工商管理MBA考试(名词解释)

适用于第三版考试大纲名词解释：1、管理幅度：指管理者能直接有效地协调下属的人数。

2、企业核心：指在企业重要性竞争的经营活动中，能够做得比竞争对手更好的能力。

3、市场定位：指企业为了使自己生产或销售的产品获得稳定的销路，要从各方面为产品培养一定的特色，树立一定的市场形象，以求在顾客心目中形成一种特殊的偏爱。

4、年金：指在某一确定的时间里，每期都有一笔相等金额的收付款项，它实际上是一组相等的现金流序列。

年金付款时间的先后，可分为先付年金和后付年金、延期年金和永续年金。

5、正式组织：是两个或两个以上的人有意识地加以协调的行为或力的系统。

正式组织有三个基本要素：协作意愿、共同目标和信息沟通。

6、并购战略：合并是指同等企业之间的重新组合，新建立的企业常常使用新的名称；收购是指收购者吸纳了被收购者的业务。

7、大市场营销：是菲力普·科特勒提出的营销策略，就是要运用政治力量和公共关系，打破国际或国内市场上的贸易壁垒，为企业的市场营销开辟道路。

大市场营销除包括一般市场营销组合（4P）外，还包括另外两个P：权力和公共关系。

8、净现值：是投资项目投入使用后的净现金流量，按资本成本或企业要求达到的报酬率折算为现值，减去初始投资以后的余额。

9、非正式组织：是两个或两个以上的个人的无意识的体系化、类型化了的多种心理因素的系统。

10、垂直整合战略：扩展了原来同产业的竞争范围。

后向于资源的供应者；前向于最终产品中的终端使用者。

11、充分需求：指某种物品或服务的目前需求水平和时间等于预期的需求水平和时间的一咱需求状况。

这是企业最理想的一种需求状况。

12、内部报酬率：又称内含报酬率，是使投资项目的净现值等于零的贴现率。

内部报酬率实际上反映了投资项目的真实报酬，目前越来越多的企业使用该指标对投资项目进行评价。

13、动机：是指在需求的基础上产生的，引起和维持着人的行为，并将其导向一定目标的心理机制。

14、战略目标：指企业在其战略管理过程中所要达到的市场竞争地位和管理绩效的目标，包括在行业中的领先地位、总体规模、竞争能力、技术能力、市场份额、收入和盈利增长率、投资回收率以及企业形象等。

工商管理mba工商管理MBA概述工商管理MBA（Master of Business Administration）是一种以商业管理知识为核心的专业研究生学位。

MBA课程旨在培养具有现代商业理念、广博商业知识以及系统商业管理能力的高层次、复合型商业管理人才。

MBA学位在全球范围内被广泛认可，被誉为商业管理领域的“黄金学位”。

本文主要介绍工商管理MBA的课程设置、发展历程以及对职业生涯发展的影响等方面。

课程设置工商管理MBA课程设置涵盖了商业管理的各个方面，其中包括会计、财务、市场营销、战略管理、人力资源管理、供应链管理、运营管理、企业风险管理等多个学科。

学生在学习MBA课程时不仅要掌握各项管理技能，还要了解市场运作的常识、市场趋势、法律法规等知识，以提高综合管理能力。

发展历程MBA起源于美国，在20世纪60年代末期开始传入欧洲、亚洲等地，目前已成为全球商业管理领域的最高学位，也是培养商业精英的专业领域之一。

自上个世纪90年代以来，全球MBA热潮逐渐高涨。

MBA不仅能为商业人士提供通向顶尖企业的门票，而且被广泛认为是掌握商业管理科学技能的最佳途径，因此备受青睐。

对职业生涯的影响MBA学位被认为是具有国际竞争力的学位，所以毕业生可在全球范围内发挥自己的才能。

MBA学位给予毕业生更大的个人发展空间，例如升职、跳槽、进入培训领域等。

由于商业环境、竞争战略和全球化趋势等因素影响到职业生涯的进展，MBA学位提供了适应变化、解决疑难问题、顺应社会发展的工具和技能，也增加了成功的概率。

结论工商管理MBA课程在全球范围内受到广泛认可，是企业领导者、高管、商人和管理者必须掌握的核心学科。

MBA学位的取得在职业生涯中将为个人提供良好的发展机会和发展空间。

未来，随着市场竞争和社会需求的不断变化，学习和掌握MBA所提供的商业管理技能和知识将更加重要。

名词解释：1、正式组织：2个或2个以上的人有意识地加以协调的行为或力的系统。

包含3个基本点：①构成正式组织的内容，是人的行为②正式组织的本质特征。

是个人所提供的行为或力的系统③正式组织是个人行为的方法、时间、质和量各方面经过有意识的调整而体系化的系统2、非正式组织：2个或2个以上的人无意识的体系化、类型化了的多钟心理因素的系统。

3、管理：是组织中维持集体协作行为延续发展的有意识的协调行为。

基本点包括：①管理是组织的特殊器官②实质是协调③管理协调是有意识的协调④管理是维持集体协作延续发展的行为4、组织结构：组织内部分工协作的基本形式或框架。

5、管理幅度：管理者能直接协调的下属的人数。

6、激励：人类活动的一种心理状态，它具有加强和激发动机、推动并引导行为使之朝向预定目标的作用。

7、正式沟通：通过组织正式结构或层级系统运行、有组织内部明确的规章制度所规定的渠道进行的信息传递与交流。

（方向：上行、下行、横向、斜向）8、非正式沟通：不按组织结构中正式的沟通系统传达消息而让消息在组织结构中任意流动。

9、企业使命：是企业管理者确定的企业生产经营的总方向、总目的、总特征和总的指导思想。

10、战略目标：企业在其战略管理过程中所要达到的市场竞争低位和管理绩效目标。

11、战略概念的含义：在现代企业管理中，企业战略指企业面对激烈变化、严峻挑战的经营环境，为求得长期生存和不断发展而进行的总体性谋划。

12、战略管理的过程：how，who，when。

即战略如何分析、构思和制定，战略涉及谁，什么时候采取什么行动。

具体包括4环节：战略分析、～形成、～实施、～控制。

13、资源配置：是企业战略构成的要素之一，又称为企业的特殊能力，指企业过去和目前资源和技能配置的水平和模式。

14、竞争优势：是企业战略构成的要素之一，指企业通过其资源配置的模式与经营范围的决策，在市场上所形成的与其竞争对手不同的竞争地位。

15、总体战略：又称公司战略。

在大中型企业中，特别是多种经营的企业里，总体战略是企业战略中最高层次的战略。

mba面试名词解释
MBA面试名词解释：
在MBA面试中，可能会遇到一些特定的名词，这些名词需要准确地理解和解释。

以下是几个常见的MBA面试名词及其解释：
1. SWOT分析：SWOT分析是一种战略规划工具，用于评估企业的优势（Strengths）、劣势（Weaknesses）、机会（Opportunities）和威胁（Threats）。

候选人可能被要求解释他们对一个特定公司或行业的SWOT分析，以检验他们对
该行业和公司的了解程度。

2. ROI（投资回报率）：ROI是一种衡量投资回报的指标。

面试官可能会问候
选人有关如何计算ROI以及如何运用ROI分析来评估商业决策的问题。

候选人应
该清楚地解释ROI的定义，并能够说明如何使用ROI指标来评估一个项目的潜在
回报。

3. 客户细分：客户细分是一种市场定位策略，将市场划分为不同的细分市场，
以满足不同客户群体的需求。

面试官可能会要求候选人解释他们如何进行客户细分，并且如何选择目标市场。

候选人应该能够清楚地解释客户细分的目的和有效性。

4. 供应链管理：供应链管理涉及到协调物流和生产环节，以确保产品从供应商
到最终客户的顺利流通。

面试官可能会问候选人关于供应链管理中的关键问题，如库存管理、物流运输和供应商关系的问题。

候选人需要清楚地理解供应链管理的目标和挑战，并能够提供有效的解决方案。

这些是在MBA面试中常见的名词及其解释。

面试期间，候选人应该对这些名
词有清晰的理解，并能够准确地解释和应用。

这将有助于展示他们对商业和管理概念的理解以及解决问题的能力。

1．组织行为学:是综合运用与人有关的各种知识，采用系统分析的方法，研究一定组织中人的行为规律，从而提高各级主管人员对人的行为的预测和引导能力，以便更有效地实现组织目标的一门科学。

2．心理学:是研究人类心理现象规律的科学，所谓心理现象的规律性包括心理活动的规律和心理特征的规律两部分。

3．模型:就是对某种现实事物的抽象，是对现实事物的简化表示。

4．量表:是用于每一被观察单位的测量系统。

根据行为变量研究的任务不同，量表测量有关变量的精确程度也各不相同。

5．观察法:在日常生活条件下，观察者通过感官直接观察他人的行为，并把观察结果按时间顺序作系统记录的研究方法，称为观察法。

6．调查法:是运用各种调查的方法了解被调查者对某一事物（包括人）的想法、感情、和满意度。

7．实验法:研究者有目的地在严格控制的环境中或刨设一定条件的环境诱发被研究者产生某种行为特征，从而进行针对性研究的方法称为实验法。

8．个案研究法:是对某一个体、某一群体或某一组织在较长时间里连续进行调查，从而研究其行为发展变化的全过程，这种研究方法也称为案例研究法。

9．个性:是指一个人整个的心理面貌，是经常出现的、比较稳定的心理倾向性和非倾向性特征的总和。

10．气质:是人的心理活动的动力特点。

同一般所谓的“脾气”、“秉性”相近。

它在人参与的不同活动中有近似的表现，而不依赖于活动的内容、动机和目的。

气质是个人与神经过程的特性相联系的行为特征。

神经过程可分为兴奋过程和抑制过程。

11．能力:是个人完成某种活动所必备的心理特征。

任何一种活动都要求参与者具备一定的能力。

例如，搞外交工作，要具有灵活而敏捷的思维、较好的语言表达和答辩、较强的记亿等能力；从事管理工作，要具备一定的组织、交际、宣传说服等能力。

12．性格:是个人对现实的稳定态度和习惯化的行为方式。

在外界现实的作用下，通过个人的认知和实践活动，对现实产生了各种态度，构成态度系统，并决定着个体的行为表现，逐渐形成个体所特有的行为方式。

工商管理专业《管理学基础》复习题与参考答案习题一一、名词解释1、管理就是通过计划、组织、领导和控制，协调以人为中心的组织资源与职能活动，以有效实现目标的社会活动。

2、沟通沟通是指为达到一定的目的，将信息、思想和情感在个人或群体间进行传递与交流的过程。

沟通具有目的性、信息传递性和双向交流性等特点。

3、管理职能是管理者实施管理的功能或程序，即管理者在实施管理中所体现出的具体作用及实施程序或过程，具体包括管理者的基本职责和执行这些职责的程序或过程。

4、计划职能是指管理者为实现组织目标对工作所进行的筹划活动。

5、管理系统是指由相互联系、相互作用的若干要素和子系统，按照管理的整体功能和目标结合而成的有机整体。

6、组织职能是管理者为实现组织目标而建立组织结构并推进组织协调运行的工作过程。

二、填空题1、管理的目的是（有效实现目标）2、管理的本质是（协调）3、管理系统中最核心、最关键的要素是（管理者或管理主体）4、管理学界普遍接受的观点是，管理职能包括计划、组织、领导和（控制）5、按领导者的关注重点的不同来划分，有两种领导，一种领导关心的重点是人，另一种领导关心的重点是关心（生产）6、按职权关系的性质划分，管理者可以分为直线管理人员和（参谋人员）7、管理对象中的核心要素是（人）8、被西方管理学界称为“科学管理之父”的人是（泰罗）。

9、最早的和最简单的组织形式是（直线制）10、（目标）是计划的核心内容，也是企业行动的方向11、（彼得•德鲁克）奠定了现代管理学开创者的地位，被誉为“现代管理学之父”；他还首次提出了“组织”的概念和目标管理，率先对“知识经济”进行阐释。

三、单项选择题1、管理的环境主要包括__C_、技术环境、政治与法律环境和社会与心理环境A 自然环境B 生态环境 C经济环境 D 物理环境2、在进行企业经营环境分析时，主要是要找出企业经营的机会，（B）,优势与劣势。

A 组织形式B 威胁C 成本D 职权3对企业经营活动的进行概括，将其归纳为六大经营职能的管理学家是CA 泰勒B 马克思韦伯C 法约尔D 马斯洛4 管理的属性可以这样表达，管理既是科学，又是CA 政治B 军事C 艺术D 文化5 非理性主义倾向最核心的内容就是强调（D），倡导以人为核心的带有感情色彩的非理性的管理模式A 企业规模 B企业效益 C企业组织结构 D企业文化四、多项选择题1、管理系统是ABCDA管理系统是指由相互联系、相互作用的若干要素和子系统，按照管理的整体功能和目标结合而成的有机整体。

工商管理名词解释名词解释：1、正式组织：2个或2个以上的人有意识地加以协调的行为或力的系统。

包含3个基本点：①构成正式组织的内容，是人的行为②正式组织的本质特征。

是个人所提供的行为或力的系统③正式组织是个人行为的方法、时间、质和量各方面经过有意识的调整而体系化的系统2、非正式组织：2个或2个以上的人无意识的体系化、类型化了的多钟心理因素的系统。

3、管理：是组织中维持集体协作行为延续发展的有意识的协调行为。

基本点包括：①管理是组织的特殊器官②实质是协调③管理协调是有意识的协调④管理是维持集体协作延续发展的行为4、组织结构：组织内部分工协作的基本形式或框架。

5、管理幅度：管理者能直接协调的下属的人数。

6、激励：人类活动的一种心理状态，它具有加强和激发动机、推动并引导行为使之朝向预定目标的作用。

7、正式沟通：通过组织正式结构或层级系统运行、有组织内部明确的规章制度所规定的渠道进行的信息传递与交流。

（方向：上行、下行、横向、斜向）8、非正式沟通：不按组织结构中正式的沟通系统传达消息而让消息在组织结构中任意流动。

9、企业使命：是企业管理者确定的企业生产经营的总方向、总目的、总特征和总的指导思想。

10、战略目标：企业在其战略管理过程中所要达到的市场竞争低位和管理绩效目标。

11、战略概念的含义：在现代企业管理中，企业战略指企业面对激烈变化、严峻挑战的经营环境，为求得长期生存和不断发展而进行的总体性谋划。

12、战略管理的过程：how，who，when。

即战略如何分析、构思和制定，战略涉及谁，什么时候采取什么行动。

具体包括4环节：战略分析、～形成、～实施、～控制。

13、资源配置：是企业战略构成的要素之一，又称为企业的特殊能力，指企业过去和目前资源和技能配置的水平和模式。

14、竞争优势：是企业战略构成的要素之一，指企业通过其资源配置的模式与经营范围的决策，在市场上所形成的与其竞争对手不同的竞争地位。

15、总体战略：又称公司战略。

同等学力工商管理学科综合水平（名词解释）模拟试卷7(题后含答案及解析)题型有：1.1．企业正确答案：在一定财产关系支配下按照利润最大化原则行动的经济行为主体，是为了获取利润而从事生产经营活动、向社会提供商品或劳务的独立经济组织。

企业是市场经济活动的主体。

涉及知识点：管理学原理2．动机正确答案：在需要基础上产生的，引起和维持着人的行为，并将其导向一定目标的心理机制。

涉及知识点：管理学原理3．正强化正确答案：又称积极强化，即利用强化物刺激行为主体，来保持和增强某种积极行为重新出现的频率。

涉及知识点：管理学原理4．企业战略正确答案：指企业面对激烈变化、严峻挑战的经营环境，为求得长期生存和不断发展而进行的总体性谋划。

它是企业战略思想的集中体现，是企业经营范围的科学规定；同时，企业战略又是制订各种计划的基础。

涉及知识点：企业战略管理5．潜在进入者正确答案：所谓潜在进人者是指产业外随时可能进人某行业的成为竞争者的企业。

涉及知识点：企业战略管理6．五力模型正确答案：指一种产业竞争分析工具。

迈克尔.波特认为一个产业中的竞争，远不止在原有竞争对手中进行，而是存在着五种基本的竞争力量：(1)潜在的进入者；(2)现有竞争者之间的竞争；(3)替代品；(4)供应商的讨价还价能力；(5)购买者的讨价还价能力。

这五种竞争力量共同决定了该产业的竞争强度和获利能力。

涉及知识点：企业战略管理7．替代品正确答案：指那些与本企业产品具有相同功能或类似功能的产品。

决定替代品压力大小的因素主要有替代品的盈利能力、替代品生产企业的经营策略、购买者的转换成本。

涉及知识点：企业战略管理8．集中化战略正确答案：指企业把经营战略的重点放在一个特定的目标市场上，为特定的地区和特定的购买者集团提供特殊的产品和服务的战略。

涉及知识点：企业战略管理9．战略联盟正确答案：由两个或两个以上有着共同战略利益和对等经营实力的企业(或特定事业和职业部门)，为达到共同拥有市场、共同使用资源等战略目标，通过各种协议、契约而结成的优势互补或优势相长、风险共担、生产要素水平式双向或多向流动的一种松散的合作模式。

工商管理复习试题及参考答案工商管理复习试题一、名词解释(每个名词4分，共20分)1.纵向一体化2.市场发展战略3.战略实施4.成本领先战略5.紧缩型战略工商管理复习试题二、判断正误(在正确表述后的括号里划“√”，在错误表述后的括号里划“X”，每小题1分，共7分)1.企业战略管理最早出现在英国。

2.从实践考察企业战略管理的演进，大致经历了三个阶段。

3.世界著名战略管理权威安索夫提出了行业中的竞争存在五种基本竞争力量。

4.企业愿景由核心观念和企业使命两部分组成的。

5.产品一市场战略是由世界著名战略家波特首先提出来的。

6.企业为了更多地占领市场和开拓新市场，或避免单一经营的风险，往往会选择进入新的领域，这一战略就是一体化战略。

7.差异化战略是指企业通过有效途径降低成本，使企业的全部成本低于竞争对手成本，从而获得竞争优势的一种战略。

工商管理复习试题三、单项选择题(每小题1分，共10分)1.科学管理创始人( )强调，要通过计划工作，挑选，培训和组织工人，以便增加产量。

A、法约尔 B.泰勒 C，安索夫 D、波特2.在《竞争战略》一书中( )提出了著名的五种竞争力量模型。

A、波特 B.钱德勒 C、魁因 D.安索夫3.进入壁垒高与退出壁垒低的产业是( )。

A、高利润高风险 B.稳定的高利润C、低利润高风险 D.稳定的低利润4.评估判断一个企业的现实经营能力，首先必须对企业的( )进行客观公正地分析。

A、财务状况 B.利润水平 C.管理概况 D.领导艺术5.环境分析技术主要有战略要素评估矩阵和( )两种。

A 核心能力分析 B.SWOT分析 C财务分析 D.生命周期分析法6.战略目标的制定应遵循关键性、平衡性和( )等原则。

A可检验性 B.可实现性 C.可挑战性 D.权变性7.产品一市场战略2X2矩阵中，新产品与现有市场结合而成( )战略。

A市场渗透 B.产品开发 C市场开发 D.多元化 8.战略联盟这一概念首先由美国DEC公司总裁霍普罗德和管理学家( )提出的。

MBA专业术语AAbility-to-pay principle 能力纳税原则The idea that taxes should be levied on a person according to how well that person can shoulder the burdenAbsolute advantage 绝对优势The comparison among producers of a good according to their productivity Aggregate-demand curve 总需求曲线A curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at any price levelAggregate-supply curve 总供给曲线A curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at any levelAppreciation 升值An increase in the value of a currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buyAutomatic stabilizers 自动稳定器Changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate action Average fixed cost 平均固定成本Fixed costs divided by the quantity of outputAverage revenue 平均收益Total revenue divided by the quantity soldAverage tax rate 平均税率Total taxes paid divided by total incomeAverage total cost 平均总成本Total cost divided by the quantity of outputAverage variable cost 平均可变成本Variables costs divided by the quantity of outputAccelerator 加速数the effect on GDP of the increase in investment that results from an increase in output. For instance, the greater output leads a firm to believe that the demand for its products will rise in the future; the resulting increase in investment leads to growth in output and still further increases in investment, accelerating the expansion of the economyAcquired endowments 后天禀赋resources a country builds for itself, like a network of roads or an educated populationAdaptive expectations 适应性预期expectations based on the extrapolation of events in the recent past into the futureaggregate expenditures schedule 总支出曲线a curve that traces out the relationship between expenditures--the sum of consumption, investment, government expenditures, and net exports--and thenational income, at a fixed price levelantitrust laws 反托拉斯法laws that discourage monopoly and restrictive practices and encourage greater competitionarbitrage 套利the process by which assets with comparable risk, liquidity, and tax treatment are priced to yield comparable expected returnsadverse selection 逆向选择principle that says that those who most want to buy insurance tend to be those most at risk, but charging a high price for insurance (to cover the high risk)will discourage those at less risk from buying insurance at allasset 资产any item that is long-lived, purchased for the service it renders over its life and for what one will receive when one sells itassistance in kind 实物援助public assistance that provides particular goods and services, like food or medical care, rather than cashasymmetric information 信息不对称a situation in which the parties to a transaction have different information, as when the seller or a used car has more information about its quality then the buyerautonomous consumption 自主消费that part of consumption that does not depend on incomeaverage costs 平均成本the total costs divided by the total outputaverage productivity 平均产量total quantity divided by the total quantity of inputBBenefits principle 受益原则The idea that people should pay taxes based on the benefits they receive from government servicesBond 债券A certificate of indebtednessBudget constraint 预算约束The limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can affordBudget deficit 预算赤字An excess of government spending over government receiptsBudget surplus 预算盈余An excess of government receipts over government spendinbarriers to entry 进入障碍factors that prevent firms from entering a market, such as government rules or patentsbasic competitive model 基本竞争模型the model of the economy that pulls together the assumptions of self-interestedconsumers, profit maximizing firms, and perfectly competitive marketsbequest savings motive 储蓄的遗产动机people save so that they can leave an inheritance to their childrenBertrand competition 伯特兰竞争an oligopoly in which each firm believes that its rivals are committed to keeping their prices fixed and that customers can be lured away by offering lower pricesbilateral trade 双边贸易trade between two partiesboom 繁荣a period of time when resources are being fully used and GDP is growing steadily CCapital 资本The equipment and structures used to produce goods and servicesCapital flight 资本外流A large and sudden reduction in the demand for assets located in a country Cartel 卡特尔A group of firms acting in unisonCatch-up effect 追赶效应The property that countries that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off richCentral bank 中央银行An institution designed to oversee the banking system and regulate the quantity of money in the economyCeteris paribus 其它条件相同A Latin phrase, translated as other things being equal, used as a reminder that all variables other than the ones being studied are assumed to be constant Circular-flow diagram 循环流向图A visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firmsClassical dichotomy 古典二分法The theoretical separation of nominal and real variablesClosed economy 封闭经济An economy that does not interact with other economies in the worldCoase theorem 科斯定理The proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their ownCollective bargaining 集体谈判The process by which unions and firms agree on the terms of employment Collusion 勾结An agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to chargeCommodity money 商品货币Money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic valueCommon resources 共有资源Goods that are rival but not excludableComparable worth 同工同酬A doctrine according to which jobs deemed comparable should be paid the same wageComparative advantage 比较优势The comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity cost Compensating wage differential 补偿性工资差别A difference in wages that arises to offset the nonmonetary characteristics of different jobsCompetitive market 竞争市场A market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price takerComplements 互补品Two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in the demand for the other goodConstant returns to scale 规模收益不变The property that long-run average total cost stays the same as the quantity of output changesConsumer price index 消费物价指数A measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typicalconsumerConsumer surplus 消费者剩余A buyers willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays Consumption 消费Spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housingCost 成本The value of everything a seller must give up to produce a goodCost-benefit analysis 成本—收益分析A study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public goodCrowding-out effect 挤出效应The offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spendingCurrency 通货The paper bills and coins in the hands of the publicCyclical unemployment 周期性失业The deviation of unemployment from its natural ratecapital gain 资本增值the increase in the value of an asset between the time it is purchased and the time it is soldcapital market 资本市场the market in which savings are made available to investorscategorical assistance 分类帮助public assistance aimed at a particular category of people, like the elderly or the disabledcausation 因果关系relationship that results when an change in one variable is not only correlated with but actually causes the change in another onecentral planning 中央计划the system in which central government bureaucrats (as opposed to private entrepreneurs or even local government bureaucrats) determine what will be produced an how it will be producedcentralization 集权organizational structure in which decision making is concentrated at the top centrally planned economy 中央计划经济an economy in which most decisions about resource allocation are made by the central governmentcertificate of deposit (CD) 存单account in which money is deposited for a preset length of time, that must yield a slightly higher return to compensate for the reduced liquiditycircular flow 循环流程how funds move through the capital, labor, and product markets between households, firms, the government, and the foreign sectorclassical economists 古典经济学家economists prevalent before the Great Depression who believed that the basic competitive model provided a good description of the economy and that if short periods of unemployment did occur, market forces would quickly restore the economy to full employmentclassical unemployment 古典失业unemployment that results from too-high real wages; it occurs in the supply constrained equilibrium, so that rightwards shifts in aggregate supply reduce the level of unemploymentcompetitive equilibrium price 竞争性均衡价格the price at which the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded are equal to each otherconsumer protection legislation 消费者保护法laws aimed at protecting consumers, for instance by assuring that consumers have more complete information about items they are considering buyingconsumer sovereignty 消费者权益the principle that holds that each individual is the best judge of what makes him better offconsumption function 消费函数the relationship between disposable income and consumptioncontingency clauses 应变条款statements within a contract that make the level of payment or the work to beperformed conditional upon various factorscorporate income tax 公司所得税a tax based on the income, or profit, received by a corporationcorrelation 相关relationship that results when a change in one variable is consistently associated with a change in another onecost-push inflation 成本推动型通货膨胀inflation whose initial cause is a rise in production costsCournot competition 古诺竞争an oligopoly in which each firm believes that its rivals are committed to a certain level of production and that rivals will reduce their prices as needed to sell that amountcredentials competition 文凭竞争the trend in which prospective workers acquire higher educational credentials, not so much because of anything they actually learn in the process but to convince potential employers to hire them by signaling that they will be more productive employees than those with weaker credentialscredit constraint effect 信贷约束效应when prices fall, firms revenues also fall, but the money they owe creditors remains unchanged; as a result, firms have fewer funds of their own to invest. Because of credit rationing, firms cannot make up the difference; accordingly, investment decreasescredit rationing 信贷配给credit is rationed when no lender is willing to make a loan to a borrower or the amount lenders are willing to lend to borrowers is limited, even if the borrower is willing to pay more than other borrowers of comparable risk who are getting loanscross subsidization 交叉补贴the practice of charging higher prices to one group of consumers in order to subsidize lower prices for another groupDDeadweight loss 无谓损失The reduction in total surplus that results from a taxDemand curve 需求曲线A graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded Demand deposits 活期存款Balances in bank accounts that depositors can access on demand by writing a check Demand schedule 需求表A table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDepreciation 贬值A decrease in the value of a currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buyDepression 萧条A severe recessionDiminishing marginal product 边际产量递减The property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increasesThe property that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increasesDiminishing returns 收益递减The property that the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increasesDiscount rate 贴现率The interest rate on the loans that the Fed makes to banksDiscouraged workers 丧失信心的工人Individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a job Discrimination 歧视The offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristics Diseconomies of scale 规模不经济The property that long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increasesDominant strategy 优势战略A strategy that is best for a player in a game regardless of the strategies chosen by the other playersdebt 债务capital, such as bonds and bank loans, supplied to a firm by lenders; the firm promises to repay the amount borrowed with interestdecentralization 分权化organizational structure in which many individuals or subunits can make decisionsdecision tree 决策树a device for structured decision making that spells out the choices and possible consequences of alternative actionsdeficit spending 赤字支出the situation that exists when government expenditures are greater than revenues deflation 通货紧缩a persistent decrease in the general level of pricesdemand-constrained equilibrium 受需求约束的平衡the equilibrium that occurs when prices are stuck at a level above that at which aggregate demand equals aggregate supply at the current price level demand-pull inflation 需求拉动型通货膨胀inflation whose initial cause is aggregate demand exceeding aggregate supply at the current price leveldemographic effects 人口效应effects that arise from changes in characteristics of the population such as age, birthrates, and locationderegulation 放松管制the lifting of government regulations to allow the market to function more freely devaluation 贬值a reduction in the rate of exchange between one currency and other currencies under a fixed exchange rate systemdeveloped countries 发达国家或工业化国家the wealthiest nations in the world, including Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealanddiminishing marginal utility 边际效用递减the principle that says that as an individual consumes more and more of a good, each successive unit increases her utility, or enjoyment, less and less dividends 股息that portion of corporate profits paid out to shareholdersdownward rigidity of wages 工资下降刚性the situation that exists when wages do not fall quickly in response to a shift in the demand or supply curve for labor, resulting in an excess supply of labor dual economy 二元经济the separation in many LDCs between an impoverished rural sector and an urban sector that has higher wages and more advanced technologyduopoly 双头垄断an industry with only two firmsdurable goods 耐用品goods that provide a service over a number of years, such as cars, major appliances, and furnituredynamic consistency 动态一致性a policy is said to have dynamic consistency when government announces a course of action and then has the incentives to actually carry out that policyEEconomics 经济学The study of how society manages its scarce resourcesEconomies of scale 规模经济The property that long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increasesEfficiency 效率The property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society; The property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resourcesEfficiency wages 效率工资Above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivity Efficient scale 有效规模The quantity of output that minimizes average total costElasticity 弹性A measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinantsEquilibrium 均衡A situation in which supply and demand have been brought into balance Equilibrium price 均衡价格The price that balances supply and demandEquilibrium quantity 均衡数量The quantity supplied and the quantity demanded when the price has adjusted to balance supply and demandEquity 平等The fairness of the distribution of well-being among the various buyers and sellers; The property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of societyExcess demand 超额需求A situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied Excess supply 超额供给A situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded Excludability 排他性The property of a good that a person can be prevented from using itExports 出口Goods and services that are produced domestically and sold abroad; Goods produced domestically and sold abroadExternality 外部性The impact of one persons actions on the well-being of a bystandereconomic rents 经济租金payments made to a factor that are in excess of what is required to elicit the supply of that factorefficiency wage theory 效率工资理论the theory that paying higher wages (up to a point) lowers total production costs, for instance by leading to a more productive labor forceeconomies of scope 范围经济what exists when it is less expensive to produce two products together than it would be to produce each one separatelyefficient markets theory 有效市场理论the theory that all available information is reflected in the current price of an assetelasticity of labor supply 劳动供给弹性the percentage change in labor supplied resulting from a 1% change in wages equity, shares, stock 股票terms that indicate part ownership of a firm, which the firm sells in order to raise money, or capitalequity capital 股份资本capital, such as shares (or stock), supplied to a firm by its owners(shareholders); the returns received by the owners are not guaranteed but depend on how well the firm doesexchange efficiency 交换的效率the condition in which whatever the economy produces is distributed among individuals in an efficient wayexchange rate 汇率the rate at which one currency (such as dollars) can be exchanged for another(such as marks, yen, or pounds)excise tax 货物税a tax on a particular good or serviceexpected return 预期收益the average return--a single number that combines the various possible returns per dollar invested with the chances that each of these returns will actually be paidexport-led growth 出口导向型增长the strategy that government should encourage exports in which the country has a comparative advantage to stimulate growthFFactors of production 生产要素The inputs used to produce goods and servicesFederal Reserve (Fed) 联邦储备The central bank of the United StatesFiat money 法定货币Money without intrinsic value that is used as money because of government decree Financial intermediaries 金融中介机构Financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowersFinancial markets 金融市场Financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowersFinancial system 金融体系The group of institutions in the economy that help to match one persons saving with another persons investmentFisher effect 费雪效应The one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate Fixed cost 固定成本Costs that do not vary with the quantity of output producedFractional-reserve banking 部分准备金银行体系A banking system in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reserves Free rider 搭便车者A person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for itfactor demand 要素需求the amount of an input demanded by a firm, given the price of the input and the quantity of output being produced; an input will be demanded up to the point where the value of the inputs marginal product equals the price of theinput federal government structure 联邦政府结构a system in which government activity takes place at several levels--national,state, county, city, and othersfirm wealth effect 厂商的财富效应lower prices or lower demand cause firms profits and net worth to fall, and this makes them less willing to undertake the risks involved with investment fiscal policies 财政政策policies that affect the level of government expenditures and taxesfixed exchange rate system 固定汇率体系an exchange rate system in which the value of each currency is fixed in relationship to other currenciesflexible exchange rate system 浮动汇率体系a system in which exchange rates are determined by market forces, the law of supply and demand, without government interferencefixed or overhead inputs 不变投入或分摊投入inputs that do not change depending on the quantity of output, at least over the short termflow statistics 流量统计measurements of a certain rate of quantity per period of time, such as GDP, which measures output per yearfull-employment deficit 充分就业赤字the budget deficit that would have prevailed if the economy were at full employment, thus with higher tax revenues and lower public assistance expendituresfull-employment output/ potential output 充分就业产出或潜在产出the level of output that would prevail if labor were fully employed (output may exceed that level if workers work more than the normal level of overtime)GGDP deflator 平减指数A measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100Game theory 博弈理论The study of how people behave in strategic situationsGiffen good 吉芬物品A good for which an increase in the price raises the quantity demanded Gross domestic product (GDP) 国内生产总值The market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of timeGross national product (GNP) 国名生产总值The market value of all final goods and services produced by permanent residents of a nation within a given period of timegains from trade 交易所得the benefits that each side enjoys from a tradeGDP per capita 人均国内生产总值the value of all goods and services produced in the economy divided by population general equilibrium analysis 一般均衡分析a simultaneous analysis of all capital, product, and labor markets throughout the economyGini coefficient 基尼系数a measure of inequality (equal to twice the area between the 45 degree line and the Lorenz curve)green revolution 绿色革命the invention and dissemination of new seeds and agricultural practices that led to vast increases in agricultural output in LDCs during the 1960s and 1970s HHorizontal equity 横向公平The idea that taxpayers with similar abilities to pay taxes should pay the same amountHuman capital 人力资本The knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience;The accumulation of investments in people, such as education and on-the-job traininghorizontal integration 横向一体化the integration of a firm with other firms producing the same product (at the same level of production)horizontal merger 横向兼并a merger between two firms that produce the same goodshorizontal restrictions 横向约束restrictions (such as an agreement not to compete in price or to enter each others markets) by competing firms (at the same level of production, for instance, among producers, or among wholesalers, or among retailers)hostile takeover 恶意收购when one management team (one firm) takes over the control of another, against the will of the second firmIImport quota 进口限额A limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domesticallyImports 进口Goods and services that are produced abroad and sold domesticallyIn-kind transfers 实物转移支付Transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cash Income effect 收入效应The change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer to a higher or lower indifference curveIncome elasticity of demand 需求收入弹性A measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in incomeIndexation 指数化The automatic correction of a dollar figure for the effects of inflation by law or contractIndifference curves 无差异曲线Curves that show consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfaction A good for which an increase in income reduces the quantity demanded Inferior good 低档商品A good for which, other things being equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in quantity demandedInflation 通货膨胀An increase in the overall level of prices in the economyInflation rate 通货膨胀率The percentage change in the price index from the preceding period Internalizing an externality 外部性的内在化Altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actionsInvestment 投资Spending on capital equipment, inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housingimperfect competition 不完全竞争any market structure in which there is some competition but firms face downward-sloping demand curvesimplicit contract 隐含合同an unwritten understanding between two groups involved in an exchange, such as an understanding between employer and employees that employees will receive a stable wage throughout fluctuating economic conditionsimport function 进口函数the relationship between imports and national incomeincomplete markets 不完全市场situations in which no market may exist for some good or for some risk, or in which some individuals cannot borrow for some purposesincreasing, constant or diminishing returns to scale 规模收益递增/不变/递减when all inputs are increased by a certain proportion, output increases by a greater proportion (also known as economies of scale)indexing 指数化the formal linking of any payment to a price indexindividual income tax 个人所得税a tax based on the income received by any individual or householdinfant industry argument for protection 幼稚工业保护论the argument that industries must be protected from foreign competition while they are young, until they have a chance to acquire the skills to enable them to compete on equal termsinfinite elasticity of demand 无限需求弹性the situation that exists when any amount will be demanded at a particular price, but nothing will be demanded if the price rises even a small amountinfinite elasticity of supply 无限供给弹性situation that exists when any amount will be supplied at a particular price, but nothing will be supplied if the price falls even a small amountinflation tax 通货膨胀税the decrease in buying power (wealth) that inflation imposes on those who hold currency (and other assets, like bonds, the payments for which are fixed in terms of dollars)inflationary spiral 通货膨胀螺旋a self-perpetuating system in which price increases lead to higher wages, which lead to further price increasesinfrastructure 基础设施the roads, ports, bridges, and legal system that provide the necessary basis for a working economyinsider-outsider theory 局内人—局外人理论the theory that firms are reluctant to pay new workers (outsiders) a lower wage than current workers (insiders), because current workers will fear beingreplaced by the new log-wage workers and will not participate in cooperating with and training theminterest 利息the return a saver receives in addition to the original amount she deposited, and the amount that a borrower must pay in addition to the original amount she deposited。