without looking both ways. That's so dangerous! Cars can come zooming down the road when you least expect it. Always look left, then right, then left again before you cross. And use the crosswalk or traffic signal if there is one. Jaywalking is illegal and really unsafe.Speaking of crosswalks, drivers need to pay attention too. You have to yield to pedestrians, even if they're not in a marked crossing area. My dad says pedestrians always have the right of way. And slow down in school zones! Little kids can run out from between parked cars without warning.Wearing bright clothing when you walk or bike also helps drivers see you better. My mom makes me wear a reflective vest when I'm out after dark. It's not the most stylish look, but I'd rather be visible than invisible to cars, you know?Now let's talk about riding your bike. First of all, you gotta wear a helmet - every single time! No exceptions. I don't care if it messes up your hair. Cracked skulls and brain injuries are way uglier than hat hair. Follow all the traffic signals and signs just like you're driving a car. Never ride against traffic either. That's just asking for trouble.For those of you getting driven to school, the rules are easy - buckle up! Seat belts save lives. And don't distract the driver by being loud or climbing around the car. My dad gets so mad when my little brother does that. He says it's one of the leading causes of crashes.You know who has to be extra careful? Pedestrians and cyclists! Cars are big and powerful, so you're more vulnerable out there. Stay alert, avoid headphones or other distractions, and be ready to react if a car gets too close. And never, ever duck out between parked cars into the street. That's just plain stupid!I know some of the road safety stuff seems obvious. But you'd be surprised how many accidents happen because people get lazy or aren't paying attention. A moment of carelessness can change your life forever.That reminds me of something sad that happened in our neighborhood last year. There was a little girl who loved to rollerblade up and down the sidewalk. But one day she got going too fast and rolled right into the street without looking. A car came around the corner and...well, you can guess how it ended. She's okay now, but she was in the hospital for a long time with a broken leg and arm. Her parents said she learned the hard way that roads are no joke.So let's all wise up and play it safe out there! Use crosswalks, wear helmets, buckle seat belts - all that good stuff. It's not just about following the rules. It's about protecting yourself and watching out for others too.My dad is a police officer, and he has seen way too many accidents caused by people not paying attention. He says the road is no place for mistakes. Things happen fast, and you have to be alert and responsible at all times. Even little kids!I'll leave you with one more safety tip - never get in a car with someone who has been drinking or seems impaired. That's just plain crazy and could cost you your life. If you're ever in that situation, speak up or get an adult involved right away. Don't risk it!Okay, you get the idea. Road safety is crucial, no matter if you're walking, biking, driving, or just playing near the street. The rules are there for a reason - to keep us all safe. So let's be roadsafety superstars from now on! It's the smart and responsible thing to do.Who's with me? Let me hear you shout: "Road safety rules!" There, doesn't that feel good? Now let's go out there and keep each other safe. Thanks for listening, friends!篇3Road Safety Is Really Important!Hi there! My name is Timmy and I'm 8 years old. I go to Oakwood Elementary School. Today I want to talk to you about something that's super duper important - road safety!I know, I know, you're probably thinking "Ugh, another boring lesson about looking both ways before I cross the street." But trust me, this stuff is seriously important! Every year, lots of kids and adults get hurt or even killed in road accidents. That's so sad! But the good news is that many of those accidents could have been prevented if people were being more careful and following road safety rules.Let me give you some examples of road safety no-no's that can lead to really bad things happening:Not Looking Both WaysThis one is Road Safety 101, but you'd be surprised how many people forget to do it! Whether you're crossing a small street or a giant intersection, you ALWAYS have to look left, then right, then left again before stepping out into the road. Cars can come zipping out of nowhere if you're not paying attention!Playing in the StreetObviously the street is for cars and the sidewalk is for people walking. But every now and then, you see some kid chasing a ball or riding their bike right into the middle of the road without a care in the world. That is SO dangerous! Cars can't stop on a dime if you run out in front of them. Stay on the sidewalk and play in parks or yards where it's safe.Not Wearing Helmets or SeatbeltsI see kids on bikes, skateboards, roller blades and scooters all the time without helmets on. And their parents driving around with seatbelts unbuckled too! Helmets and seatbelts are like suits of armor that protect your brain and body if you fall or get into a crash. Why wouldn't you want that protection? It's so silly not to wear them.Not Paying AttentionThese days, everyone has their faces buried in phones and tablets. But you have to keep your eyes up and stay focused when you're walking near any roads. One second of not paying attention could mean stepping out in front of a moving car. No text is worth that risk!Those are just a few examples, but there are lots of other road safety rules too like using crosswalks properly, waiting for crossing guards, and obeying traffic signals. It's seriously so much to remember!But you know what? It's worth it. Because the alternative of getting hit by a car is one of the scariest things I can imagine. I get freaked out just thinking about it! One of my best friends was hit by a car a couple years ago while he was riding his bike. He broke his leg and had to use a wheelchair for months after that. It was terrible seeing him so hurt and miserable.And that's nothing compared to the kids who never recover or lose their lives in road accidents each year. Just this year, a girl in my grade was riding her bike without a helmet, fell off, and suffered a traumatic brain injury. She's still in the hospital in really bad shape. Her parents must be just devastated. No family should have to go through something so tragic, especially when it could have been prevented with road safety smarts.So that's why whenever I'm out walking or biking near any streets, I make sure to be on my A-game. I stop, look both ways, cross at the crosswalk, obey the crossing guards, and wear my helmet and safety gear. My parents are always reminding me about road safety too and modeling good behavior in the car. I'm so grateful they care enough to drill those lessons into my head over and over again!Sometimes it can seem like such a drag having all these road safety rules to follow. But they exist for a really good reason - to keep kids and grown-ups safe! The roads can be a dangerous place with all those fast-moving cars and trucks out there. But if everyone just followed some simple safety measures, so many terrible accidents could be prevented.So please, please, pretty please, pay attention to road safety! Look both ways before crossing, pay attention, wear your gear, and follow all the rules. Then maybe we can get to a point where zero kids or adults are getting hurt or killed in road accidents each year. Wouldn't that be awesome? Let's make it happen by being road safety superstars! Who's with me?篇4Road Safety for KidsHey there! I'm Tommy, and today I want to talk to you about something really important – staying safe on the roads. Whether you're walking, riding your bike, or in a car with your parents, it's super important to know how to be safe around traffic.Let's start with walking. When you're out on the sidewalk or crossing the street, always remember to look both ways before crossing. Even if you don't see any cars coming, they can sneak up on you really quickly! It's also a good idea to hold an adult's hand when crossing the street, especially if you're little. Oh, and never run out into the street – that's just asking for trouble!Riding your bike is lots of fun, but it also means you need to be extra careful. Always wear a helmet – even if you're just riding around the neighborhood. Helmets protect your brain if you fall off your bike, and trust me, you don't want a brain injury! Ride on the right side of the road, and use hand signals to let cars know when you're turning. And please, please don't ride at night unless you have reflectors or lights on your bike. Cars need to be able to see you!Sometimes you'll be a passenger in a car instead of walking or biking. That's when you need to buckle up every single time, no exceptions! Seatbelts and car seats are there to keep you safein case of a crash. Don't mess around with them or unbuckle while the car is moving. You could go flying and get really hurt!There's one more big safety rule I want to mention: never, ever get distracted near the road. That means no texting, playing games, or listening to music with headphones in when you're walking or biking. You need to be able to hear what's going on around you. Speaking of distractions, your parents shouldn't be texting or doing other distracting things while driving either. It's just too dangerous!I know all these rules might seem like a lot, but staying safe is super important. Every year, thousands of kids get hurt or even killed in road accidents. Most of the time, it's because someone wasn't being careful or following the safety rules. As kids, we're little, so it's extra important for us to be aware of cars and traffic. We have to make sure the drivers can see us!If we all do our part by looking both ways, wearing helmets, buckling up, and avoiding distractions, we can make the roads a lot safer for everyone. Grown-ups have to follow the rules too, of course, but kids like us can set a great example. Let's make road safety cool!What do you think? Will you promise to be a road safety superstar from now on? It's the smart thing to do, and it couldsave your life or someone else's someday. This stuff is seriously important, even if it doesn't seem that way when you're just walking to the park or whatever.Staying safe doesn't have to be boring either. You can decorate your bike helmet with cool stickers, or have a favorite stuffed animal buckle up with you in the car. Maybe your family can make up a road safety rap or hand signal to remind each other to be careful. Anything to make it stick in your mind!At the end of the day, we all want to stay safe and have fun, right? So let's work together to make the roads a little bit safer, one kid at a time. Who's with me? Let's go team safety!篇5Road Safety: A Lesson for AllHi there! My name is Emily, and I'm in the 5th grade. Today, I want to talk to you about something really important – road safety! It's a big deal, not just for kids like me, but for everyone who uses the roads, whether they're walking, biking, or driving.Let's start with something we all know – cars are awesome! They're fast, shiny, and can take us anywhere we want to go. But you know what's not cool? Getting hurt or hurting someone elsebecause we're not being safe on the roads. That's why we have to learn all about road safety from a young age.When I'm walking to school or playing outside, my mom always reminds me to look both ways before crossing the street. It's like she has a built-in radar for danger! And you know what? She's totally right. Cars can come zooming around corners or down the street really fast, and if we're not paying attention, bad things can happen.But it's not just about looking both ways. We also have to use crosswalks and wait for the walking signal before crossing. I know it can be tempting to dart across the street when we're in a hurry, but that's just asking for trouble. Cars might not see us, and then – WHAM! That's definitely not something anyone wants to experience.Speaking of cars, have you ever noticed how some drivers seem to be in a crazy hurry? They zoom past stop signs, cut people off, and even run red lights! That's just plain dangerous and rude. Drivers need to slow down, obey the traffic rules, and be considerate of others on the road, whether they're in cars, on bikes, or just walking.And you know what else is important? Wearing a seatbelt! I know it can be a pain, especially when you're just going a shortdistance, but it's like a superhero cape for your safety. If there's ever an accident, that seatbelt could save your life or keep you from getting seriously hurt. Plus, it's the law, and nobody wants a ticket from the police!But road safety isn't just about walking and driving. Bikes are awesome too, but we have to be extra careful when we're riding them. That means wearing a helmet (no excuses!), following the traffic rules just like cars do, and using hand signals to let others know where we're going.Oh, and let's not forget about distractions! Whether you're walking, biking, or driving, it's important to put down your phone and pay attention to what's going on around you. Texting or playing games while you're on the road is just asking for trouble. Trust me, that message or game can wait until you're somewhere safe.I know all of this might sound like a lot of rules and boring stuff, but it's really important. Road safety isn't just about avoiding accidents – it's about saving lives and keeping everyone safe and happy. When we all do our part, the roads become a much better place for everyone.So, the next time you're out and about, remember to look both ways, obey the traffic rules, wear your seatbelt or helmet,and avoid distractions. And if you ever feel unsafe or see someone else doing something dangerous, don't be afraid to speak up or tell a trusted adult. We're all in this together, and by working as a team, we can make the roads a safer place for everyone.Who's with me? Let's make road safety a priority and show the world that kids like us are serious about staying safe and keeping others safe too! It's the responsible thing to do, and it's just plain cool.篇6Road Safety: A Kid's Guide to Staying SafeHi there! My name is Tommy and I'm 9 years old. Today I want to talk to you about something really important – road safety. Whether you're walking, riding your bike, or riding in a car, there are lots of rules we need to follow to stay safe on the roads.Let's start with walking. Whenever you're walking near roads, you have to pay extra close attention. Before you cross a street, you need to stop at the curb and look left, right, and left again for any cars, trucks, or buses coming. Make sure to keep looking as you cross too in case a vehicle comes along. Only cross atcrosswalks or intersections where there are traffic lights or stop signs. Jaywalking is really dangerous!If there's a crossing guard around, make sure to obey them and only cross when they tell you it's safe. These grown-ups are there to help keep kids like us from getting hurt. And don't forget, you should also walk on the sidewalk whenever possible instead of in the road. If there's no sidewalk, walk as far away from traffic as you can.Now let's talk about bicycle safety! Bike riding is lots of fun, but you have to follow some very important rules. First, you absolutely need to wear a helmet every single time you ride your bike. Helmets can help prevent serious injuries if you fall off your bike or get into an accident. No exceptions!You should also make sure your bike is the right size for you and that the brakes work properly before you start riding. While you're on your bike, obey all the same traffic signs and signals that cars do. Stop at stop signs and red lights, use hand signals when you're going to turn, and ride on the right side of the road with traffic, not against it.It's also a good idea to make yourself as visible as possible by wearing bright or reflective clothing, especially if you'll be riding around at dusk or nighttime. Oh, and avoid anydistractions like listening to music or using your phone while biking. You need all your focus on the road!What if you're getting a ride in the car instead? Then you have to be a super safe passenger. Always wear your seatbelt - it can literally save your life if you get into a crash. If you're too small for the regular seatbelts, you'll need a booster seat. Don't ever take off your seatbelt while the car is moving, even for a second.You should also avoid bothering the driver or doing anything that could distract them from focusing on the road. That means no yelling, fighting with siblings, sticking things out the window, or climbing around in your seat. Just stay buckled in and behave so the driver can keep their eyes on the road and their hands on the wheel.So those are some of the most important road safety tips for kids to know! Whether you're walking, biking, or riding in the car, there are ways you need to act to protect yourself and others around you. Roads can be really dangerous places if we're not being careful.The rules might seem boring sometimes, but they exist for a really good reason. Every year, so many kids and adults get seriously injured or even killed in car accidents, bike crashes, orpedestrian incidents. We can't prevent every accident, but following the safety rules makes them much less likely to happen to you.It's up to all of us to do our part and be responsible when we're out on the roads. Pay attention, follow the rules, avoid distractions, and make safe choices. Let's work together to keep our roads safe for everyone!I'll leave you with a few key things to always remember:Look both ways before crossing streetsWear a helmet when bikingBuckle up in the carObey traffic signs and signalsAvoid distractionsStay aware of your surroundingsStay safe out there, and don't forget to remind your parents and loved ones about road safety too! The more people following the rules, the better.。
Causes of Road AccidentsRoad accident is most unwanted thing to happen to a road user, though they happen quite often. The most unfortunate thing is that we don't learn from our mistakes on road. Most of the road users are quite well aware of the general rules and safety measures while using roads but it is only the laxity on part of road users, which cause accidents and crashes. Main cause of accidents and crashes are due to human errors. We are elaborating some of the common behaviour of humans which results in accident.尽管道路交通事故经常发生,但道路交通事故是道路使用者最不希望发生的事情。
很不幸的是,我们没有从道路上发生的错误中学到东西。
大多数司机对使用道路时的一般规则和安全措施都非常清楚,但仅仅是部分司机的松懈,导致了事故和撞车事故。
事故和撞车的主要原因是人为错误。
我们会详细阐述人类的一些常见行为,这些行为会导致事故。
1.Over Speeding2.Drunken Driving3.Distractions to Driver4.Red Light Jumping5.Avoiding Safety Gears like Seat belts and Helmets6.Non-adherence to lane driving and overtaking in a wrong mannerVarious national and international researches have found these as most common behavior of Road drivers, which leads to accidents.1.超速2.酒后驾驶3.对驾驶员的干扰4.闯红灯5.避免使用安全带,头盔等安全装备6.不遵守车道驾驶和不规范超车国内外许多研究发现,这些是司机最常见的行为,这些都会导致事故。
关于交通安全英语作文带翻译The road and strips of vertical and horizontal in the city. And speeding cars on the road, but also for the city's busy, but, in this vibrant road, but there are a lot of people at the expense of life because of the traffic accident.Traffic accidents are often caused by human's do not obey the traffic rules. Traffic accidents can be avoided. As long as do not run a red light, crossing guardrails, speeding... And so on. Do this can avoid a lot of traffic accidents.Winter vacation, I do the bus to school. Found quite a few people in violation of the traffic accident, some in order to quickly reach the bus,don't walk "zebra crossing", inclined wearing the road; Some learn from comrade liu, whether it brutally, also don't see warnings on the guardrail, directly leap barriers, car passed from their side, very dangerous.On the bus, I found that some drivers drive careless: car didn't stop, the door opened the first; Or the door open, the gas has been on; Beside some drivers and people talking while driving. Who also don't see the full car slogan: for you and others safety, please don't chat with the driver! And the driver in order to catch time, gas be exploded. Left to play a round of right to play a round, make car and pirate ships have no difference.This example, there are too many people the confidence to oneself, little imagine, because too confident and traffic accidents often happen. Life is only once! Want to drive a car driver and the people walking on the road, pay attention to safety. Because life is more important than mount tai.马路,一条条的纵横在城市中。
2014届高三英语二轮精品卷:语法填空和完形填空(15)II. Grammar and vocabularySection A........Directions: After reading the passages below, fill in the blanks to make the passages coherent and grammatically correct. For the blanks with a given word, fill in each blank with the proper form of the given word; for the other blanks, use one word that best fits each blank.(A)The problem with much mobile technology is that it’s not really designed to be used while you’re actually mobile. The human brain can only pay attention to about three things at a time – and concentrate effectively on just one of them. Even though the consequences of smartphone distraction(注意力分散)are sometimes (25) _____ (amuse), they can also be serious.The number of children (26) _____ (admit) to hospitals after accidents in public playgrounds (27) _____ (climb) by about a third in five years, according to NHS data. Experts in both Britain and the US, (28) _____ a similar rise has occurred suggest some of the increase may be a result of parents being too distracted by their phones (29) _____ (take) care of their children properly.And now comes evidence showing that 11-year-old children are three times more likely to be hurt or seriously injured on the way to and from school than 10-year-olds, since 11 is the average age at which children receive their first mobile phone, six times more likely (30) _____ (send) a text when it happens.(31) _____ quarter of children surveyed admitted that they had been distracted by personal technology while crossing the road. “There is,” the report concluded, “a clear connection (32) _____ the use of technology and the time of serious accidents with children.”(B)Self care is necessary for our physical and mental health, yet often it’s the first thing we drop when we find ourselves (33) _____ (stretch) for time. While we’re on the subject of time, let’s talk about priorities. When we feel like we don’t have time to do something important, it is (34) _____ because we’re not making time or because our priorities are not what we actually need. Everything we do with our time is a choice. It (35) _____ feel like we “have to” do certain things, but, in reality, we have complete control over (36) _____ we spend our time.(37) _____ _____ _____ busy you are, you can fit self care into your schedule. Whether this means making it the first thing you do each morning, giving up TV or Facebook time, saying “no” to certain commitments, or potentially displeasing (38) _____, you can fit self care into your weekly routine (39) _____ _____ _____ you prioritize(优先考虑).Self care doesn’t have to involve a lot of money, nor does it require a lotof time. If you (40)_____ (struggle) to fit self care into your routine, start small, prioritize, and listen to your heart.Section BDirections:Complete the following passage by using the words in the box. Each wordit takes to be one?Take NASA for example.In order to catch NASA’s eye, would-be astronauts must not only stand out in required skills and pass physical and psychological exams, but also find unique ways to __41__ themselves from the harsh competition.NASA’s requirements for becoming an astronaut have changed over the years. Originally, it __42__ candidates with a military flight background, with at least 1,000 hours spent in command of a jet aircraft. In 1978, however, NASA __43__ its focus to a more varied group of astronauts: scientists and engineers with at least three years of experience in their respective fields.During the years of shuttle missions, everyone had a __44__: some would focus on robotics, others on spacewalks or maintenance. To work on the space station, astronauts must be able to perform all tasks, which encourage __45__ to acquire different experiences. Jeanette Epps, an astronaut, studied aerospace engineering, worked at Ford Motor Company and took a job with the CIA before joining NASA. She says astronauts’ varied backgrounds __46__ to their ability to adapt and learn anything quickly.After ensuring that candidates are U.S. citizens and that they satisfy __47__ education and experience requirements, the selection committee enters a gray area. “We’re not really looking for one thing, just a good mix of things,” said Duane Ross, the manager for astronaut candidate selection and training.To the committee, candidates who take on __48__ outside of the workplace demonstrate curiosity and energy. Many astronauts who don’t have a military background do hold a(n) __49__ piloting license. Some are enthusiastic mountain climbers, scuba divers or skiers. Others are musicians, dancers, or play competitive sports. Choosing to __50__ themselves to different, extreme environments counts as another way to stand out from the crowd.III. Reading ComprehensionSection ADirections: For each blank in the following passages there are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Fill in each blank with the word or phrase that best fits the context.In a society where many families are torn apart by divorce, and fast-paced modern life often causes parents to lose out on time with their children, the importance of cultivating healthy relationships between fathers and sons is __51__. The following tips maybe helpful.Learn to Talk to Your SonDo not __52__ face-to-face chats; instead, try talking while working on a project together. Watch for clues that he is __53__ to talk, as your son may feel more like talking after dinner rather than first thing in the morning. Be available at any hour, and let your son know it. Give your son verbal affirmation(肯定、认可), letting him know that he is loved and that you are __54__ to be his dad.Spend Time TogetherParents spend lots of time shuttling kids to practices, classes and various other activities. __55__, the quality time needed to build relationships is often lacking. How dads spend their time shows their sons what is most important to them. Whether playing pretend with preschoolers or taking a hike with a teenager, fathers are encouraged to __56__ activities that their sons find interesting.Set Boundaries (界限)__57__ discipline in a loving way shows sons that fathers __58__ care about their education and are concerned about __59__ their character. Fathers should teach their sons to be responsible for their behaviors and respect authority. Knowing the __60__ of their actions helps children control behavior and think before acting. Thus, it is better for fathers to guide their sons by setting clear expectations and reasonable __61__.Teaching Respectful BehaviorBy modeling respectful behavior, fathers demonstrate __62__ reactions and expression of feelings for their sons. Communicating positive emotions and controlling negative ones shows sons how to healthily __63__ their feelings. Fathers have the responsibility of teaching their sons to __64__ women and not view them as objects. This will help them foster healthy relationships in the future. Additionally, by showing respect toward the son's mother, a father not only sets the standard of __65__ behavior but also develops a sense of security and acceptance.51. A. apparent B. remarkable C. principal D. essential52. A. neglect B. force C. enjoy D. exchange53. A. curious B. active C. ready D. likely54. A. ashamed B. eager C. willing D. proud55. A. However B. Therefore C. Moreover D. Otherwise56. A. involve in B. hold on C. participate in D. insist on57. A. Debating on B. Devoting to C. Carrying out D. Complaining about58. A. critically B. flexibly C. deliberately D. genuinely59. A. recognizing B. shaping C. creating D. changing60. A. consequences B. reactions C. motivations D. procedures61. A. directions B. limits C. examples D. suggestions62. A. extreme B. passionate C. appropriate D. progressive63. A. convey B. ignore C. mix D. hide64. A. value B. overtake C. dominate D. inspect65. A. determined B. balanced C. deserved D. expected25. amusing 26. admitted 27. has climbed 28. where29. to take 30. to be sending 31. A 32. between 33. stretched 34. either 35. might 36. how37. No matter how 38. others 39. as long as 40. are struggling41-50 D K H J B F A I E G51-65 A B C D A C C D B A B C A A D。
Modeling Crossing Behavior and AccidentRisk of PedestriansGeorge Yannis 1;John Golias 2;and Eleonora Papadimitriou 3Abstract:This paper presents a methodology for modeling pedestrians’crossing behavior along an urban trip,as well as an algorithm for the estimation of accident risk along the trip.For that purpose,existing models are exploited and further developed.In particular,a nested logit model and a linear regression model are merged and adapted to develop a hierarchical crossing behavior model,allowing for the estimation of a distribution of crossing probabilities on an urban road link among junctions and various midblock locations.The explanatory variables concern a set of directly measurable geometric and traffic characteristics.A second model is then developed for the estimation of the distribution of crossing probabilities along a trip in relation to the distance from the trip origin.Both models were sufficiently validated by means of appropriate surveys.On the basis of these models,a complete framework for the assessment of pedestrians’crossing behavior in urban areas is developed.Moreover,a set of formulas for the calculation of accident risk along a trip in relation to the estimated crossing behavior of pedestrians is proposed.DOI:10.1061/͑ASCE ͒0733-947X ͑2007͒133:11͑634͒CE Database subject headings:Pedestrians;Probability;Accidents;Risk management;Traffic safety .IntroductionIn road accident analyses,it is usually considered that pedestri-ans’risk exposure when moving along network segments is equal to zero,which is quite realistic since “hit-along-roadway”acci-dents are in fact a minor percentage of pedestrians’accidents ͑Duncan et al.2002͒.On the contrary,pedestrians’risk exposure is important when moving across network segments,since there is significant interaction between vehicles’and pedestrians’flows.Previous research on pedestrians’safety in an urban environ-ment is extensive and ranges from accident analyses and model-ing to safety treatments evaluation.However,not many attempts of modeling pedestrians’crossing behavior have been made,probably because this behavior is strongly related to complex human factors.In contrast to vehicles flows,which are distributed along fixed corridors of the road environment and are subject to specific traffic rules,pedestrian flows are characterized by a sig-nificant degree of randomness ͑Mitchell and Smith 2001͒,so that one could consider that each individual’s trip is unique.However,a pedestrian’s need to balance the possibility of anaccident with the cost of waiting to cross the road and within the framework of social acceptance yields a nontrivial decision prob-lem,whose analysis may shed light on how humans value their time and their lives,how they perceive their environment,and how they interact with it ͑Manuszac et al.2005͒.Moreover,the difficulty to cross a street reflects an aspect of accessibility,which is equally important to pedestrians as to any other transportation mode ͑Crider et al.2001͒.Within this context,several studies were devoted to the inves-tigation of the impact of various roadway and traffic control features on the behavior and safety of pedestrians.The implemen-tation of signs prompting motorists to yield for pedestrians,in conjunction with advance stop lines and pedestrian-activated amber flashing lights,brought a positive safety effect at multilane crosswalks ͑Van Houten and Malenfant 1992͒.A positive effect was also associated with the construction of speed humps down-stream uncontrolled pedestrian crosswalks ͑Dixon et al.1997͒.The effectiveness of fluorescent strong yellow-green pedestrian warning signs in improving safety at midblock pedestrian cross-ing areas was also successfully evaluated ͑Clark et al.1996͒.Nee and Hallenbeck ͑2003͒identified significant changes in motorist and pedestrian movements,which mainly resulted from the con-struction of refuge islands.Keegan and O’Mahony ͑2003͒report a positive impact of timers ͑waiting countdown ͒on the number of pedestrians’illegal crossings at traffic controlled junctions.Hak-kert et al.͑2002͒evaluated the effects of a system for detecting pedestrians near the crosswalk zone and for warning drivers by means of flashing lights embedded in the pavement.A similar system,based on microwave pedestrian detectors mounted on traffic signals,also providing an earlier activation or an extension of the pedestrian stage,was evaluated in different sites and coun-tries ͑Carsten et al.1998͒.These results are very useful from a traffic engineering viewpoint;however,several authors noted that,despite the improvements of the road and traffic features creating a safer environment,the unsafe behavior of pedestrians was less affected ͑Hakkert et al.2002;Nee and Hallenbeck 2003͒.It is,therefore,necessary to further analyze the behavior of a1Assistant Professor,Dept.of Transportation Planning and Engineering,National Technical Univ.of Athens,5,Iroon Polytechniou Str.,GR-15773Athens,Greece.E-mail:geyannis@central.ntua.gr 2Professor,Dept.of Transportation Planning and Engineering,National Technical Univ.of Athens,5,Iroon Polytechniou Str.,GR-15773Athens,Greece.E-mail:igolias@central.ntua.gr 3Research Assistant,Dept.of Transportation Planning and Engineering,National Technical Univ.of Athens,5,Iroon Polytechniou Str.,GR-15773Athens,Greece.E-mail:nopapadi@central.ntua.grNote.Discussion open until April 1,2008.Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.To extend the closing date by one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on September 25,2006;approved on March 7,2007.This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation Engineering ,V ol.133,No.11,November 1,2007.©ASCE,ISSN 0733-947X/2007/11-634–644/$25.00.634/JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ©ASCE /NOVEMBER 2007D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .pedestrian,in order to better integrate it into the traffic features evaluations.Existing research on pedestrian movement and behavior mod-els allows for a general classification of the proposed approaches into two large groups:Microscopic simulation models and statis-tical and econometric models.Pedestrian movements are mainly simulated in cellular automata,through basic kinematics and traf-fic rules ͑Schaefer et al.1998;Blue and Adler 2001;Hoogen-doorn and Bovy 2002;Weifeng et al.2003͒.Moreover,another promising approach concerns multi-agent systems ͑Batty and Jiang 1999;Dijkstra et al.2001;Bierlaire et al.2003͒,which treat pedestrians as autonomous agents with vision,cognition,and learning capabilities,allowing for more complex interactions and dynamics to be modeled.Although simulation tools are advanta-geous as far as flexibility is concerned,they are mainly based on rather simple sets of rules and are usually focused on crowd dy-namics or route-finding models,hardly taking into consideration the crossing behavior of pedestrians.On the other hand,several interesting and crossing-behavior-specific approaches have been proposed within the framework of statistical models.In most of the cases,crossing behavior is con-sidered to be largely determined by the gap-acceptance theory,according to which each pedestrian has a critical gap to cross the street ͑Manuszac et al.2005,Hamed 2001͒.Another interesting,yet more limited approach for identifying crossing preferences concerns pedestrian level-of-service assessment models ͑Sarkar 1995;Baltes and Chu 2002;Guttenplan et al.2003͒.In addition,a promising approach is offered by discrete choice models,which correlate crossing decisions to a utility function ͑Chu et al.2003;Evans and Norman 1998;Hine and Russel 1993͒.Most of these researchers,although providing useful insight into different as-pects of pedestrians’behavior,are limited to a “local behavior”level,while behavior along an entire trip is seldom explored.Summarizing,there is a need for an overall approach on mod-eling pedestrian crossing decisions,investigating both where pe-destrians are more likely to cross ͑i.e.,crossing probabilities ͒and why ͑i.e.,the related determinants ͒,allowing for application along an entire trip and enabling a direct link to accident-risk analysis.These issues are examined in the present research and a modeling framework is proposed.Objectives and Methodology Background and Basic PrinciplesThe objective of this research is the detailed investigation of pe-destrians’crossing behavior in urban areas.In particular,this re-search aims to explore pedestrians’choice of a crossing locationfrom the various options along an urban road link and to identify the main related determinants.Furthermore,it attempts to extend the analysis and investigate pedestrians’crossing behavior along an entire trip.For that purpose,a classical statistical modeling approach is adopted,in order to achieve a sufficient level of de-tail.However,it is attempted to obtain modeling results that would be exploitable in a pedestrians’simulation framework,i.e.,that would enable the derivation of appropriate rules for the cross-ing behavior of pedestrians,both at road link and at trip level.A road link is defined,as in the usual traffic engineering sense,as a road segment between two junctions.Junctions may be traffic-light controlled or not,whereas other pedestrian facilities ͑e.g.,marked crosswalks ͒may be present at junctions or at mid-block.Moreover,a pedestrian trip is defined as a movement along a section including more than one road link,in which a crossing opportunity would be sought.Concerning the possible crossing options available to a pedes-trian moving along a road link,two options ͕J 1,J 2͖are consid-ered for junctions ͑one for each junction ͒and three options ͕a ,b ,c ͖for the midblock section.The midblock crossing options,in particular,are chosen to reflect the variation of traffic conditions within the midblock section perceived by a pedestrian.Conse-quently,the section downstream the first junction and the section upstream the second junction are considered to be two options ͑a and c ͒,as they correspond to vehicles accelerating from the first junction or decelerating towards the second junction,respectively,and these speed variations are perceived by pedestrians.Accord-ingly,a third midblock option ͑b ͒concerns the remaining inter-mediate section,which corresponds to the average cruise speed of all vehicles moving along the road link.According to the above,the decision making process as re-gards road crossing is considered to follow a two-level structure,as shown in Fig.1:Level 1:Junction or midblock?Level 2.1:If junction,which one?Level 2.2:If midblock,which section?In order to translate this hierarchical structure into a modeling framework,existing models are considered,exploited,and further developed.Merging a Nested Logit Model and a Linear Regression ModelNested Logit ModelWith reference to the first level of pedestrian crossing decisions ͑junction or midblock ͒,a nested logit model proposed by Chu et al.͑2003͒is exploited.In this study,a crossing scenario was presented to survey participants for soliciting their statedcrossingFig.1.Overview of the hierarchical crossing-behavior modelJOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ©ASCE /NOVEMBER 2007/635D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .preferences.The options available included two options for cross-ing at a junction and up to four options for crossing at a midblock location.Thus,the nested logit model developed has a two-level structure.The top level has two branches:Junctions ͑J ͒and mid-block locations ͑M ͒.The bottom level has two options in the junction branch ͑A ,E ͒and up to four options ͑B :Cross first and walk later,C :Jaywalk,D :Walk first and cross later,F :Use mid-block crosswalk ͒in the midblock branch.Most explanatory vari-ables concern the road street environment,so they can be directly measured for model applications.The calculation of probabilities also follows a two-level pro-cess.The utility U O for option O ͑O =A ,E ;B ,C ,D ,F ;I ,M ͒is defined as the sum of the products of all variable values with the corresponding coefficients.The probability of a crossing option being chosen is the product of its marginal and conditional choice probabilities.The marginal probability represents the probability of choosing junctions or midblock options.The conditional prob-ability represents the probability of choosing a particular crossing option once the choice has been made between junctions or mid-block options.The model is well behaved and consistent with utility maximi-zation.All parameter estimates are statistically significant and in-tuitive,and a satisfactory overall fit ͑adjusted 2=0.452is obtained ͒͑Chu et al.2003͒.Although the model follows the basic structure of the present analysis,an important limitation rises from the fact that the nested level for midblock includes options describing “how to cross,”rather than “where to cross.”On the other hand,the top level and the nested level for junctions are in full accordance with the proposed structure.Therefore,the meth-odology concerning the top level of the model can be applied in the present research for the “junction or midblock”pedestrian decision.Additionally,the junction options of the bottom level of the nested logit model can be exploited in the framework of the second level of the present research in the “which junction”investigation.Linear Regression ModelWith reference to the second level “which section at midblock”investigation,an existing linear regression model will be ex-ploited.In particular,Baltes and Chu ͑2002͒proposed a level of service estimation for midblock crossings based on pedestrians’perceived difficulty to cross ͑NCTR 2001͒.Crossing difficulty was explained to participants as the risk of being hit by a vehicle.Participants then rated the difficulty to cross at several midblock locations in a scale from 1to 6without actually crossing,after a 3min observation of traffic conditions.The ordinary least-squares ͑OLS ͒statistical method was used to develop a crossing difficulty model in relation to personal,roadway,crosswalks,and traffic control characteristics of each midblock location.All parameter estimates were found to be sig-nificant,and a reasonable overall fit ͑adjusted R 2=0.34͒was ob-tained ͑Baltes and Chu 2002͒.The OLS method was used under the assumption that the ranking is made on the entire ͑continuous ͒scale from 1to 6.Accordingly,by applying the model,one ob-tains continuous values of crossing difficulty.Modeling results can then be transformed to express a pedestrian level-of-service designation.Each variable-coefficient product may be interpreted as the contribution of each variable to the overall level of diffi-culty at a particular spot.However,in order to determine crossing behavior,one needs a mechanism to convert this predicted level of difficulty into a particular crossing probability.Consequently,a method was de-veloped within the present research,in order to transform thesemodeling results to crossing probabilities at various midblock lo-cations.If ͑n ͒crossing locations along a link are considered,the ratio of the perceived difficulty to cross ͑D i ͒at location ͑i ͒to the perceived difficulty to cross ͑D j ͒at location ͑j ͒reflects a relative crossing difficulty ͑RD ij ͒.By expressing all crossing difficulty values in relation to a crossing difficulty of reference ͑D r ͒,we obtain relative difficulty ratios among the ͑n ͒locations.The crossing difficulty of reference should be equal to the crossing difficulty of one of the ͑n ͒locationsRD ir =D i D r͑1͒Moreover,one can accept that the ratio of the probability ͑P i ͒to cross at location ͑i ͒to the probability ͑P j ͒to cross at location ͑j ͒is equal to the relative crossing difficulty between locations ͑i ͒and ͑j ͒.It is therefore possible to express all crossing probabili-ties in relation to a crossing probability of reference ͑P r ͒,which should be the probability that corresponds to the location adopted as difficulty of reference,and so:P i =RD ir ϫP rGiven that͚P i =1͚RD ir ϫP r =1ThereforeP r ͚RD ir =1P r =1͚RD ir͑2͒According to the above,the value of the crossing probability of reference ͑P r ͒can be calculated when all relative crossing difficulty ratios ͑RD ir ͒are known.All crossing probabilities at midblock can then be calculated on the basis of the crossing probability of reference.It should be noted that these probabi-lities correspond in fact to conditional probabilities of the mid-block options.In order to obtain the final crossing probabilities along the road link,for each crossing option the product ͑marginal probability ͒ϫ͑conditional probability ͒needs to be calculated.Development of a Generalized Crossing Probability Distribution along a TripIn order to model pedestrians’behavior along a trip including more than one road link,it would be necessary to account for the different weights that different links may have in the crossing preferences of a pedestrian.This parameter is less related to the traffic and geometry parameters of the road,making a section more likely to be chosen than another,and more related to the natural tendency of an individual to adopt a particular behavior in relation to the phase of a trip in which he or she is more likely to cross.In order to incorporate this parameter in the model,some fea-tures of the nested logit model are used.In particular,the mid-block options B ,C ,D ,and F of the nested logit model refer to a “how to cross”behavior and were not considered so far.The options B and D are considered to express the tendency of an individual to cross earlier or later along a link.Two utility func-636/JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ©ASCE /NOVEMBER 2007D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .tions correspond to these options.When isolating these two func-tions from the rest of the model,one can notice the following:When the walking distance is different for the two options,dif-ferent utilities are obtained.However,when the walking distance is the same for the two options,the same utilities are obtained,regardless of the value of the walking distance.It can,therefore,be considered that these “cross earlier or later”options of the nested logit model,although obtained through observations on a single road link,may also refer to a pedestrian trip along several urban road links.Therefore,consid-ering a trip of a given length ͑walking distance ͒,along a number of links,on which a pedestrian would have to cross,on the basis of the respective utility functions,one can calculate the following crossing probabilities:B :Cross first and walk later P =0.618D :Walk first and cross laterP =0.382Moreover,it can be considered that the probability B refers to the tendency of crossing at the very beginning of the trip and the probability D refers to the tendency of crossing towards the very end of the trip.By attributing these probability values to the start-ing point ͑0%of the total length ͒and the ending point ͑100%of the total length ͒of the trip,respectively,one can obtain a gener-alized probability distribution for choosing a crossing location along the trip in relation to the total trip distance.Another consideration may result by including the option C :Jaywalking in the model,as an expression of the general tendency to randomly cross at any location along the trip and could be attributed to correspond to the middle of the trip ͑50%of the total distance ͒.In this case,a more complex distribution of crossing probabilities would be obtained.On the basis of the above,a framework for the assessment of pedestrians’crossing behavior along a trip is proposed.Demon-strations of the methodology developed above,as well as results from model validation,are presented in the following sections.Models Demonstration and ValidationModeling Pedestrian Behavior along a Single-Road LinkIt was shown that by merging the pedestrians’crossing choice nested logit model and the pedestrians level-of-service linear regression model,all the levels of the proposed hierarchy of crossing decisions can be considered,and the related crossing probabilities can be estimated for a road link.Table 1shows the proposed hierarchical crossing behavior model,with the respec-tive variables and values.More specifically,the first column shows which model is used ͑nested logit or OLS ͒,the second column includes the respective explanatory variables,the third column describes the variables’definition ͑i.e.,measurement unit and scale ͒and the fourth column includes the parameter estimate for each variable ͑as obtained from the nested logit and OLS models ͒.The following columns correspond to the different crossing options of the different levels of the model,and a bullet is used to indicate which variables of which model are used for each crossing option of each level.In the proposed model,the initial decision ͑Level 1͒is made between junction ͑J ͒and midblock ͑MB ͒.A second ͑Level 2.1͒decision is made between the two junctions ͕J 1,J 2͖,whereas three options ͕a ,b ,c ͖are considered for midblock,each one cor-Table 1.Crossing Options,Variables,and Values of the Hierarchical Crossing-Behavior Model for a Single Road LinkModel VariableLevel Level 1Level 2Crossing optionDefinition Coefficient B C D F J MBJ1abcJ2LOGITConstant 1 1.000 2.208 1.727 1.388 2.233Walking distance m −0.011••••••Crossing distance m −0.009••••••O/D a both at midblock 1,0 1.572•O at midblock-D at junction1,00.842•Traffic volume veh/h 0.000••••Crosswalk marking 1,0 1.000••••••Traffic signal 1,00.750••Pedestrian signal1,01.235••Vi 0.759•Vm0.834•OLS Constant1−2.478•••Nears traffic vol 1,000veh/h −0.116•••Fars traffic vol1,000veh/h 0.267•••Speedkm/h 0.007•••Nears cros width m −0.280•••Fars cros width m 0.407•••Crosswalk 1,0−0.276•••Pedestrian signal 1,0−0.493•••Signal spacingm0.002•••Note:•values to be entered.aO/D:origin/destination.JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ©ASCE /NOVEMBER 2007/637D o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .responding to the respective sections presented above,i.e.,͑a ͒is the section downstream Junction 1;͑b ͒is the intermediate section,and ͑c ͒is the section upstream Junction 2.It should be noted that a number of variables’sensitivity tests were carried out for the initial model,resulting in a more flexible final model,which includes fewer variables.The methodology presented above can be applied to any urban road link,defined among two junctions.By entering the appropri-ate values in the nested logit model,the respective utilities are obtained and the marginal probabilities for crossing at junction or at midblock are estimated.Conditional probabilities are then es-timated for the junction options.It is noted that utilities for the midblock options of the initial nested logit model ͑B ,C ,D ,F ͒are included in the calculations only in order to obtain the related marginal probability;however,as explained in the previous sec-tion ͑A nested logit model ͒,their probabilities are not meaningful in this research.For each one of the midblock options,crossing difficulty is estimated on the basis of the level of service OLS model.By entering appropriate values for each variable at each location in the combined crossing difficulty model,the respective crossing difficulty is obtained.Relative crossing difficulties in relation to crossing difficulty of midblock option ͑a ͒as difficulty of refer-ence are then calculated.On the basis of the formulas presented above,the probability to cross at section ͑a ͒and then the prob-abilities at all other sections can be estimated.These probabilities correspond to the conditional probabilities of the midblock op-tions.An example of the use of the hierarchical crossing behavior model,including calculations of marginal,conditional,and finalcrossing probabilities,using indicative traffic and roadway vari-ables’values,is presented in Table 2.The nested logit and OLS models are used to calculate the various marginal and conditional probabilities,providing the final set of probabilities for all cross-ing options.It is shown that crossing probabilities are higher at junctions compared to midblock locations,and even higher at locations with pedestrian facilities ͑crosswalk markings,pedes-trian signal,etc.͒.Moreover,midblock locations close to the junc-tion areas correspond to higher crossing probabilities,while the pedestrian facilities of junctions appear to also affect the nearby midblock locations ͑e.g.,increased probability for option c ͒.Such results are demonstrated in Fig.2,where indicative crossing probabilities are estimated for each one of three consecu-tive road links,assuming that a pedestrian would have to pick a crossing option along these road links.Modeling Pedestrian Behavior along an Entire TripFrom the previous example,it was shown that the application of the hierarchical crossing behavior model on each one of three consecutive road links results to a uniform probability distribution along the trip ͑e.g.,as in Fig.1͒.According to the demonstration presented so far,all links along a pedestrian trip were considered to be equivalent,in the sense that no preference for a particular link was taken into account.For that purpose,parameters of the nested logit model ͑options B and D ͒were exploited to develop a generalized probability distribution along a pedestrian trip,in re-lation to trip length.The general ͑linear ͒formula of this distribu-tion is the following:P ͑x ͒=−0.00236x +0.618͑3͒Fig.2.Crossing probabilities ͑junctions and midblock ͒for three consecutive roadlinksFig.3.Crossing probability distribution along a tripD o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .A graphical representation is also given in Fig.3.In the above formula,the value x corresponds to the percentage of the total length of the trip.As mentioned in the previous section,a second,more complex consideration can be obtained by including options B ,C ,and D of the nested logit model,resulting in a “cross earlier-jaywalk-cross later”distribution.In this case,the general formula of the distri-bution would be nonlinear;more specifically,a parabolic curve would be considered.Within this research,the first,simpler con-sideration of the distribution is adopted and validation efforts are focused on this linear formula.The above proposed equation is generic and is considered to apply to any urban pedestrian trip.Considering then that each trip includes several links,the crossing probabilities of the various options within each link can be weighted in relation to the loca-tion of this option within the route.It should be noted that while the hierarchical crossing behavior model yields dependent ͑conditional ͒probabilities summing up to one for each road link,the final crossing probabilities,obtained as the product of crossing probabilities from the hierarchical model and the generalized distribution,produces independent ͑uncondi-tional ͒probabilities.It will be shown in the following section that such a consideration is often realistic,especially in relation to accident risk.However,it is a matter of the needs and assump-tions of each particular analysis to accept this;otherwise,these final probabilities can be rescaled.Table 3shows a complete example of modeling pedestrians’crossing behavior for a trip along three consecutive road links.The first two columns concern the results of the calculation of crossing probabilities for each crossing option of each road link,as obtained by using the hierarchical crossing-behavior model and the third column includes the rescaled figures,summing up to 1Table 3.Example of Calculation of Crossing Probabilities Distribution along a TripRoad link Single links Entire tripOption ProbabilitiesA Scaled probabilities As=A/totalA%trip distance B Generalizedprobability distribution C=−0.00236B+0.618Final probabilities D=A ϫC Scaled probabilities Ds=D/totalD1J110.3010.10000.6180.1860.123a10.0070.00230.6110.0040.003b10.0150.005110.5920.0090.006c10.0820.027190.5720.0470.031J210.5950.198220.5660.3370.2222J120.6320.211250.5590.3530.233a20.0820.027280.5520.0450.030b20.0640.021470.5070.0320.021c20.0910.030690.4540.0410.027J220.1310.044720.4480.0590.0393J130.2660.089750.4410.1170.078a30.0260.009780.4340.0110.007b30.0150.005860.4150.0060.004c30.0850.028970.3890.0330.022230.6080.2031000.3820.2320.153Total3.0001.000Total1.5141.000Fig.4.Final crossing probabilities ͑junctions and midblock ͒along a tripD o w n l o a d e d f r o m a s c e l i b r a r y .o r g b y U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i o n 11/18/13. C o p y r i g h t A S CE .F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .。