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List of acronymsCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CESCR Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural RightsCFS Committee on World Food SecurityCFS RAI CFS Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems COFI Committee on FisheriesDRC Democratic Republic of the CongoFAO Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United NationsFAPDA Food and Agriculture Policy Decision AnalysisFLA Forest Land AllocationFPIC Free, Prior and Informed ConsentFSN Food Security and NutritionGIAHS Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems InitiativeHLPE High Level Panel of ExpertsHRC Human Rights CouncilICARRD The Declaration of the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural DevelopmentICESCR International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural RightsICRAF World Agroforestry CentreIIED International Institute for Environment and DevelopmentILO International Labour OrganizationIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeMLRA Marine Living Resources ActNGO Non Governmental OrganizationsOHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human RightsRBC Red Book CertificateRTFG V oluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security (Right to FoodGuidelines)SOFA State of Food and AgricultureSOFI The State of Food Insecurity in the WorldSOFO State of the World’s ForestsSSF Guidelines V oluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty EradicationUN United NationsUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDRIP The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNSCN United Nations Standing Committee on NutritionUNSG United Nations Secretary-GeneralUNSR United Nations Special RapporteurVGGT V oluntary Guidelines on responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food securityWFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization。
CA常用词缩写集合CA常用词缩写集合A A ampere安(培)Angstrom unit(s)埃(长度单位，10-10米)abs．absolute绝对的abs．EtOH absolute alcohol无水乙醇abstr．abstract文摘Ac acetyl(CH3CO，not CH3COO)乙酰基a c alternating current交流电(流)Ac．H．acetaldehyde 乙醛AcOH acetic acid乙酸Ac2O acetic anhydride乙酸酐AcOEt ethyl acetate乙酸乙酯AcONa乙酸钠add additive 附加物addn addition加成，添加addnl additional添加的alc．alcohol，alcoholic醇aliph．aliphatic 脂族的Al．Hg．Aluminum amalgam铝汞齐alk．alkaline(not alkali)碱性的alky alkalinity(alhys．for alkalinities is not approved)碱度，碱性am amyl(not ammonium)戊基amorph amorphous无定形的amp ampere(s)安(培)amt．amount(as a noun)数量anal．analysis分析anhyd．anhydrous无水的AO atomic orbital原子轨(道)函数app．apparatus仪器，装置approx approximate(as an adjective)，approximately近似的，大概的approxn approximation近似法，概算aq．aqueous水的，含水的arom．aromatic芳族的as．asymmetric不对称的assoc．associate(s)缔合assocd associated缔合的assocn association缔合at．atomic(not atom)原子的atm atmosphere(s)，atmospheric大气压=1.01325×105帕A TP adenosine triphosphatae三磷酸腺苷酶at．wt．atomic weight原子量av．average(except as a verb)平均B b．(followed by a figure denoting temperature)boils at，boiling at(similarlyb13，at1.3mm，pressure)沸腾(后面的数字表示温度，同样b13表示在13毫米压力下沸腾)bbl barrel桶[液体量度单位=163.5升(英国)，=119升(美国)]BCC．body-centred cubic立方体心BeV or GeV billion electronvolts10亿电子伏，吉电子伏，109电子伏BOD biochemical oxygen demand生化需氧量μB Bohr magneton玻尔磁子[物]b．p．boiling point沸点Btu British thermal unit(s)英热单位=1055.06焦Bu butyl(normal)丁基bu．bushel蒲式耳=36.368升(英)=35.238升(美)Bz benzoyl(not benzyl)苯甲酰BzH benzaldehyde苯(甲)醛BzOH benzoic acid苯甲酸C C concentration浓度Cal．calorie(s)千卡，大卡=4186.8焦cal．卡=4.1868焦calc．calculate计算calcd calculated计算的calcg calculating计算calcn calculation计算CC cubic centimeter(s)立方厘米CD circurlar dichroism圆二色性(物)c．d．current density电流密度cf．参见compare比较cubic feet per minute立方英尺/分钟(1立方英尺=2.831685×10-2米3) chem．chemical(as an adjective)(not chemistry nor chemically)化学的Ci curie居里(放射单位)=3.7×1010贝可clin．clinical(ly)临床的cm centimeter(s)厘米CoA coenzyme A辅酶AC．O．D．chemical oxygen demand化学需氧量coeff．coefficient系数col．colour，coloration颜色com．commercial工业的，商业的，商品的comb．combustion燃烧compb．compound化合物，复合物compn．composition组成，成分conc．concentrate(as a verb)提浓，浓缩concd．concentrated浓的concg．concentrating浓缩(的)concn．concentration浓度cond conductivity导电率，传导性const．constant常数，常量contg containing包含，含有cor corrected校正的，改正的，正确的cp．constant pressure恒压C．P．Chemically pure化学纯的crit．critical临界的cryst．crystalline(not crystallize)结晶crystd crystallized使结晶crystg crystallizing结晶crystn crystallization结晶，结晶化cu．m．cubic meter(s)立方米Cv constant volume恒容D d density密度(d13 相对于水在4℃时的比重；d2020相对于水在20℃时的比重)D Debye unit德拜单位，电偶极矩单位d．dextrorotatory右旋(不译)dl-外消旋(不译)d．c．direct current直流电decomp．decompose(s)分解decompd decomposed分解的decompg decomposing分解decompn decomposition分解degrdn degradation降解deriv．derivative衍生物，导数(数)det．determine 测定detd determined 测定的detg determining测定detn determination 测定diam．diameter直径dil．dilute稀释，冲淡dild diluted稀释的diltg diluting稀释diln dilution稀释diss．dissolves，dissolved溶解dissoc dissociate(s)离解dissocd．dissociated 离解的dissocn dissociation 离解dist．distil．distillation 蒸馏distd distilled蒸馏的distg distilling 蒸馏distn distillation蒸馏dl分升dm．decimeter(s)分米DMF dimetbylformamide二甲基甲酰胺DNase deoxyribonuclease脱氧核糖核酸酶d．p．degree of polymerization聚合度dpm disintegrations per minute分解量/分钟DTA differential thermal analysis 差热分析E E．D．effective dose有效剂量EEG electroencephalogram脑电流描记术e．g．for example例如elec electric，electrical(not electrically)电的e．m．f．electromoctive force电动势e．m．u．electromagnetic unit电磁单位en．ethylenediamine(used in formulas only)乙二胺equil equilibrium(s)平衡equiv．equivalent当量，克当量esp．especially 特别，格外est．estimate(as a verb)估计estd estimated估计的estg estimating估计estn estimation估计Et ethyl乙基Et2O ethyl ether乙醚η viscosity粘度eV electron volt(s)电子伏[特]evac．evacuated抽空的evap．evaporate蒸发evapd evaporated 蒸发的evapg evaporating蒸发evapn evaporation蒸发examd examined检验过的，试验过的examg examining检验，试验examn examination检验，试验expt．experiment(as a noun)实验exptl experimental实验的ext．extract提取物，萃，提取extd extracted提取的extg extracting提取extn extraction 提取F F farad法[拉](电容)fcc face centered cubic面心立方体fermn fermentation发酵f．p．freezing point冰点，凝固点FSH follicle-stimulating hormone促卵泡激素ft．foot，feet 英尺=0.3048米ft-lb foot-pound 英尺磅=0.3048米×0.453592千克G g.gram(s)克gal gallon加仑=4.546092升(英)=3.78543升(美)geol.geological地质的gr.grain(weight unit)谷(1谷=1/7000磅=0.64799克) H h hour小时H henry亨[利]ha.hectare(s)公顷=6.451600×10-4米2homo-均匀-，单相h hour小时hyd.hydrolysis，hydrolysed水解Hz hertz(cycles/sec)赫[兹]，周/秒I ID infective dose无效剂量in.inch(es)英寸=0.0254米inorg.incrganic无机的insol.insoluble不溶的IR infrared红外线irradn irradiation照射iso-Bu，isobutyl异丁基iso-Pr，isopropyl异丙基IU国际单位J J joule焦[耳](能量单位)K K kelvin开[尔文]，绝对温度Kcal.kilocalorie(s)千卡=418.6焦kg kilogram(s)千克kV kilovolt(s)千伏kV-amp.kilovolt-ampere(s)千伏安kW.kilowatt(s)千瓦kWh kilowatthour 千瓦小时=3.6×106焦L l.liter(s)升boratory实验室lb pound(s)磅=0.453592千克LCAO linear combination of atomic orbitals原子轨道的线性组合LD Lethal dose致死剂量LH Luteinizing hormone促黄体发生激素liq.liquid液体，液态Lm lumen流明(光通量单位)LX lux勒[克斯](照度单位)M m.meter(s)；also(followed by a figure denoting temperature)米，熔融(注明温度时) M.mega-(106)兆M molar(as applied to concn.)摩尔m.melts at，melting at熔融m molal摩尔的ma milliampere(s)毫安manuf.manufacture制造manufd manufactured制造的manufg.manufacturing制造math.mathematical数学的max maximum(s)最大值，最大的Me methyl(MeOH,methanol)甲基mech.mechanical机械的metab.metabolism新陈代谢m.e.v million electron volts兆电子伏mg milligram(s)毫克mi mile英里=1609.344米min minimun[also minute(s)]最小值，最小的min minute分钟misc miscellaneous其它mixt.mixture混合物ml milliliter(s)毫升mm millimeter(s)毫米nm millimicron(s)纳米MO molecular orbital分子轨道函数mol molecule，molecular分子，分子的mol.wt.molecular weight分子量m.p.melting point熔点mph miles per hour英里(=1609.344米)/小时μ micron(s)微米mV millivolt(s)毫伏N N newton牛[顿](力的单位)N normal(as applied to concn.)当量(浓度)neg.negative(as an adjective)阴性的，负的no number号，数O obsd observed观察，观测anic有机的oxidn oxidation氧化oz．ounce盎司(常衡=28.349523克)P P．d．potential difference势差，电位差Pet．Et．petroleum ether石油醚Ph．phenyl苯基phys．physical物理的physiol．physiological生理学的p．m．post meridiem午后polymd polymerized聚合polymg polymerizing聚合ploymn polymerization聚合pos．positive(as an adjective)阳性的，正的powd．powdered粉末的，粉状的p．p.b．(ppb)parts per billion亿万分之(几)p.p.m．(ppm)parts per million百万分之(几)ppt．precipitate沉淀，沉淀物pptd．precipitated沉淀出的pptg．precipitating沉淀pptn precipitation沉淀Pr propyl (normal)丙基prac．practically实际上prep．prepare制备press．pressure压力prepd prepared制备的prepg preparing制备prepn preparation制备psi pounds per square inch磅/英寸2[=0.453592千克/(6．45100×10-4米2)] psia pounds per square inch alsolute磅/英寸2(绝对压力)pt pint品脱(=0.5682615升)purifn purification精制py pyridine(used only in formulas)吡啶Q qt．quality质量qual.qualitative(not qualitatively)定性的quant．quantitative(not quantitatively)定量的γ希文，消旋(不译)R red．reduce，还原red reduction还原，减小ref．reference 参考文献rem roentgen equivalent man人体伦琴当量，雷姆rep roentgen equivalent physical物理伦琴当量repr.reproduction再生产，再生res.resolution分辨，分解，离析resp.respectively分别地rpm revolution per minute每分钟转数RNase ribonuclease核糖核酸酶S sapon.saponification皂化sapond saponified皂化过的sapong saponifying皂化sat.saturate使饱和satd.saturated饱和的satg saturating饱和的satn.saturation饱和，饱和度sec second(s)秒，仲，第二的sep.separate分离sepd separated分离出的sepg separating分离的sepn separation分离sol.soluble可溶的soln solution溶液soly solubility(solys.for solubilities is not approved)可溶性，溶解度sp.gr.specific gravity比重sp.ht.specific heat比热sp.vol.specific volume比容std. standard标准suppl. supplement补篇sym. symmetrical对称的T tech. technical技术的temp. temperature温度tert. Tertiary叔(指CH3…C(CH3)2—型烃基)thermodyn. Thermodynamics热力学titrn titration滴定U unsym. unsymmetrical偏，不对称U. V. ultraviolet紫外线V V volt(s)伏[特]vac.vacuun真空vapor vaporization汽化vol.volume (not volatile)体积vs versus对W W.watt(s)瓦[特] wt.weight重量wk week星期。
【技术专区】PFOA，PFOS，APEO分别是什么？PFOAPFOA代表全氟⾟酸及其含铵的主盐，或称为“C8”，是纺织品“三防整理剂”的重要原料。
全氟⾟酸及其盐也是⼀个难以降解的有机污染物，它在环境中具有⾼持久性，随着时间的推移，它同样会在环境中聚集和在⼈体及动物组织中强烈累积，既会进⼊⾷品链中，⼜对⼈体健康和环境会较长时间的产⽣潜在的危险。
不过EPA要对它禁⽤或限⽤要需要更多的科学资料来进⾏危险评估；欧盟迄今也未对全氟⾟酸明确表态；但⽬前世界上不少纺织品公司和品牌纺织品销售商都已接受了全氟⾟酸及其盐对⼈体和环境存在潜在危险的看法，在⾃⼰的化学品限制条款中明确禁⽤全氟⾟酸及其盐，即：要求检测不出全氟⾟酸及其盐。
PFOSPFOS全称为全氟⾟烷磺酰基化合物(C8F17SO2X)，是perfluorooctanesulphonate的英⽂缩写，PFOS主要应⽤于、防油剂、防尘剂、杀⾍剂、表⾯活性剂、抗雾剂等，是纺织品和⽪⾰制品防污处理剂的主要活性成分，⼴泛应⽤于民⽤和⼯业产品⽣产领域。
PFOS的持久性极强，是最难分解的有机污染物，在浓硫酸中煮⼀⼩时也不分解。
据有关研究，在各种温度和酸碱度下，对全氟⾟烷磺酸进⾏⽔解作⽤，均没有发现有明显的降解；PFOS在增氧和⽆氧环境都具有很好的稳定性，采⽤各种微⽣物和条件进⾏的⼤量研究表明，PFOS没有发⽣任何降解的迹象。
唯⼀出现PFOS分解的情况，是在⾼温条件下进⾏的焚烧。
欧盟正式全⾯禁⽌PFOS在商品中的使⽤，⾸先受到影响的将是纺织、⽪⾰等⽣产产品的出⼝企业。
因为PFOS在纺织业中存在范围最⼴，任何需要印染以及后整理的纺织品都需经过前处理洗涤，另外如抗紫外线、抗菌等功能性后整理所使⽤的助剂也可能含有PFOS，该指令的实施将直接影响我国纺织品、⽪⾰、造纸、包装、印染助剂、化妆品等产品的出⼝。
APEOAPEO中包括：①壬基酚聚氧⼄烯醚（NPEO）：占80~85%；②⾟基酚聚氧⼄烯醚（OPEO）：占15%以上；③⼗⼆烷基酚聚氧⼄烯醚（DPEO）：占1%；④⼆壬基酚聚氧⼄烯醚（DNPEO）：占1%。
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier.The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use,including for instruction at the authors institutionand sharing with colleagues.Other uses,including reproduction and distribution,or selling or licensing copies,or posting to personal,institutional or third partywebsites are prohibited.In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of thearticle(e.g.in Word or Tex form)to their personal website orinstitutional repository.Authors requiring further informationregarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies areencouraged to visit:/copyrightThe occurrence of per fluorinated alkyl compounds in human milk from different regions of ChinaJiaying Liu a ,b ,Jingguang Li a ,⁎,Yunfeng Zhao a ,Yuxin Wang a ,Lei Zhang a ,Yongning Wu a ,⁎a National Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety,Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention,No.29,Nanwei Road,Beijing,100050,China bChaoyang District Center for Disease Control and Prevention,No.25,Huaweili,Beijing,100021,Chinaa b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 22December 2009Accepted 12March 2010Available online 18April 2010Keywords:Per fluorinated compounds Human milkBreastfeeding infant Dietary intakePer fluorinated compounds (PFCs),especially per fluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)and per fluorooctanoate (PFOA),are known to occur throughout the environment and in the human population (Houde et al.,2006).The occurrence of PFCs in human umbilical cord blood and human milk,coupled with the potential developmental toxicity of PFCs,suggests the need for determining the exposure sources and magnitudes of PFCs in infants.In this study,10PFCs were measured in 24pooled samples consisting of 1237individual human milk samples.The samples were collected from 12provinces of China in 2007.PFOS and PFOA were the predominant PFCs found in all the samples tested.The geometric mean (GM)and median of the concentrations were 46pg/mL and 49pg/mL for PFOS,46pg/mL and 34.5pg/mL for PFOA respectively.A large variation in geographical distribution was observed for PFCs in human milk.High concentrations of PFOA (814pg/ml for the rural samples and 616pg/ml for the urban samples)were found in human milk from Shanghai.Estimated dietary intakes (EDI)were established and the median,GM and the highest EDI of the total PFCs were 17.2ng/kg/d,17.8ng/kg/d and 129.1ng/kg/d respectively.The EDI for PFOA (88.4ng/kg/d)for Shanghai was close to the tolerable daily intake (100ng/kg/d)proposed by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment and the Drinking Water Commission.The results suggest both mothers and infants have a high exposure to PFCs in the Shanghai region.The potential health impact of postnatal exposure through breastfeeding to infants should therefore be comprehensively evaluated.©2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionPer fluorinated compounds (PFCs)have been produced industrially for several decades.Their unique characteristics (hydrophobicity and lipophobicity)make them useful in a wide range of industrial and commercial products such as surfactants,lubricants,paints,polishes,fire retardants and food packaging (Hekster et al.,2003;Lehmler,2005).Due to their widespread distribution and persistence in the environment,the health concerns arising from these compounds,especially per fluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)and per fluorooctanoate (PFOA),have increased (Giesy and Kannan,2001;Houde et al.,2006).Mean serum elimination half-lives were 5.4years for PFOS;3.8years for PFOA;8.5years for per fluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS).These figures were obtained from retired fluorochemical production work-ers (Olsen et al.,2007).In May 2009,PFOS and per fluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride were listed as “restricted use ”compounds in Annex B under the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (Stockholm Convention on POPs,2009).As infants and foetus are generally regarded as more vulnerable than adults are to the potential harmful effects of chemicals,the develop-mental effects in relation to PFOA and PFOS have increasingly raised concerns.So far,most toxicological studies on developmental effects associated with PFCs have been conducted on rodents.Developmental toxicity is thought to be one of the most sensitive adverse effects associated with PFOA exposures in rodents (Rodriguez et al.,2009).PFHxS did not show the reproductive or developmental toxicity with doses up to 10mg/kg/d (Butenhoff et al.,2009).The developmental toxicity in laboratory animals was shown at much higher doses than those seen in human sera and blood.However,in some recent epidemiological studies,PFOS and PFOA concentrations in umbilical cord blood or maternal pregnancy serum were associated with human birth weight and other anthropometric measurements (Apelberg et al.,2007;Fei et al.,2007;Washino et al.,2009).Moreover,according to the initial findings of a study of 69,000people who live near a PFCs manufacturing plant in Washington,West Virginia,elevated PFOA levels in children were associated with high cholesterol levels,predisposing children to future weight problems and higher risk of heart disease (Steenland et al.,2009).Transplacental exposure to the foetus and postnatal exposure to PFCs through breastfeeding have been con firmed in humans (Apelberg et al.,2007;Inoue et al.,2004;Karrman et al.,2007;Monroy et al.,2008;Environment International 36(2010)433–438⁎Corresponding authors.Li is to be contacted at Tel./fax:+861083132933.Wu,Tel./fax:+861067776790.E-mail addresses:lichrom@ (J.Li),wuyncdc@ (Y.Wu).0160-4120/$–see front matter ©2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.envint.2010.03.004Contents lists available at ScienceDirectEnvironment Internationalj o u r n a l h o me p a g e :w w w.e l s ev i e r.c om /l o c a t e /e n v i n tSo et al.,2006;Tao et al.,2008a,b).Although PFCs are strongly bound to the proteins in maternal blood which limits the possibility of PFCs occurring in breast milk,several PFCs were found in human milk from some countries at lower concentration than those in maternal blood.In a Swedish study,PFOS concentration in human milk samples was on average two orders of magnitude lower than its concentration in the serum of the same donors(Karrman et al.,2007).Due to a lack of data, it is impossible to perform a reliable estimation of the ratio of PFOA concentration in human milk and serum samples from the same donors. However,it appears that the levels of PFOA in human milk could be at least an order of magnitude lower than those in serum(EFSA,2008).On a body mass basis,infants may be subjected to proportionately higher levels of certain chemicals than adults are.The exposure occur-ring earlier in life may predispose infants to a greater risk of chronic toxic effects than exposure occurring at a later stage in life(Landrigan et al., 2002).Traditional approaches to health risk assessment need to be expanded to encompass those factors and adequately protect infants. However,there is only limited data on the residual levels of PFCs in human milk that is required for a comprehensive risk assessment.To characterise the occurrence and geographical variations of PFCs in human milk in China,24pools of human milk samples were obtained from1237individuals from12provinces of China.Concentrations of10 PFCs were determined from the sample pools.The daily intake of PFCs by breastfeeding infants were estimated as basis for the purpose of risk assessment.2.Materials and methods2.1.Human milk samples collectionIn2007,1237individual human milk samples were collected from 12provinces of China including Heilongjiang,Liaoning,Hebei,Henan, Shanxi,Ningxia,Jiangxi,Fujian,Shanghai,Hubei,Sichuan and Guangxi as shown in Fig.1.Population of the provinces involved in this study accounts for approximately50%of the population of China.The criteria and approach for donor selection and sampling human milk were based on the“Guidelines for Developing a National Protocol”of the Fourth WHO-Coordinated Survey of Human milk for Persistent Organic Pollutants in Cooperation with UNEP(WHO,2007).In each province,50donors from one urban site and50–60donors from two rural sites were selected.All the mothers were primiparous.A questionnaire was completed in a face-to-face interview with each mother.The mother's information included date of birth,place of birth, residence record,dietary habits and occupation before pregnancy. Mothers who donated breast milk were fully informed of the nature and purpose of the study and then signed consent forms.The sampling was conducted from August to November in2007. For each mother,approximately50mL breast milk was collected under supervised conditions at local contact centres.The samples were collected in polypropylene jars,pre-cleaned with methanol and Milli-Q water.The individual samples were then stored at−20°C until the analysis.Before analysis,the individual samples were thawed at ambient temperature and pooled according to their collection regions. For each province,the individual samples from the urban areas and the rural areas were pooled separately resulting in24pooled human milk samples.2.2.ChemicalsThe standard solution containing perfluoropentanoic acid(PFPeA), perfluorohexanoic acid(PFHxA),perfluoroheptanoic acid(PFHpA), perfluorooctanoic acid(PFOA),perfluorononanoic acid(PFNA),per-fluorodecanoic acid(PFDA),perfluoroundecanoic acid(PFUdA)and the standard solution containing perfluorohexanesulfonate(PFHxS),per-fluoroheptanesulfonate(PFHpS)and perfluorooctanesulfonate(PFOS) were supplied by Wellington Laboratories(Guelph,Canada).The internal standard solution containing perfluoro-n-(1,2,3,4-13C4)octa-noic acid(13C4-PFOA)and perfluoro-1-(1,2,3,4-13C4)octanesulfonate (13C4-PFOS)were also supplied by Wellington Laboratories.High performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)grade methanolwasFig.1.Sampling provinces in China.434J.Liu et al./Environment International36(2010)433–438supplied by J.T.Baker(Phillipsburg,USA).Milli-Q water was used throughout the study.HPLC grade ammonium acetate and formic acid were purchased from Dikma Pure(Richmond Hill,USA).Analytical grade ammonium hydroxide(25%)was supplied by Xin Guang(Beijing, China).2.3.Extraction and instrumental analysisThe human milk samples were extracted using the method described elsewhere(Liu et al.,2008).Briefly,100pg of13C4-PFOA and100pg of13C4-PFOS as internal standards and8mL2%formic acid in water were added into2mL human milk.After sonication and centrifugation,the supernatant was transferred to the60mg/3mL Oasis WAX cartridges(Waters,Milford,USA)preconditioned with 2mL methanol and2mL water.The cartridges were then washed with1mL2%formic acid in water and1mL2%aqueous formic acid solution/methanol(50:50).The target analytes were eluted by2mL 9%ammonium hydroxide in methanol which was evaporated to dryness,then methanol/water(50:50)was added to afinal volume of 200μL.The particles in thefinal solution were removed byfiltration using nylon syringefilter(Sartorius,Goettingen,Germany).Analytes were separated and quantified using an ultra-perfor-mance liquid chromatography system coupled to a triple quadrupole MS system(Quattro Premier,Waters,Milford,USA).A20μL aliquot of the sample extract was injected with a full loop injection into a 2.1×50mm BEH C18column(1.7µm;Waters,USA).A gradient of 2mM aqueous ammonium acetate solution and methanol were used as mobile phases at aflow rate of0.4mL/min.The triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer was operated in the negative electrospray mode with multiple-reaction-monitoring(MRM).The mass transition for each analyte is list in Table1.2.4.Quantification and quality assuranceAll the solutions and reagents used in the study were tested for contamination before use,those with the lowest contamination levels then used in the study.Before extraction,the tubes and containers were washed with methanol.The vessels of liquid chromatography system were rinsed with methanol for half an hour before sample runs.Procedural blank analysis was conducted using Milli-Q water for each batch of samples.The quantification of analytes was performed using13C labeled internal standards.13C4-PFOA was used for perfluoroalkylcarboxylic acids and13C4-PFOS was used for perfluoroalkylsulfonates.System linearity was evaluated using six different concentrations covering the range from50pg/mL–5000pg/mL.The LODs shown in Table1 were higher value of either the signal-to-noise ratio of three(S/N=3) or the average blank signal plus three times the standard deviation in chromatograms of sample extracts from blank bovine milk.The recovery test was conducted by analysing blank bovine milk samples spiked with each analyte at a concentration of100pg/mL.Analyte recovery is detailed in Table1.The intra-day relative standard deviation (RSD)offive spiked human milk samples was between5%and13%and inter-days RSD(n=4)over a period of3weeks was between5%and 33%.2.5.Estimated dietary intake of PFCs for infantsThe estimated dietary intakes(EDI)of PFCs for breastfeeding infants in China were calculated on the basis of PFC levels in human milk and the average infant daily consumption data(742mL/day) given in the U.S.EPA(EPA,2002)and a body mass of6kg(Tao et al., 2008b).Concentration below the LOD was assigned a value equal to the LOD divided by the square root of2(Calafat et al.,2007;Hornung and Reed,1990).3.ResultsOf the10PFCs analysed,6PFCs were found above the detection limit with varying frequency of detection in the samples.The highest frequencies of detection were obtained from PFOS(100%)and PFNA(100%)followed by PFOA(87.5%),PFDA(87.5%), PFHxS(83%)and PFUdA(83%).The concentrations of the6PFCs detected in the24 pooled samples are detailed in Table2.Generally,PFOS and PFOA were the pre-dominant PFCs found in all the samples.The geometric mean(GM)and median concentration of PFOA were46pg/mL and34.5pg/mL respectively with a range from b LOD to814pg/mL.The GM and median concentration of PFOS were46pg/mL and 49pg/mL respectively with a range from6pg/mL to137pg/mL.PFUdA was another PFC with a high concentration in the samples,especially in samples from Shanghai in which the concentrations of PFUdA(196pg/mL for rural areas and78pg/mL for urban areas)were even higher than those of PFOS(100pg/mL for rural areas and74pg/mL for urban areas).PFHxS,PFDA and PFNA were found at low concentrations with little variation in all the samples except for the samples from Shanghai.The total con-centrations of6PFCs ranged from26pg/mL to1252pg/mL with a GM concentration of 140pg/mL and a median of133pg/mL.The Spearman's correlation test showed that concentrations of all PFCs were significantly correlated(p b0.01)with each other in all the pooled samples except for the correlation between concentration of PFHxS,PFOA and PFDA(p b0.05).There was no significant difference in concentrations for any of the PFCs between rural and urban sample pairs(t test,p N0.05).4.DiscussionAs shown in Table2,both concentration levels and composition profiles of PFCs in human milk suggested the large variation in the geographical distribution of human exposure to PFCs,specifically PFOS, PFOA and PFUdA,within China.For PFOS,the highest concentration was found in human milk from Liaoning,this was more than10times higher than that from Ningxia,which had the lowest concentrations of all the PFCs.While,for perfluoroalkylcarboxylic acids(PFCAs)such as PFOA and PFUdA,the highest concentrations were found in human milk samples from Shanghai region.Generally,the highest PFC concentra-tions were found in human milk from the provinces with a relatively high level of economic development and industrialisation such as Shanghai and Liaoning.The lowest concentrations of PFCs were obtained from Ningxia which is one of the least developed provinces within China.A similar relationship between PFCs levels in human milk and industrial development was previously described by Tao et al.who found that the concentrations of PFOS in human milk from countries with high gross domestic product(GDP)were higher than those in countries with a low GDP(Tao et al.,2008b).The significantly high concentration and proportion of PFOA in human milk from Shanghai were found in this study.In samples from Shanghai,the concentrations of PFOA highlighted in Table2were about 8times higher than that of PFOS,while in other provinces,these two PFCs had considerable concentrations.Currently there is only a limited amount of data comparing the concentration of PFCs in human milk (Bernsmann and Furst,2008;Karrman et al.,2007;So et al.,2006;Tao et al.,2008a,b;Volkel et al.,2008).From comparison of these studies,the high levels of PFOA in human milk found in Shanghai have never been observed elsewhere,with the exception of a previous investigation fromTable1Mass transition,limit of detection(LOD)for selected PFCs and the results of recovery test for spiked cow's milk.Compound Masstransition LOD(pg/mL)Mean recovery(n=5)100pg/mL RSD(%)PFHxS399→800.69114%7 PFHpS449→80 3.77110%7 PFOS499→80 1.5496%6 PFPeA263→219 5.50136%5 PFHxA313→269 2.9199%10 PFHpA363→319 2.9895%13 PFOA413→36914.15110%5 PFNA463→419 5.4698%6 PFDA513→469 1.44102%11 PFUdA563→519 1.3057%6435J.Liu et al./Environment International36(2010)433–43812German pooled human milk samples that was thought to be an extremely high level and an unusual distribution of PFCs (EFSA,2008;Suchenwirth et al.,2006).The PFOA level in human milk from Shanghai was even higher than that from the North Rhine –Westphalian (NRW)Sauerland area in Germany where,highly PFOA contaminated industrial waste was mixed into a soil improver and spread on agricultural land resulting in highly contaminated drinking water (Bernsmann and Furst,2008).The mean PFOA levels in human milk from some recent studies are compared in Fig.2.Additionally,the concentrations of other PFCAs in human milk from Shanghai were higher than those found in other studies (Karrman et al.,2007;So et al.,2006;Tao et al.,2008a,b ).This is especially true for PFUdA,which has the second highest concentration among PFCs.The higher concentration of PFOS in human milk fromLiaoning is in agreement with the results for PFOS in human blood from nine cities within China (Yeung et al.,2006).In that study,the highest concentration of PFOS was obtained from Shenyang,the capital of Liaoning.In general,the concentration of PFOS in human milk from Liaoning was at a lower concentration than that from Japan (Tao et al.,2008b ),Sweden (Karrman et al.,2007)and Hungary (Volkel et al.,2008)and comparable to studies from Germany (Volkel et al.,2008),USA (Tao et al.,2008a ),Zhoushan in China (So et al.,2006)and some other Asian countries (Tao et al.,2008b ).The concentrations of PFOS in human milk from other provinces of China were at lower levels with moderate variation.The signi ficantly higher concentration of PFOA in human milk from Shanghai suggests that human exposure to PFOA is high in that area.In a very recent study,strikingly high levels and proportions of PFOA were found in tap water in the Shanghai region (Mak et al.,2009).High concentrations of PFOA were also reported in water samples from the Yangtze River which is the major source of water for agriculture,industry and drinking water for the population of the Shanghai region (So et al.,2007).Shanghai is one of the most industrially developed areas in China.A large number of factories exist in that area including fluoropolymer manufacturing facilities.Recently,high levels of PFOA were found in the serum of workers in a facility in Changshu which is near to Shanghai (EPA,2009).Results from our previous study indicate that the high proportion of PFOA found in human blood may be associated with the industrial discharge of PFOA from fluorochemical manufacturing plants (Liu et al.,2009).The high concentration of PFCs,especially PFOA,in human milk from Shanghai may be attributed to the local production and usage of a number of products containing PFCs.Dietary intake is an important pathway for human exposure to PFCs in adults (Fromme et al.,2009).A comprehensive review on PFC exposure for the general population in Western countries estimated the overall daily intake of PFOS and PFOA from indoor air,outdoor air,house dust,diet and drinking water.The dietary intake accounted for 91%(PFOS)and 99%(PFOA)respectively (Fromme et al.,2009).Since human milk is a primary source of food and water for 0–6month old breastfeeding infant,breastfeeding could be an important postnatal exposure pathway for infants.Table 2The numbers of mothers,average ages (years)and concentrations (pg/mL)of PFCs in each pooled samples.Regions NumberAverage age (range)PFHxS PFOS PFOA PFNA PFDA PFUdA ∑PFCs HLJ a R 5226(21–30)5403713419115bU 5025(20–34)4402514726111LN R 6026(20–31)151378719625287U 5027(20–35)1411918520934381HeB R 6028(21–35)645b LOD 85872U 4025(19–35)7679419836230HN R 6028(21–35)b LOD 27351251391U 5024(20–30)63229951690SHX R 4027(21–35)428266b LOD b LOD 66U 5026(19–34)327187 3.4b LOD 51NX R 6025(20–35)b LOD 6b LOD 6b LOD b LOD 26U 5022(18–29)b LOD 16b LOD 6b LOD b LOD 36HuB R 6026(19–30)6822119941175U 5025(20–30)6447416929174JX R 4024(18–33)6533413622129U 5024(18–30)45558171347193SHH R 6027(23–35)610081476631961252U 5027(21–35)474616402578836SCH R 5524(20–29)b LOD 2022831567U 5025(20–30)543667415137FJ R 4026(21–29)7947815634232U 5024(18–29)6607617945213GXR 6028(23–34)455189323100U5025(18–35)8792212530155Bold data signi fies the high concentrations of PFOA in human milk from Shanghai.aRural area.bUrbanarea.Fig.2.The comparison of mean PFOA levels in human milk from different studies.436J.Liu et al./Environment International 36(2010)433–438The EDI range of PFOS was from1.4ng/kg/d(Ningxia)to15.9ng/kg/d (Liaoning).The EDI of PFOA by breastfeeding infants in Shanghai was 88.4ng/kg/d that was approximately16times higher than the median value(5.5ng/kg/d)and GM value(5.8ng/kg/d)in China.The median, GM and the highest EDI of total PFCs were17.2ng/kg/d,17.8ng/kg/d and 129.1ng/kg/d(Shanghai)respectively in China.For the breastfeeding infants from Massachusetts(USA),the average and the highest daily intake were14.7ng/kg/d and65.4ng/kg/d for PFOS,1.7ng/kg/d and 8.0ng/kg/d for PFOA and23.5ng/kg/d and87.1ng/kg/d for total PFCs respectively(Tao et al.,2008a).In another study on PFCs in human milk from several Asian countries,the average daily intake of PFOS via human milk by infants was11.8ng/kg/d with a range from5.7ng/kg/d(Indian infants)to28.7ng/kg/d(Japanese infants).The daily intake of PFOA via human milk by Japanese infants was9.6ng/kg/d.Overall,of the seven Asian countries studied,the highest average daily intake of PFOS,PFOA and total PFCs were estimated to be64.6ng/kg/d,41.3ng/kg/d and 88.4ng/kg/d,respectively(Tao et al.,2008b).The EDIs of PFCs by breastfeeding infants in China(except for PFOA in Shanghai)were lower or comparable to those from other countries.The EDI of PFOA via human milk by infants from Shanghai was higher than the highest value of those of other countries studied.It is assumed that exposure to contaminants in early life may impose greater health impacts than exposure later in life(Landrigan et al.,2002).From our previous studies,the EDI(divided by body mass)of PCDD/Fs,HBCD and TBBPA by breastfeeding infants were higher than that of adults in China(Li et al.,2009;Shi et al.,2009).To our knowledge,there is currently no data available on the dietary intake of PFCs for adults in China.The average dietary intake of PFOS and PFOA for adults were1.6ng/kg/d and1.0ng/kg/d for Canadians (Tittlemier et al.,2007),1.4ng/kg/d and2.9ng/kg/d for Germans (Fromme et al.,2007).For British adults,the estimated average dietary intakes in2007were10ng/kg/d for PFOS and10ng/kg/d for PFOA(upper bound)(UK-FSA,2009).Most of the EDIs of PFOS and PFOA for breastfeeding infants through human milk in China were higher than the EDIs for adults in Germany and Canada.Both EDIs of PFOS and PFOA for infants in Shanghai and Liaoning were higher than the upper bound value of British adults.Currently,there is no consensus on the tolerable daily intake(TDI) established for the intake of PFCs.The reference doses(RfD)of25ng/kg/d for PFOS and333ng/kg/d for PFOA were established based on rat chronic carcinogenicity studies and rat multigenerational studies by the envi-ronmental working group(EWG)of U.S.(So et al.,2006).The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment and the Drinking Water Commis-sion(DWC)of the German Ministry of Health derived a provisional TDI of100ng/kg/d for both PFOA and PFOS after the pollution incident in Germany(Roos et al.,2008).The U.K.Food Standards Agency recom-mended TDIs of300ng/kg/d and3000ng/kg/d for PFOS and PFOA respectively(Fromme et al.,2009).Most recent TDIs of150ng/kg/d for PFOS and1500ng/kg/d for PFOA were established by the scientific panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain requested by the European Food Safety Authority in2008(EFSA,2008).The EDIs of PFOS and PFOA by breastfeeding infants from China were all lower than these TDIs or RfDs. However,the EDI of PFOA(88.4ng/kg/d)from Shanghai was very close to the German recommended TDI(100ng/kg/d).Although the TDI refers to the lifetime tolerable daily intake and the breastfeeding period is relatively short,infants are at an increased risk due to their susceptibility to chemical contaminants,such as PFOA.It was estimated that the levels of PFOA in human milk could be at least one order of magnitude below those in serum(EFSA,2008).The high concentration of PFOA in human milk suggests a high PFOA level in the blood of mothers from the Shanghai pared to PFOS, PFOA has the ability to cross the placenta readily(EFSA,2008; Midasch et al.,2007).Therefore,the prenatal exposure of PFOA has the potentiality to be more severe in Shanghai than other provinces in China.Further studies are needed to identify human exposure sources for risk management in Shanghai.AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thank all the mothers who collaborated with this study and donated breast milk samples.We also thank our colleagues from local CDCs of the12provinces for their hard work with the sample collection and handling.We would also like to thank Andrew Baldwin for his kind assistance with the English language of this article.This research was funded by the National Nature Science of Foundation of China(20607021and20837003)and the National Support Program for Science and Technology(2007BAC27B02). 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造纸专业常用英文缩略语(整理)造纸专业常用英文缩略语(一)AAA = atomic absorption原子吸收ABS = acrylonitrile－buladrene styrene丙烯腈—丁；烯—苯乙烯ACAR = angular correlation of annihilation radiation消除辐射的角相关性AM = acrylamide丙烯酰胺AOX = adsorbable organic halides可吸附的有机卤化物AP = plkali pulp碱法纸浆APAM = anionic polyacrylamide阴离子型聚丙烯酰胺ASB = aerotion stabilization basin稳定曝气池AST = activated sludge treatment活性污泥处理BBCT = best convential pollutant cotrol technology最常用污染物控制技术BDMT = bone dry metric tons绝干公吨BME = bipolar membrane electro dialysis两极膜电透析BMP = best management practices最优管理实践BOD = biochemical oxygen demand生化耗氧量BP = boiling point沸点BPK = bleached papergrade kraft and soda(生产)白纸用硫酸盐和荷性纳法浆BPT = best practicable control technology最佳实用控制技术BTU = british thermal unit英热单位BW = basis weight定量CCAD = computer aided design计算机辅助设计CBLI = chemistry－based leak indicator化学(法)示漏器CC = consistency controller浓度调节器CFD = computational fluid dynamics计算流体动力学CI = colour index比色指数= cofidence interval置信区间CL = colored ledger彩色底板CLSM = confocal laser scanning microscopy共焦激光扫描显微镜CMC = carboxy methylated cellulose羧甲基纤维素COMS = compliance optimization modeling system寻优模型系统CP = chemical pulp化学浆= chemical pure化学纯CPPC = coordinated phosphate/pH chemistry controller配位磷酸盐/pH调节器CR = consistency regulator浓度调节器CRP = chloride removal process氯化物排出法CSD = condensate steam distillation column冷凝汽馏塔CTMP = chemical treatment in terms of sulphonation硫化期间的化学处理= chemithermomechanical pulp化学热磨机械浆CTU = centigrade thermal unit公制热量单位CV = coefficient variation偏离系数= crystal violet结晶紫DD = dioxide二氧化物DAF = dissolved air floatation(溶)气浮DCS = dissolved and colloidal substances溶解与胶态物 = distributed control system集散控制系统DELS = Doppler electrophoretic light scattering多普勒电泳光扫描DIP = deinked pulp脱墨纸浆DKP = deinked kraft pulp脱墨牛皮纸浆DLK = double－line clippings双线限位DMS = dynamic mechanical spectroscopy动力谱学DMSO = dimethyl sulfoxide二甲亚砜DMT = dimethyl terephthalate对邻苯二甲酸二甲酯DO = dissolved oxygen溶解氧DP = degree of polymerization聚合度DSC = differential scanning calorimetry微分扫描量热法DVC = digital valve controller数字伐控制器EEC = embedded costs插入成本ECF = elemental chlorine free无元素氯(漂白)EDTA = ethylene eiamine tetraacetic acid乙二胺四乙酸EPC = experimental prismatic calcite实验棱镜方解石ERV = estimated replacement value预计取代值ESP = electrostatic precipitator静电滤尘器 = emergency shutdown procedure事故停机程序EVA = ethylene vinyl acetate乙烯乙酸乙烯酯ESPRA = empire state paper research associates国立造纸研究会EVOH = ethylene－vinyl alcohol乙烯－乙烯醇FFAS = formamidine sulfinic acid甲脒亚磺酸FBB = folding box board折叠箱纸板FBK = fully bleached kraft全漂牛皮纸FC = flow controller流量控制器FID = free induction decays自由感应衰减FP = freezing point冰点；凝固点GGDP = gross domestic product本国生产总值GEMS = general energy and materials balance system通用能量和物料平衡系统GLC = gas－liquid chromatography气液色谱GPC = gel permeation chromatographic analysis凝胶渗透色谱分析GPM = gallons per minute加仑/分钟HHC = high consistency高浓HCR = high consistency refiner高浓磨浆机HD = high density高密度HPR = high production rate高生产率HPSEC = high－performance size－exclusion chromatography高性能粒度筛析色谱法HRT = hydraulic retention time水力停留时间HTH = high test hypochlorite高级漂粉HV = high voltage高压HW = hardwood硬木IIMPM = interactive multiplanar model相互作用的多面模型IPST = institute of paper science and technology造纸科技研究院IWC = international water consultants国际水质顾问团JJIT = just－in－time正好；准时KKP = kraft pulp牛皮浆；硫酸盐浆LLC = level controller液面控制器LCC = lignin－carbohydrate complexes木素－碳水化合物复合体LCL = lower control limits控制下限LCR = level cotroller and recorder液面控制记录仪LDPE = low density poly ethylene低密度聚乙烯LDV = laser Doppler velocimetry激光多普勒测速法LIVG = low inlet velocity gasification process低入口速度气化工艺LPR = low production rate低生产率LRD = long rang dependence广范围相关LVDT = linear position transducer线性位移变送器LWC = lightweight coated低定量涂布的MMACT = maximum achievable control technology最大可达控制技术MAP = modified atmosphere packaging改良常压包装法MC = marginal cost边际成本= medium consistency中浓(度)MDI = methylendiphenyl diisocyanate亚甲苯二苯二异氰酸酯MeB = methylene blue亚甲基兰，四甲基兰MEK = methyl ethyl ketone甲(基)乙(基)酮MF = machine finished机械整饰的MG = machine glazed机械上光的= malachte green孔雀绿MISS = mixed liquor suspended solids (有机物与活性污泥 )混合液中悬浮固体MOW = mixed office waste混合办公废纸MRP = matal removal process金属(离子)脱除过程MSW = municipal solid waste城市固体废物MVP = moisture vapor permeability水蒸汽渗透性MWL = milled wood lignin磨木木素NNC = nitrocellulose 硝化纤维素NF = nanofiltration超滤 (毫微过滤)NMR = nuclear magnetic resonance核磁共振NSPS = new source performance standards新的资源性能标准NSSC = neutral sulfite semi－chemical pulp中性亚硫酸半化学浆OOCC = old corrugated container旧瓦楞纸箱OD = over dry绝干；烘干OEE = overall equipment efficiency总设备效率OIT = oxidative induction temperature氧化起始温度O＆M = operating and maintenance 使用与维护ONP = old newspaper旧新闻纸OPP = oriented polypropylene取向聚丙烯OPR = oil penetration rates渗油率OWL = oxidized white liquor氧化白液PPAL = positron annihilation life time正电子湮没寿命PC = pressure controller压力调节器PCA = principal components analysis主成分分析PCC = precipitated calcium carbonate沉淀碳酸钙PCR = pressure controller and recorder压力调节记录仪PDSC = pressure differential scanning colorimetry压差扫描量热术PEMS = predictive emissions modeling system预测排放模型系统PEO = poly ethylene oxide聚氧化乙烯PGS = papergrade sulfite造纸用硫磺PGW = pressurized groundwood压力磨木浆PM = paper machine 造纸机；抄纸机PM/ECCM = preventive maintenance and essential care and condition monitoring预防维修／基本维修及状态监测PP = polypropylene聚丙烯PSES = pretreatment standards for existing sources现存资源预测标准PSM = process safety management(生产)过程安全管理PTFE = polytetrafluoroethylene聚四氟乙烯PTR = photothermal radiometry光热辐射分析法PVC = polyvinylchloride聚氯乙烯PVDC = polyvinyl dichloride聚二氯乙烯PVSK = polyvinylsulfate聚乙烯硫酸酯RRDH = rapid displacement heating快速置换加热法RH = relative humidity相对湿度RMP = refiner mechanical pulp木片磨木浆；盘磨机械浆RN = regular number纸板标准号RT = radiographic testing射线照相试验，X射线检验SSBK = solid bleached kraft(同质)漂白牛皮纸SBR = sequencing batch reactors程序化间歇反应器SC = super calendered超级压光的SDI = silt density index淤泥浓度指数SE = supplemental energy补充能量；辅助能SEC = size exclusion chromatographic粒度筛析色谱法SEM = scanning electron microscope扫描电子显微镜SEM－EDS = scanning electron microscope－energy dispersive spectrometry扫描电子显微镜—能量分散能谱测定法SGW = stone ground wood磨石磨木浆SIF = stress intensity factor应力强度系数；应力强化因子SOPs = standard operating procedures标准作业程序SP = sulphite pulp亚硫酸盐纸浆SPC = satislical process control过程控制SRT = solids retention time粒子留着时间SUB = solid unbleached board(同质)本色浆纸板SW = softwood软木；针叶树SWL = sulphite waste liguor亚硫酸盐废液TTAC = totally applied chlorine总用氯量TC = temperature controller温度调节器TCDF = tetrachlorodibenzofuran四氯二苯并呋喃TCF = totally chlorine－free全无氯(漂白)TCR = temperature controller and recorder温度调节记录仪TGA = thermal gravimetric analysis热重分析TLA = thin layer activation薄层活性化TMP = thermo mechanical pulp热磨机械浆TP = thermo－plastic热塑性的TQ = threshold quantity临界量(值)TRS = total reduced sulfur总还原硫TS = tensile strength抗张强度TSS = total suspended solids总悬浮固体量UUBB = unbeached board本色(浆)纸板UBK = unbeached kraft本色牛皮纸UCL = upper control limits控制上限UT = ultrasonic testing超声试验UV = ultraviolet紫外光VVOC = volatile organic compound挥发性有机化合物WWAS = waste－activated sludge废活性污泥WFMT = wet fluorescent magnetic particle test湿荧光磁粉试验WL = white ledger白色帐簿纸WLC = white－lined chipboard白浆衬里的粗纸板WP = wood pulp木浆WVTR = water vapor transmission rate水蒸汽传递速度YYI = yellow index返黄值；返黄指数YP = yield point屈服(软化)点制浆中的中英文术语 造纸专业常用英文缩略语(二)半化学浆semi-chemical pulp用化学处理，例如蒸煮，从植树物纤维原料中部分地除去非纤维素成分而制得的纸浆，为了达到纤维分离需要进行随后的机械处理拌浆机breader,breaker beater装有（或不装）底刀并装有一个带钝刀辊子的碎浆机。
[Top] [Laws & Regulations] [FDA Organization] [SFDA][Top] [Laws & Regulations] [FDA Organization] [SFDA]FDA Organization Charts[Top] [Laws & Regulations] [FDA Organization] [SFDA]SFDA State Food and Drug Administration国家食品药品监督管理局[Top] [Laws & Regulations] [FDA Organization] [SFDA]1 of the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP)2 a biologic response modifier, is a single-chain polypeptide containing 140 amino acids3 An unwanted effect caused by the administration of drugs. Onset may be sudden or develop over time4 Organizations and groups that actively support participants and their families with valuable resources, including self-empowerment and survival tools.5 A negative experience encountered by an individual during the course of a clinical trial that is associated with the drug.6The basic premise of AIP is: If FDA determines that a company’s applications are not reliable, the agency will not perform substantive review of any of the company’s applications until confidence in the data is restored.7 An alanine aminotransferase (ALT) test measures the amount of this enzyme in the blood. ALT is measured to see if the liver is damaged or diseased.8 to check for liver disease or damage to the liver. Symptoms of liver disease can include jaundice, belly pain, nausea, and vomiting. An ALP test may also be used to check the liver when medicines that can damage the liver are taken or to check bone problems (sometimes found on X-rays), such as rickets, osteomalacia, bone tumors, Paget's disease, or too much of the hormone that controls bone growth (parathyroid hormone).9 An allograft is a transplanted organ or tissue from a genetically non-identical member of the same species10 is a general linear model with a continuous outcome variable (quantitative) and two or more predictor variables where at least one is continuous (quantitative) and at least one is categorical (qualitative). ANCOVA is a merger of ANOVA and regression for continuous variables. ANCOVA tests whether certain factors have an effect on the outcome variable after removing the variance for which quantitative predictors (covariates) account. The inclusion of covariates can increase statistical power because it accounts for some of the variability11 Any of the treatment groups in a randomized trial.12 Low levels of AST are normally found in the blood. When body tissue or an organ such as the heart or liver is diseased or damaged, additional AST is released into the bloodstream. The amount of AST in the blood is directly related to the extent of the tissue damage.13 A renewable permit granted by the federal government to an institution or research center to conduct clinical trials.14 in an "as treated" (or "observed data") analysis only those patients still taking the assigned treatment are analyzed; those who drop out are "censored."15指由不直接涉及试验的人员所进行的一种系统性检查，以评价试验的实施、数据的记录和分析是否与试验方案、标准操作规程以及药物临床试验相关法规要求相符16一种批准用于治疗2型糖尿病的药物17 Benzodiazepines have also been used as a "date rape" drug because they can markedly impair and even abolish functions that normally allow a person to resist or even want to resist sexual aggression or assault18本类药物也称弱安定药，包括氯氮卓(利眠宁，chlordiazepoxide，商品名Librium)、地西泮(安定，diazepam，商品名valium)、硝西泮(硝基安定，nitrazepam)、氟西泮(氟安定，flurazepam)及奥沙西泮(去甲羟基安定，舒宁，oxazepam)。
PFOAPFOA （Perfluorooctanoic Acid 缩写为PFOA)PFOA 是全氟辛酸铵的简称。
PFOA代表全氟辛酸及其含铵的主盐，或称为“C8”，为一种人工合成的化学品，通常是用于生产高效能氟聚合物时所不可或缺的加工助剂。
这些高效能氟聚合物可被广泛应用于航空科技、运输、电子行业，以及厨具等民生用品。
当PFOA 分解后会在环境或人体中释放出来。
对环境和人体造成毒性危害，相关产品中对PFOA提出限制要求.国内最常见的含氟聚合物是应用之一是涂层，亦称作“不粘炊具”。
为提供光滑非粘的特性，不粘涂层已广泛地应用于以健康的目的不含脂肪和低脂肪的煎炒烹调中。
此不粘涂层是有机树脂通过在水中或者有机溶剂中均匀分布形成厚度不超过60 µm 的表面层。
此涂层同样被应用于金属基材，如铝、铝化钢和镀锌钢，用作仓库、发电站、纪念碑建筑和其他商业建筑的外部表面。
当PFOA 分解后会在环境或人体中释放出来。
2003 年起，美国环境保护局(USEPA)定期更新和提供科学知识引导人们更好地理解PFOA。
USEPA 提出PFOA 及其主盐的暴露会导致人体健康的发展和其他方面产生不利影响。
PFOA 会残留于人体短至四年长达半生的时间。
因此根据“美国有毒物质控制法(US TSCA)”，此类成分被禁止并将其列入化学品目录清单中。
事实上，毒性水平是每天每千克人体重量不能超过3 毫克。
同时，美国食品及药品管理局CFR （GRAS –通用公认安全条例）关注与食品接触的产品的安全性，要求其生产的材料必须是安全的。
2004 年，某家着名的制造公司被美国环境保护局控告违反了有毒物质报告条款。
这些违例由一连串USEPA 中关于PFOA 对人体健康或环境损害风险项的不合格报告构成.欧洲情况在美国的影响下，根据欧盟2004/1935/EC 指令下的一般安全标准（与食品接触的材料和物质的决议），PFOA 也被禁止使用。
在德国，联邦风险评估协会BfR 制订了指引条例BfR section LI—针对油炸、烹饪和烘烤器具的耐温聚合物涂层系统。
Paper Title3D Face Recognition based on Geodesic DistancesAuthorsShalini GuptaDepartment of Electrical and Computer EngineeringThe University of Texas at Austin1University Station C0800Austin,TX78712+1.512.471.8660+1.512.471.0616(fax)shalinig@Mia K.MarkeyDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringThe University of Texas at Austin1University Station C0800Austin,TX78712+1.512.471.8660+1.512.471.0616(fax)mia.markey@Jake AggarwalDepartment of Electrical and Computer EngineeringThe University of Texas at Austin1University Station C0803Austin,TX78712+1.512.471.1369+1.512.471.5532(fax)aggarwaljk@Alan C.BovikDepartment of Electrical and Computer EngineeringThe University of Texas at Austin1University Station C0803Austin,TX78712+1.512.471.5370+1.512.471.1225(fax)bovik@Presentation PreferenceOral Presentation or Poster PresentationPrincipal Author’s BiographyShalini Gupta received a BE degree in Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering from Punjab Engineering College,India.She received a MS degree in Electrical and Computer Engi-neering from the University of Texas at Austin,where she is currently a PhD student.During her masters,she developed techniques for computer aided diagnosis of breast cancer.She is currently investigating techniques for3D human face recognition.KeywordsGeodesic distances,three-dimensional face recognition,range image,biometricsExtended AbstractProblem Statement:Automated human identification is required in applications such as access control,passenger screening,passport control,surveillance,criminal justice and human computer interaction.Face recognition is one of the most widely investigated biometric techniques for human identification. Face recognition systems require less user co-operation than systems based on other biometrics(e.g.fingerprints and iris).Although considerable progress has been made on face recognition systems based on two dimensional(2D)intensity images,they are inadequate for robust face recognition. Their performance is reported to decrease significantly with varying facial pose and illumination conditions[1].Three-dimensional face recognition systems are less sensitive to changes in ambient illumination conditions than2D systems[2].Three-dimensional face models can also be rigidly transformed to a canonical pose.Hence,considerable research attention is now being directed toward developing3D face recognition systems.Review of Previous Work:Techniques employed for3D face recognition include those based upon global appearance of face range images,surface matching,and local facial geometric features.Techniques based on global appearance of face range images are straight-forward extensions of statistical learning techniques that were successful to a degree with2D face images.They involve statistical learning of the3D face space through an ensemble of range images.A popular3D face recognition technique is based on principal component analysis(PCA)[3]and is often taken as the baseline for assessing the performance of other algorithms[4].While appearance based techniques have met with a degree of success,it is intuitively less obvious exactly what discriminatory information about faces they encode.Furthermore,since they employ information from large range image regions,their recog-nition performance is affected by changes in facial pose,expression,occlusions,and holes.Techniques based on surface matching use an iterative procedures to rigidly align two face surfaces as closely as possible[5].A metric quantifies the difference between the two face surfaces after alignment,and this is employed for recognition.The computational load of such techniques can be considerable,especially when searching large3D face databases.Their performance is also affected by changes in facial expression.For techniques based on local geometric facial features,characteristics of localized regions of the face surface,and their relationships to others,are quantified and employed as features.Some local geometric features that have been used previously for face recognition include surface curva-tures,Euclidean distances and angles betweenfiducial points on the face[6,7,8],point signatures [9],and shape variations of facial sub regions[10].Techniques based on local features require an additional step of localization and segmentation of specific regions of the face.A pragmatic issue affecting the success of these techniques is the choice of local regions andfiducial points.Ideally the choice of such regions should be based on an understanding of the variability of different parts of the face within and between individuals.Three dimensional face recognition techniques based on local feature have been shown to be robust to a degree to varying facial expression[9].Recently,methods for expression invariant3D face recognition have been proposed[11].They are based on the assumption that different facial expressions can be regarded as isometric deformations of the face surface.These deformations preserve intrinsic properties of the surface,one of which is the geodesic distance between a pair of points on the surface.Based on these ideas we present a preliminary study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of using geodesic distances between all pairs of25fiducial points on the face as features for face recognition.To the best of our knowledge,this is thefirst study of its kind.Another contribution of this study is that instead of choosing a random set of points on the face surface,we considered facial landmarks relevant to measuring anthropometric facial proportions employed widely in fa-cial plastic surgery and art[12].The performance of the proposed face recognition algorithm was compared against other established algorithms.Proposed Approach:Three dimensional face models for the study were acquired by an MU-2stereo imaging systemby3Q Technologies Ltd.(Atlanta,GA).The system simultaneously acquires both shape and tex-ture information.The data set contained1128head models of105subjects.It was partitioned intoa gallery set containing one image each of the105subjects with a neutral expression.The probeset contained another663images of the gallery subjects with a neutral or an arbitrary expression.The probe set had a variable number of images per subject(1-55).Models were rigidly aligned to frontal orientation and range images were constructed.Theywere medianfiltered and interpolated to remove holes.Twenty-fivefiducial points,as depicted inFigure1were manually located on each face.Three face recognition algorithms were implemented.Thefirst employed300geodesic distances(between all pairs offiducial points)as features for recog-nition.The fast marching algorithm for front propagation was employed to calculate the geodesicdistance between pairs of points[13].The second algorithm employed300Euclidean distancesbetween all pairs offiducial points as features.The normalized L1norm where each dimensionwas divided by its variance,was used as the metric for matching faces with both the Euclideandistance and geodesic distance features.The third3D face recognition algorithm implemented was based on PCA.For this algorithm,a subsection of each face range image of size354pixels,enclosing the main facial features wasemployed.The gallery and probe sets employed to test the performance of this algorithm were thesame as those used in thefirst and second algorithms.Additionally a separate set of360rangeimages of12subjects(30images per subjects),was used to train the PCA classifier.Face rangeimages were projected on to42eigen vectors accounting for99%of the variance in the data.Again,the L1norm was employed for matching faces in the42dimensional PCA sub space.Verification performance of all algorithms was evaluated using the receiver operating charac-teristic(ROC)methodology,from which the equal error rates(EER)were noted.Identificationperformance was evaluated by means of the cumulative match characteristic curves(CMC)andthe rank1recognition rates(RR)were observed.The performance of each technique for the entireprobe set,for neutral probes only and for expressive probes only were evaluated separately. Experimental Results:Table1presents the equal error rates for verification performance and the rank1recognitionrates for identification performance of the three face recognition algorithms.Figure2(a)presentsROC curves of the three systems for neutral expression probes only.Figure2(b)presents the CMCcurves for the three systems for neutral expression probes only.It is evident that the two algorithmsbased on Euclidean or geodesic distances between anthropometric facial landmarks(EER∼5%, RR∼89%)performed substantially better than the baseline PCA algorithm(EER=16.5%, RR=69.7%).The algorithms based on geodesic distance features performed on a par with the algorithm based on Euclidean distance features.Both were effective,to a degree,at recognizing3D faces.In this study the performance of the proposed algorithm based on geodesic distancesbetween anthropometric facial landmarks decreased when probes with arbitrary facial expressionswere matched against a gallery of neutral expression3D faces.This suggests that geodesic distancesbetween pairs of landmarks on a face may not be preserved when the facial expression changes.This was contradictory to Bronstein et al.’s assumption regarding facial expressions being isometricdeformations of facial surfaces[11].In conclusion,geodesic distances between anthropometric landmarks were observed to be ef-fective features for recognizing3D faces,however they were not more effective than Euclideandistances between the same landmarks.The3D face recognition algorithm based on geodesic dis-tance features was affected by changes in facial expression.In the future,we plan to investigatemethods for reducing the dimensionality of the proposed algorithm and to identify the more dis-criminatory geodesic distance features.Acknowledgments:The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Advanced Digital Imaging Research,LLC(Houston,TX)for providing support in terms of funding and3D face data for the study. Figures and Tables:Figure1:Thefigures show the25anthropometric landmarks that were considered on a color and range image of a human face.(a)ROC(b)CMCFigure2:Thisfigure presents the2(a)verification performance in terms of an ROC curve;2(b) the cumulative match characteristic curves for the identification performance of the three face recognition algorithms with the neutral expression probes only.Method EER(%)Rank1RR(%)N-N N-E N-All N-N N-E N-AllGEODESIC2.78.55.693.181.489.9EUCLIDEAN2.26.74.192.978.188.8PCA18.113.416.570.268.369.7Table1:Verification and identification performance statistics for the face recognition systems based on PCA,Euclidean distances and geodesic distances.N-N represents performance of a system for the neutral probes only,N-E for the expressive probes only and N-All for all probes. 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CFA plete Freund's adjuvant) 弗氏佐剂是一种用于诱导实验性疼痛模型的佐剂，常用于动物实验中研究疼痛传导机制和药物治疗效果的评估。
CFA 弗氏佐剂诱导的疼痛模型能够模拟慢性疼痛的特点，对于研究慢性疼痛的机制和药物治疗具有重要意义。
本文将从CFA 弗氏佐剂的成分、使用方法以及诱导机制等方面展开探讨。
一、CFA 弗氏佐剂的成分CFA 弗氏佐剂主要由灭活的Mycobacterium tuberculosis细菌和矿物油组成。
其中，Myobacterium tuberculosis细菌是一种引起结核病的病原菌，通过灭活的处理方法，将其制成CFA 弗氏佐剂所需的成分。
矿物油则是用于稀释和帮助细菌成分在注射时均匀分布的载体。
这两种成分的结合，使得CFA 弗氏佐剂在实验动物体内能够持续释放炎症介质，诱导疼痛感受神经元的异常兴奋，从而模拟慢性疼痛的生理状态。
二、CFA 弗氏佐剂的使用方法在使用CFA 弗氏佐剂进行实验时，需要先将其充分搅拌均匀，确保细菌成分和矿物油充分混合。
将其通过皮下注射的方式注入实验动物的特定部位，常见的注射部位包括脚底、爪部等。
在注射后，实验动物会逐渐出现疼痛行为，如牵拉受到注射的部位、异常的步态等。
通过对这些疼痛行为的观察和记录，可以评估CFA 弗氏佐剂诱导的慢性疼痛模型的建立是否成功。
三、CFA 弗氏佐剂诱导的模型机制CFA 弗氏佐剂诱导的模型机制主要涉及到以下几个方面：1. 炎症介质的释放：CFA 弗氏佐剂注射后，细菌成分和矿物油会引起局部组织的炎症反应，释放大量的炎症介质，如前列腺素、肿瘤坏死因子等。
这些炎症介质能够刺激神经元的异常兴奋，导致疼痛感受的增加。
2. 炎症介质的传导：通过炎症介质的传导，炎症信号可以从注射部位向中枢神经系统传播，引起神经元的异常兴奋和突触传递的改变，从而形成慢性疼痛的生理状态。
3. 神经递质的改变：CFA 弗氏佐剂注射也会引起神经递质的改变，如多巴胺、谷氨酸等神经递质的释放和转运受到影响，进而影响神经元的活性和疼痛传导途径。
PFOA风险有害性介绍与测试2008年12月12日星期五下午 03:23PFOA 是全氟辛酸铵的简称。
PFOA代表全氟辛酸及其含铵的主盐，或称为“C8”，为一种人工合成的化学品，通常是用于生产高效能氟聚合物时所不可或缺的加工助剂。
这些高效能氟聚合物可被广泛应用于航空科技、运输、电子行业，以及厨具等民生用品。
PFOA 是制造含氟聚合物高性能材料的一种基本加工助剂，含氟聚合物除了广泛应用于炊具不沾涂层和服装等消费品以外，还被应用于建筑用膜材、化学管道及容器、汽车燃油系统、消防泡沫、电子元器件及电线电缆绝缘材料、计算机芯片处理器及系统中。
PFOA及其衍生产品的应用包括家用产品表面处理(如不沾锅炊具)、方便食品包装、防粘污材料纤维以及防火泡沫。
已经要求欧洲委员会重新审查存在危险的事件、寻找更安全的替补方法、并定义出危险减少措施，包括销售与使用的限制，如有可能，也可应用到欧盟。
PFOA在所有年龄阶段人群中的潜在毒性、广泛发生率、以及持续性，已经引起了美国公众和监督局的高度重视。
根据文件记载，PFOA可导致动物患上肝脏、胰腺和睪丸癌，PFOA被列入加州65提案致癌物质，环境和劳工团体的联盟已经在寻找解决方案。
1985年，GERALD L.研究了不同剂量的PFOA对动物的皮肤、体重和肝脏的影响。
研究表明接触PFOA能够引起皮肤刺激反应并可透过皮肤进入人体引起体重和肝脏的变化，在慢性中毒剂量20、200、2000mg/kg条件下对小鼠的体重可分别造成不影响，轻微影响和急剧影响。
PFOA会造成肝脏细胞变形或坏死[13]。
瑞典的研究者发现，新生小鼠接触PFOS或PFOA后对其成年后的神经行为（习惯、学习、记忆和胆碱能神经系统）的影响和接触POPs(如敌敌涕、多氯联苯、二恶英)一样造成神经行为缺陷。
研究表明，POFA是具有中等毒性的肝致癌特，可以增加人类患癌症的风险；而PFOS在环境中和生物体内不产生降解，而且生物蓄积性强，具有引起生物体脂肪代谢紊乱、能量代谢障碍、诱导过氧化产物作用及胚胎毒性等多种毒性。
