旅游贸易竞争力外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Tourism and the Environment: A Symbiotic RelationshipNowadays, with the improvement of people's living standards and the pursuit of higher spiritual life, tourism is developing rapidly, and it has an increasing proportion in the national economy. Tourism is getting more and more people's attention, followed by the impact of tourism on the ecological environment.The vigorous development of the tourism industry has multiple effects on the environment. They are both positive and negative. In order to adapt the development of tourism to the capacity of tourism resources, and promote the coordinated development of environment protection and tourism, and this paper will state the impact of tourism on the environment from three aspects:1 The negative impact of tourism on the environment;2 The positive impact of tourism on the environment;3 The countermeasure to against the negative impact of tourism on the environment.Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce.The negative impact of tourism on the environmentNegative impacts from tourism occur when the level of visitor use is greater than the environment's ability to cope with this use within the acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete for the use of critical resources.1,Tourism causes the environmental pollution.When tourism products are manufactured during the production, it`s adverse to environmental impacts. At first, the development of tourism resources, improper planning of tourist construction, such as opening the way in mountains and destroying the wild plants freely; it will break the completeness of the coordination of ecological environment. The second is in the process of construction of tourist accommodation, the supply of water, electricity and other energy is in disorder. Waste water, waste gas and rubbish are not be cleaned timely, so these will be forming the ecological environment pollution.2,Tourism products affected adversely in consumption process.The most obvious phenomenon is that tourism products in consumption process impacts on the ecological environment pollution and destruction of ecosystems. Tourism products have direct contamination and indirect contamination for the environment of the tourist area.Direct contamination means the tourist’s pollution is generated by tourism activities, such as the sewage left by tourists, feces, garbage, waste bottles, waste paper, cans and other pollution on the ecological environment.Indirect contamination means the pollution of the atmosphere. Tourism can`t be separated from traffic. Transporting tourists from the residence to the scenic is necessary, and a variety of vehicles pour in, the air is full of automobile exhaust. The automobile exhaust is not only polluting the air, but also extremely is harmful to the human body. In addition, the acid rain has already leaded lots of trees to die in some areas. The decline in the quality of the environment embarrassed our environment.3,Historical and cultural heritage have been to damage to varying degrees.Driven by the economic interests, some notable tourist resorts are overload of tourists or made unauthorized construction, it will make a number of precious historical and cultural heritages, such as the unique monuments, natural environment and human landscape suffered destruction. Carving, graffiti, touching artifacts freely and discarding the litter arbitrarily will directly or indirectly lead to the destruction of the heritage. The example is too numerous, like on the walls of the palace in the Forbidden City, some flagstone walkways, the walls of theancient Great Wall and the tower also have tourists uncivilized blot.4,Traditional culture is simple.Rough business culture makes the connotation disappear and the degradation of the art form. In order to obtain economic benefits and cater to the need of tourists adventures, lots of tourist areas have to be given up traditional social, spiritual significance and artistic meaning. Changing the traditional forms of art and design freely lead the traditional culture to rough and simple commercialization. Traditional folk celebrations will not be held at specific time and specific place with specific manner, and it just be held by tourism demand anytime at anywhere, just like these celebrations` existence is based on the tourists demand rather than local social life. Local hand-making products with characteristics of local culture are turning to meet the need of public markets. Mass production and gradually moving towards the shoddy make the loss of traditional art and value.5,Directly or indirectly lead the moral standards in the tourist resort to decline.Tourists around the world have different moral values and way of life. Negative tourists` decadent consciousness and lifestyle can easily make some tourist area residents to lose the virtue of simplicity. It induces desire for venality and worship of money, which ruins the local social climate and affects the stability of the social order. Tourism makes environmental pollution and destruction, which almost is occurred in the process of tourism development, construction and tour operation. Tourism, as a source of pollution and industrial pollution, has "three wastes" in facilities` emissions, which is waste gas, waste water, and waste ballast. The inappropriate layout also causes environmental pollution.6,The pollution on the environment has two aspects of tourism: tourism supply-side and tourism consumers.The environmental pollution of tourism consumers is occurred in the flow of tourists, such as the large population bring crowded and confusion, destructive behavior on the environment, trampling by a large number of the population makes the soil changing, temporary stay of too many people bring exceeded production and living materials consumption and energy use, the atmospheric pollution, noise pollution and visual pollution. Analysis form the tourist point to view environmental pollution, it can be seen that tourism, as a source of pollution, has its own particularity unlike other pollution sources.People who come to enjoy the scenic beauty often litter the places with polythene and left over food without thinking about its adverse impact on the environment. The Dal Lake which was once pristine has lost its nature due to tourist pressure and is now covered with animal carcasses, sewage and weeds. The lake has shrunk as it was unable to handle the pollution caused by constant tourist influx.Tourism industry often involves construction of hotel and lodges. These lodges are created near or on the banks of a lake or a river. The sewage water flows into lake water or sea, polluting its marine ecosystem. Hotel owners who have vested commercial interests does not even take into account the unfavourable consequences on environment. Construction of jetties alters the wave pattern of the lake depositing silt in it. Introduction of mechanized boards to cash in on tourists damages the flora and fauna of ecosystem as the both leave tresses of oil, petrol and diesel in the water. (Roy, 2010)“EDUCA TION - tourists provide an endless supply of people from around the world that can be targeted and educated on everything from forest stewardship to local history and plans for the future.FUNDRAISING - a tourist provides an easy target for fundraising. Tourists pay fees for everything from camping sites and park entry fees, to licenses for fishing and hunting. The more tourists in a controlled area, means the more money that can be collected for things like education, policing and maintenance of national wilderness areas.ACTION - tourists visiting an area do so for many reasons. Maybe they are looking for someplace quiet where they can commune with nature or perhaps they want to see a piece of history. Whatever the reason, when that tourist returns home, s/he will remember the experience and may feel compelled to do something positive for the environment to help save that area.” (Stushnoff, 2009)For example: Physical Environment impact on tourism.Tourism has effects beyond the fuel burnt simply getting on holiday in the first place and many of them are much more immediately visible than the more sinister and intangible threat of emissions. In many places, the physical environment can be heavily affected by the passage of tourists, especially for popular destinations, where the sheer weight of numbers of people visiting can simply prove too much. Often as a tourist venue becomes better known, a round of building work follows the accompanying expansion of the original settlement, usually to the detriment of the local environment – which can often have been the reason for its popularity in the first place. More hotels and more restaurants inevitably mean more strain on the local infrastructure, but they also mean more light pollution too. This is not simply about no longer being able to see the stars so easily. In some parts of the world – the Greek Islands being a well-known case – restaurants along the beaches are very popular tourist draws, but their light-spillage confuses hatching sea-turtles. The young hatchlings are programmed to head for the brightest thing they can see head for the brightest thing they can see –– in nature, the water’s edge –in nature, the water’s edge – and safety. When they and safety. When they follow their age-old instinct today, they are as likely to be heading in exactly the opposite direction direction –– and Tavernas offer no refuge from cats or predatory gulls. (Evans, 2012)The positive impact of tourism on the environment:In order to survive and develop, people always need to exploit natural resources. Lots of development activities on the environment is damaging the environment`s health, but orderly tourism activities can be part of the sustainable use of natural resources, and reduce the ecological damage of resource development. The healthy development of the tourism industry to promote environmental protection mainly has following aspects.“The International Ecotourism Society has defined Ecotourism as the “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people”. The Australian Commission on National Ecotourism Strategy defines ecotourism as”nature as”nature-based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment -based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable”.In modern times, eco tourism has been expected to help in achieving the following also: involve travel to natural destinations, minimize impact on natural resources, build up environmental awareness, provide impetus and financial support for conservation, financially benefit and empower local people and inculcate respect for local culture.” (Parameswaran, 2012)1,The healthy development of the tourism industry can promote the launching of the environmental protection.Optimizing the industrial structure and protecting of the ecological environment.Rational plan for the healthy development of the tourism industry can replace resource consumption and heavy pollution of traditional industries to achieve the purpose of reducing pollution emissions. Some agricultural regions return farmland to forests, wood to grass and field to lake. On the one hand, local farmers receive more income; on the other hand, these measures can protect the environment and maintain the ecological balance.2, Improve the Environmental Quality.Obviously, one of the foundations for the development of the tourism industry is to have a beautiful and high-quality environment, no tourist wants to go to a place with very bad ecological environment. Tourists want the pure air and water quality, beautiful environment and ecology, green forest and earth. All of these will supervise the tourism management regulate the tourism development mode and improve the quality of green tourism products and development projects of the environment, such as planting more trees in the tourist area, closing forest and raising flowers. All these measures means the rise of the of tourism ecological environment quality.3,Improve the infrastructure and service facilitiesTourism development can improve the local infrastructure, such as airports, railwaystations, bus stations, roads, communications, water systems and sewage treatment systems. It also can contribute to the building of local entertainment, scenic attractions, accommodation and catering services, so as to improve the standards of the local economy and the living environment for local people.4,Protect the environment, natural landscapes and historical monuments.Good environment, natural resources and precious cultural relics are important factors to attract tourists. In order to attract more tourists and increase their level of satisfaction, many scenic areas, wildlife areas, and historical and cultural monuments are developing, we also concern about the issue of environment protection. Lucrative tourism can raise funds through appropriate tourism development; and these funds can be put into the construction of tourism environment, so as to make the Scenic environment and wildlife areas receive better protection, the maintenance and restoration of historical and cultural monuments.5,Beautify the living habitat environment.The development of tourism promotes to green the land and environmental cleanup, and to get the efficacy of beautification of the living environment. During the tourism development process, promoting afforestation, developing the horticultural projects or the design and construction of ecological building and expanding green area, air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution, garbage pollution and other environmental problems can be controlled forcibly, like the Nanjing Confucius Temple, the majority cultural heritage of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, reflects the history and culture of China. For many years, the water quality in Qinhuai River is poor and serious pollution, almost everyone know the dilapidated houses by the river`s two sides. In recent years, this region emphasis on the natural environment restoration and improvement of the river ecosystem in the tourism development process, Nanjing citizens take some action, such as river regulation and waste collection, through the implementation of renovation projects, seek the greening of the Qinhuai River, purify and beautify the riverbanks to re-experience the the Qinhuai clean water and better living environment.6,Strengthen people's awareness of environmental protection.Tourism environmental protection, as a systems engineering, requires government tourism management department, department of tourism operators, residents and tourists to participate. Good tourism promotion of government travel management department can improve the tour operator, environmental protection consciousness of destination residents and tourists.A good environment is an important requirement for tourism development. Tourism development can bring good economic benefits, and help local people out of poverty andbackwardness. After appreciating the good environmental benefits to produce their life, people's environmental awareness will be enhanced unprecedented.For tourists, the travel is a short-term way of life. It`s a kind of longing of escaping their day-to-day working and living environment to the unfamiliar environment. Good tourism activities are impressed, and the beautiful environment let them to beautify our environment and feel the close relationship between the environments and improving the quality of life, finally we should to promote environmental awareness and focus on environmental protection. In fact, in recent years, understanding the nature, observing the nature and the opportunity to experience the nature is popular. These activities will let them realize that the natural environment is the source of beauty and the basic conditions of human beings to create a better life; they can feel aesthetic pleasure during the natural process. The tourists will feel grateful of plants and trees of nature and bound their travel behavior, and to raise awareness of environmental protection.Environmental management departments and the tour operator sector also constantly aware of the importance of the environment during the process of planning and development of tourism projects. It is the basis for the survival of the tourism industry and an important factor for sustainable development of tourism. Government should take all the measures to protect the natural environment, advance environmental protection planning in tourism planning, and take measures in accordance with the importance of the different levels of management with graded protection. The positive interaction between tourism development and environmental protection concept is gradually able to establish and implement.Tourism to Local DevelopmentTourism could have a tremendous beneficial impact on local economies, but many hotels source their food and cleaning products from abroad rather than purchasing them from local producers. An Oxfam study found that hotels in St. Lucia imported more than 70 percent of their produce every year. Local farmers cannot compete internationally and have suffered from a decline in the banana trade, but Oxfam and other organizations are encouraging hotels to source food from local farmers, and by doing so keeping the tourist income within the community and supporting farmer's efforts to diversify their crops. For some hotels and restaurants, shopping locally adds a more authentic flavor to the products that they offer tourism and is a selling point in itself. For example, the Ocean Terrace Inn in St. Kitts prides itself on serving food made using locally sourced ingredients.Tourism to the environmentTourism can be harmful to the environment in a variety of ways. Cruise ships sailing through the Caribbean dump waste into the sea; one 2002 study found that a ship carrying2,000 passengers and 1,000 crew generated the same amount of waste as a small city. This waste, including oil residues, harms marine ecosystems, including coral reefs. Groups such as the Caribbean Tourism Organization are promoting more sustainable tourism projects that attempt to reduce the impact of tourism on the local environment, while the United Nations' Caribbean Environment Program supports this effort with the Cartagena Convention. The Convention aims to protect the Caribbean's delicate marine environment by establishing a series of protocols on combating oil spills, creating protected areas and dealing with pollution from the land. (Media, 2002)The countermeasure to against the negative impact of tourism on the environment.1,Cleaning the contaminated tourism ecological environment.It is necessary to clean the contaminated tourism ecological environment; regardless of t he reason for the pollution is tourism and non-tourism. There must be effective control measur es for the development of tourism in the tourist area in order to fundamentally clean up the are a. For instance, relocating the polluting factories in the tourist area and prohibiting the develo pment of industrial pollution.2,Reconstruction of the ecological environment has been destroyed.In the existing tourist areas and developing tourist area, if a part of tourism ecological en vironment has been damaged, it is affecting the entire aesthetic characteristics of the ecologic al environment. It should be doing construction in the region corresponding ecological enviro nmental. For example, if the tourist area water is contaminated, it should be cleaned up; if the area is lack of green plants, it should be planted. During the reconstruction of the ecological e nvironment, the environmental characteristics of the area should be noticed. It is important to maintain stable ecosystem. So the green plants should be selected to the benefit of the tourist area.3,Application of the tourism ecological environment capacity theory.The destruction and pollution of tourism activities should be avoided. In tourism plannin g and management, tourism overload is the fundamental reason to the tourism pollution of eco logical environment. Tourism activities undermine the development of the tourism industry. S o the tourist ecological capacity should be appropriately controlled during the tourism develop ment and management.4,To take the necessary measures to slow the ecological environment destruction.The sudden natural destruction of tourism ecological environment can be forecasted, but cannot be avoided. But the destruction of nature can be mitigated by certain measures, such as offsite migration of rare and endangered flora and fauna protection, artificial reforestation an d so on.So if one wants to enjoy nature one must preserve it, otherwise all the exotic destinations will become extinct and the world will not be a beautiful place to live in. Eco friendly tourism should be promoted all over the world and if marvels of nature should be preserved, tourism should take into account the principle and process of sustainable consumption.旅游和环境:一个共生关系如今如今,,随着人民生活水平的提高随着人民生活水平的提高,,追求更高的精神生活追求更高的精神生活,,旅游业发展迅速旅游业发展迅速,,在国民经济比例不断上升。

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文献出处：Cucculelli, Marco, and Gianluca Goffi. Does sustainability enhance tourism destination competitiveness? Evidence from the Italian Destinations of Excellence [J]. Journal of Cleaner Production (2015)：1-13.原文Does sustainability enhance tourism destination competitiveness? Evidence fromItalian Destinations of ExcellenceMarco Cucculelli, Gianluca GoffibAbstractThis paper extends the Richie, Crouch (2000) model on destination competitiveness by introducing a set of sustainability indicators and testing their role in explaining the competitiveness of a tourism destination. The model is tested on a unique dataset of small Italian “Destinations of Excellence”, i.e., outstanding tourist destinations recognized by prestigious national and international awards. Both a principal component analysis and a regression analysis are applied to test the empirical validity of the model. Empirical results show that factors directly referring to sustainability have a positive impact on all the competitiveness indicators used as dependent variables. Furthermore, the impact of sustainability variables is larger in value than other variables, thus confirming the role of sustainability as a crucial determinant of the competitiveness of a tourist destination.Keywords: Sustainability; Tourism; Destination competitiveness; Italy Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries in many countries around theworld, and the main source of foreign income for a significant number of developing countries. Therefore, the study of tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) has attracted the attention of policy makers, public and private organizations, and tourism researchers (Pearce, 1997, Crouch and Ritchie, 1999, Kozak and Rimmington, 1999, Buhalis, 2000,Hassan, 2000, Dwyer and Kim, 2003 and Enright and Newton, 2004).After the milestone study by Ritchie and Crouch, 2000 and Ritchie and Crouch, 2003, a number of theoretical models have been developed to explain destination competitiveness (De Keyser and Vanhove, 1994, Hassan, 2000, Heath, 2002 and Dwyer and Kim, 2003), as well as to analyze the competitive positions of tourism destinations (Sirše and Mihalič, 1999, Dwyer et al., 2003, Enright and Newton, 2004 and Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008). Many authors have highlighted the relationship between sustainability and the competitiveness of a tourism destination and suggested, with different emphases, that sustainability can improve competitiveness (among others, Ritchie and Crouch, 2003 and Hassan, 2000).However, the large debate on the role of sustainable development has partly overlooked the call for a deeper empirical test, and there is still no clear empirical evidence of sustainability's role in explaining the competitiveness of a destination. The empirical models developed in the TDC literature (e.g., De Keyser and Vanhove, 1994, Sirše and Mihalič, 1999, Dwyer et al., 2003, Enright and Newton, 2004 and Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008) provide very useful insights into destination competitiveness, but partly neglect the role of sustainability factors.This study aims at contributing to this literature by integrating a basic model of TDC (Ritchie and Crouch, 2000) with features related to sustainability. To test the relationship between factors of sustainability and TDC, we operationalize the conceptual approach by analyzing a number of indicators we have found to be important in defining sustainability. The study also has the potential to offer a more comprehensive assessment of the factors that influence TDC. We follow the Dwyer et al. (2003) approach in identifying a list of indicators derived from previous empirical models of TDC and from the literature in sustainable tourism and tourism planning and management.Furthermore, little empirical work has focused on small tourism destinations, and practically no research on TDC has been applied to small destinations such as villages or small towns. The existing literature has mostly dealt with countries or large geographical areas, whereas the issue of TDC has been assessed by considering the prevalent role of large tourist destinations. However, there are a number of countries where a significant part of the tourist competiveness actually relies on small places because of the highly fragmented cultural heritage, or the inherent nature of the tourist sites. Italy is a paradigmatic example of this pattern: the four major destination cities (Rome, Milan, Florence, and Venice) account only for a part of the tourism flows (24.7% in terms of total international bed nights), whereas a great number of minor destinations constitute the largest remaining part. Surprisingly, the empirical literature neglects the role of these small centers almost entirely: these destinations need attention not only because they account for a sizable share of the total arrivals, butalso because they represent a tourism model that is common to many other tourism countries. Therefore, our result could be of interest for a larger audience.We selected small Italian “destinations of excellence” as those that have been awarded importa nt international (“Blue Flag”) and national certifications (“Orange Flag,” “Most Beautiful Villages in Italy,” “Blue Sail”). To test the role played by sustainability factors on the competitiveness of a tourist destination, we studied the relationship between TDC, measured by four dependent variables (environmental impacts, socio-cultural impacts, economic impacts and tourists' satisfaction), and some explanatory variables that can be identified in terms of sustainability. To reduce the large set of independent variables to a smaller set, we performed a Principal Component Analysis (PCA), as in Dwyer et al. (2004), and used these results in the subsequent OLS estimates of the model. As opposed to previous indicators of TDC such as arrivals, bed-nights, revenues, or market share, the TDC measures we use in the paper acknowledge the view of Müller, 1994, Hunter, 1995, Buhalis, 2000 and Ritchie and Crouch, 2000, and others who recognize that a competitive destination pursues and establishes the right balance on the following different objectives: optimum satisfaction of guest requirement, subjective well-being of the residents (economic health), unspoiled nature, and healthy culture.The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 sets the theoretical framework. Section 3 gives details about the empirical analysis (variables, case study, data and methodology). Section 4 provides a discussion of the main findings. Conclusions are drawn in the last section of the paper.Sustainability and competitiveness in small tourism destinationsMany studies and models have identified destination competitiveness by using the lens of high visitor numbers and market share as contributing factors to a competitive destination. This view has a major limitation in that it ignores the sustainable perspective of not overloading the carrying capacity of a destination, or preserving its environmental integrity (Croes, 2010). Many authors seem to agree that the competitive destination is the one that preserves natural and cultural resources and increases long-term well-being for its residents by delivering an experience that is more satisfying compared to similar destinations (Hassan, 2000, Heath, 2002, Ritchie and Crouch, 2003 and Bahar and Kozak, 2007).The concept of sustainability was introduced to tourism from the notion of sustainable development, following the publication of the World Commission on Environment and Development Report, known as the Bruntland Report (WCED, 1987). Even though after a quarter-century the world is an enormously different place (Sneddon et al., 2006), and the Report has been criticized for its central approach (Adam, 1990) and the lack of attention given to power relations among local-to-global actors (Lélé, 1991), it represented an important starting point for the formulation of sustainable policies. In Sharpley's view (2000), sustainable tourism development does not appear to be entirely consistent with the developmental aspects of sustainable development, but has a larger inward and product-centered perspective.Tourism researchers have been trying to define sustainable tourism development (STD) for many years. Despite the fact that it is widely accepted that STD is along-term goal (WTO, 1992), or a concept that is constantly evolving (Inskeep, 1991) and intrinsically dynamic (Liu, 2003), there is no standard definition for “sustainable to urism destinations” (Tepelus and Cordoba, 2005). Lee (2001, p. 314) observes that, “Since destinations are unique, so are sustainable development issues in these destinations.”However, there is an emerging consensus that STD aims to minimize environmentally negative impacts, preserve cultural heritage, while at the same time provide learning opportunities, including positive benefits for the local economy and contributing to the enhancement of local community structures (Weaver, 2005).Practical evidence shows that STD can not only stop further deterioration, but it can also contribute towards the appreciation of the destination (Aguiló et al., 2005). Various mass tourism destinations are trying to move toward a more sustainable approach for the tourism development model (Fortuny et al., 2008 and Rodríguez et al., 2008). Mass tourism was initially considered incompatible with the notion of sustainability (Krippendorf, 1987, Butler, 1991 and Valentine, 1993), as they were seen as polar opposites by Pearce (1992). This idea was followed by the position of the “movement,” resulting in the demand to change mass tourism into more sustainable forms (Cohen, 1987 and Butler, 1990), and finally to the idea of “convergence” between the two types (Inskeep, 1991). Inskeep, 1991, Hunter and Green,1995, Clarke,1997, Swarbrooke,1999, Budeanu,2005 and Tepelus,2005 highlight that all types of tourism can aim to be sustainable. Budeanu (2005, p.90) asserts that, “Sustainable tourism cannot be achieved if mass tourism practices arenot adjusted to integrate sustainability.”Hence, economic benefits for locals and the minimization of environmental and social repercussions could be complementary aims in every kind of destination: the key factor could be managing and controlling the tourism activity. That is the main reason why we aim to demonstrate that a more sustainable tourism policy and destination management could have a positive impact on destination competitiveness.Furthermore, two other aspects of sustainability need to be considered. Firstly, Liu (2003) and Kastenholz (2004) observe that sustainable tourism cannot be achieved without proper management of tourism demand. Notwithstanding, demand issues have often been neglected in the sustainable tourism debate. This may be due to the fact that the concept of sustainability was simply transposed from the broader concept of sustainable development, where the nature of demand is considered as a given condition. This is not the case for tourism – which is both supply and demand driven –requiring consideration of the demand factor in the explanation of TDC (Dwyer et al., 2003), and also in the case of small tourist destination competitiveness.Secondly, many authors agree that the competitive destination is the one that increases well-being for its residents in the long term (Crouch and Ritchie, 1999, Bahar and Kozak, 2007, Dwyer and Kim, 2003 and Heath, 2002). In this sense, Bramwell, (1996) observed that “locals” need to be empowered in order to move towards sustainable tourism development: if tourism is an income-generating sector for local communities, and it can have a multiplier effect, then the host population has to feel empowered, fully participating in the development process,which could be even easier in a small community.译文可持续性能增强旅游目的地的竞争力吗？来自意大利优秀目的地的证据马尔科，詹卢卡摘要本文通过引入一组可持续性指标，继承了里奇,克劳奇(2000)关于目的地竞争力的模型，并测试了解释旅游目的地竞争力的作用。

文化遗产保护和旅游经济外文文献翻译中英文2019英文The Economy of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and ConservationPatin Valery1. The economy of cultural heritage, a recent theoretical approachAwareness of the economic role of cultural heritage is relatively recent. It principally stems from the rapid growth of tourism (roughly 1 billion international tourists worldwide in 2010), which is irrigating this sector intensely. This new approach entails reviewing the traditional status of cultural heritage, which until recently was partly not subject to the usual rules of competition-based economy. Cultural heritage is now considered as a form of enterprise and, especially, is solicited to become a key instrument to increase local development. Beyond direct site revenue (ticketing and ancillary revenue), expenditure on nearby facilities and services provides the most resources. These resources encompass indirect expenditure (purchases to companies working directly with the sites) and induced expenditure (in facilities near the sites, such as restaurants, shops and hotels, on services, and real-estate acquisitions).2. Financing and managing cultural heritage2.1 The new trendsThe relative economic autonomy that cultural heritage recently acquired, paired with broader megatrends (the economic downturn and globalization), has stretched the financial constraints that weighed on cultural assets. The institutions - the largest ones, principally - have embarked on a wide variety of initiatives to generate new resources. Engineering and franchises are two examples. The Louvre Museum, Guggenheim Foundation and Beau Bourg Centre are supporting the creation of new museums that will use their names in exchange for substantial compensation. Others, which are not creating new institutions, are letting outworks of art on long-term leases, either in existing museums (e.g., leases of works of art from the Louvre Museum to the Atlanta Museum, USA) or in newly-built museumsThe obvious increase in admission prices,in particular for temporary exhibitions (which sidestep the rule of free admission for people under 18 in France) is another clear sign. The larger business areas in cultural sites are also driving this movement. Large-scale works in Europe's leading museums (the Louvre, British Museum and Prado) led to noticeable extensions in shop, café and restaurant areas. Managing derived rights (image) more efficiently via international photo banks (Corbis) has also opened up new revenue streams. Large-scale temporary exhibitions, which often generate net profits besides encouraging people to visit the permanent collections as well, are now commonplace.We can also see a concurrent and symmetrical trend as regards the financing practices. French legislation is adjusting itself to promote private-sector financing (laws passed in 2003 and 2008) via patronage and associated management conditions. From this perspective. The use of subsidiary revenue earmarked for cultural heritage is developing, belying the principle that bans allocating tax revenue such as taxes on online gambling (poker), based on a model involving levies in several countries, and in the UK in particular (the Lottery Fund). The para-fiscal option that is already being used to acquire and protect natural areas (Departmental Tax for Sensitive Natural Areas) does not yet seem to be making significant inroads as regards cultural-heritage buildings, in spite of a few attempts (proposition to tax luxury hotels). There are efforts to make old monuments more profitable by building hotels and restaurants. The French Centre des Monuments Nationaux is seriously studying this option. The sacrosanct principle of inalienability is starting to splinter. And, if the market-economy rule takes over, it will not hold for long in current conditions.In the Anglo-Saxon world, where most sites are free of charge for the visitors, it is the opposite: private-sector management (trustees and foundations) are clearly the majority and are calling on public-sector institutions to protect their balance increasingly often.Naturally, earmarking cultural heritage as a real option to reinforce local development has kick-started a flurry of efforts to protect and promote the first to support the second. These operations have worked very well in some cases, but failed to deliver the expected results in others. Failures are often due to an overestimation ofthe expected profits or to projects inappropriate to the local reality.2.2 Conflicts of understandingSince economy has burst into the cultural heritage field, misunderstanding between actors from this sector and economic players has get worse. Their respective formations did not generally prepare them for dialoguing. Whereas the cultural heritage actors understand with difficulty the economic aspect of their activity, with its procession of constraints, the economic players do not still understand all the dimensions of the cultural object (historic, emotional, social, identical, etc.), have difficulty in defining clearly its place as "capital", "resource", or "production", and do not know where to classify its preservation, whether in the "investments" or in the "non-productive expenses"...For the first ones, the cultural heritage, priceless by definition, should escape the trivial contingency of the imperatives of profitability and competition. This collective feeling has been disseminated everywhere in France. The notion of "cultural exception" has maybe also intelligently educated it while inviting it to evolve since in fact it makes the cultural heritage actors get into the boxing ring of the competitive economy, while stressing its specificity and affirming the necessity of regulations, a notion we seem today to rediscover everywhere else...For the second ones, it is urgent to improve the econometric tools and the modelling regarding cultural heritage and the returns expected from enhancement and particularly tourist one. In spite of recent but real progress, as we shall see, the contribution of cultural heritage to a certain quality of life for the usual users of a territory, to its image and to the feeling of belonging, is still insufficiently taken into account.Finally, all share a real difficulty: reconcile the long term of cultural heritage preservation, which has to be passed on, thus preserved infinitely, with the short term of its economic operation and expected profits.2.3 The risksIn this situation and given recent developments, which have not always been properly managed, abuses can sometimes occur. This is at least the case in the light ofthe traditional and essential roles of cultural heritage, namely conservation, scientific research, knowledge dissemination and cementing social links. These abuses can take different shapes. Firstly, the quest for financing may lead to questionable schemes.To pay for refurbishing work on the Doge's Palace in Venice, for instance, the city council rented a section of the monument outside walls and a facade of the Bridge of Sighs to Coca-Cola, which set up massive promotional billboards on them.Poor visitor-flow management can damage sites and the visitor experience. Also in Venice, the city council allowed up to 300 metre long cruise ships to dock in Tronchetto port. These ships pour out several thousand visitors a day, and there is now way of channelling them. This city had managed to stem tourist flows by limiting the number of new hotels in it, but has moved into a new cycle now that it has agreed to plans to build new capacity (turning the former mill on Guidecca Island into an upmarket hotel). On specific days, the visitor crowds in certain sites (Versailles, the Louvre) make visiting conditions unacceptable.Seeking short-term profits can also contribute to deteriorating cultural heritage. Renting out works of art for more or less long exhibitions, shooting films in monuments and renting spaces for events (which is occurring increasingly often) can cause damage to certain objects and places, which restorers do not always have time to prevent or repair.Local populations may feel dispossessed of their cultural environment. Foreigners buying up real-estate en-masse can lead to excess. That is the case in Morocco in general and in Marrakech in particular, where national legislation entitles foreigners to buy freeholds. In that same vein, efforts to protect and promote heritage, in particular in character-filled historical town centres and villages, can lead to speculation on real-estate and land. In both cases, the local populations are faced with very fast and destabilizing changes in their economic and cultural environment.One of the risks that have made the most media headlines is the reproduction of sites and historical monuments. This trend is not new and has to be distinguished from the copying of fragile sites, validated by the scientific community and which contributes to their preservation (Lascaux, Egyptian tombs), whereas reproductionsare more and more often aimed to create attractions and thereby generate quick profits in more favorable conditions than in the original sites. The Japanese, for instance, have reproduced part of The Hague (The Netherlands) in Omura Bay, paired with a large-scale property development and marina, all of which did not turn out to be a great success. The Syrians created a fake Palmyra at the entrance to Damascus, which is on the contrary attracting a large number of visitors - who also flock to the restaurants and cafés around it. It is interesting to note that the international law is really uncertain in that field, which often leads to excesses. Abusive restoration for imperatives of comfort, modernization, or quick profits, constitutes another important risk.Management basically geared to generate short-term profit can also in a way drain meaning out of sites and works. In a number of well-known sites, literature is wanting or unavailable, there are too many visitors, the area is heavily built-up and commercial, the staging modest and the visitor circuits constraining. The Sphinx of Giza (Egypt) is one example.2.4. Sustainable management of cultural heritage: methods and techniques2.4.1 Methods of economic assessment of cultural heritageGiven those risks, authorities have set up a number of assessment methods and systems to step in.One of the first measures involves evaluating as accurately as possible the economic reality of the operations and the resulting proceeds involving culturalheritage. "This approach spurs concerted protection and promotion strategies and partnerships. It sharpens professional skills practices and partnerships between the cultural and tourism realms (coproducing data and pooling resources). Furthermore, highlighting the economic and social stakes associated with cultural heritage is a factor that contributes substantially to the acceptability, appropriation and support for local preservation and promotion strategy".In this area, the most traditional assessment methods combine approaches focusing on land and real-estate value, and on the balance sheet. These approaches are strictly limited to the site itself and to its financial dimension. It is therefore a fairlyrestrictive approach. It considerably undervalues fragile cultural assets that required heavy conservation investment, and pays little if any attention to the social and cultural dimensions.Methods stemming from economic theory nevertheless provide an option to assess cultural assets from a development and investment perspective. These methods are used by international backers, for instance. This is in particular the case for Contingent Valuation Methods (CVMs), which take into account nonmonetary value such as image of the site or the destination. It involves measuring the theoretical contribution that populations are willing to make (whether or not they use the site, and whether they live in the city or country or further away) to protect a component of cultural heritage. Other methods, such as relocation costs, costs versus advantages, hedonic costs and multi-criterion appraisals, are also sometimes used.Lastly, assessing indirect proceeds from cultural-heritage management most often involves the 'impacts' method which gauges the number of jobs, cash flows (wages, taxes) and social impacts (awareness of cultural heritage, the people's contribution to safeguarding and promoting cultural assets, the sense of belonging it nurtures, transmission, citizenship, etc.) generated by what visitors do and what they spend, in the area near the site (i.e. spanning transport, accommodation, restaurants, shops and services), as well as public and private investment to protect and promote cultural heritage.2.4.2 Sustainable management techniquesTo preserve cultural heritage, guarantee visitor comfort and spur indirect returns, managers and administrators use the specific techniques that provide the basis of the Site Management Plan recommended by UNESCO (World Heritage Centre).a) Visitor flow managementVisitor flow management contributes to site preservation and management. Several systems are now up and running, including visitor-number forecast analysis on new sites. This technique makes it possible to assess a site's attendance over time, using a direct approach by analysing the territorial catchment, using a comparative approach, or combining both. The results are generally reliable. This assessment zerosin on "peak days" and peak times (visitor-number snapshots) to provide the maximum visitor numbers. Then it is used to assess daily and hourly visitor numbers during the 30, 40 or 50 busiest days of the year (design days). These estimates provide the raw material we need to devise the protection and promotion programme by calibrating facilities and amenities as effectively as possible. Some of the newly-built museums programming has been made on this basis, as in the Louvre Museum in Lens (France).In existing sites, there are also several techniques to support visitor management: group bookings, individual bookings (increasingly often), tariff schedules, longer opening hours, smaller guided-tour groups, quotas (in very fragile sites such as the Villa Borghese Gallery in Roma) and visit paths to deal with shortstay visitors (tourist groups) and long-stay visitors (groups with specialist lecturers and enthusiasts) separately. These strategies rely on the assessment of the site capacity (acceptable number of visitors depending on the site surface) in exterior as well as interior spaces. Then, a minimum surface per visitor is calculated. This surface can go down to 1,50m2 in very popular exhibitions. Such a technique can be difficult to apply in complex sites (archaeological/natural ones) but can often provide useful elements of management.Providing information before visitors reach the site (via the Internet, smartphone applications, visitor guides) also plays a role. Negative marketing (momentarily withdrawing communication) to contribute to limiting the number of visitors in a site at the same time is very rarely used. Lastly, networking sites into package deals such as the Carte Musées Monuments providing access to 70 museums and monuments in and around Paris, and sharing literature and road signs, can contribute to easing pressure on the main highlights. A beautiful example of this flow-management strategy was used in the Alhambra in Granada (Spain), which combines measures to restrict automobile traffic and visitor numbers, requires individual and group booking, limits group visit time slots, and associates the city's companies working with tourists (taxis, restaurants and hotels), entitling them to distribute top-priority visit bookings. The site attending which rose to 2,8 million of annual visits has come down to a little bit more than 2 millions. In terms of capacity, the average surface per visitor whichwas 3,44m2 has been turned into 5m2.b) Preventive conservation associated with tourist numbersAction on this front is still modest and mainly experimental. As it has been already noted, copies (Lascaux, Valley of the Kings) can contribute to the preservation of very fragile sites and monuments. Copying gets a lot of media attention but is still rare since these techniques are difficult, as the different attempts to reproduce the Lascaux cave has showed it. Reproduction of furniture or decoration occurs more often thanks to the two different techniques of copy and casting. When the copy or catering substitutes to the original in situ, it serves to protect the original value. When this is the original which stays in situ, the copy and catering have a cultural memory value, when the original has lost its representative value or has been destroyed (for instance, Roman copies of Greek works of art or the catering preserved in the Musée des Monuments français, such as the statues of the Reims cathedral or the Roman fresco of Saint-Savin sur Gartempe).Regarding tourism and housing, these trends led to successful economic realizations. New tourist resorts are borrowing local architectural and decorative vocabulary (Le Crouesty in Morbihan and Valmorel in Savoy are two French examples). It is also the case of rebuilt buildings inspired by traditional buildings, for instance in Beirut or Tunis (the Hafsia Quarter). This trend combines traditional charm with modern-day comfort and convenience. Cultural heritage becomes a backdrop stripped of some of its meaning but serves a profitable economic purpose. This also applies to urban revamps that involve keeping nothing but façades (façadism).The most common intervention consists in mapping out visit circuits in sites, and indeed in cities (Strasbourg) to provide tourists with an overview of the highlights while avoiding the more fragile spots by providing visitors with free documentation and informative marking. When this option is unfeasible, the classical measures such as closing off areas to visitors, permanent or temporary embedding objects (mosaics, in particular), adding security systems around attractions and indirectly around visitors (barriers, fences), are used. There are also specific measures for site fringes, inparticular as regards automobile traffic and parking, such as moving them further away from the site, blending them into the natural environment, establishing the principle of non co-visibility (facilities and historical sites should not be visible at the same time) and segregating areas (several little parking areas instead of a big one close to the site and too visible). Human risks can stretch beyond tourism-related concerns to urban issues. Here, it is rarely balanced. Site outskirt protection often involves legal measures that are difficult to apply. They often stem from contracts between site managers and owners (Hadrian's Wall in the UK, Cyrene in Libya).c) Integrating local populationsThis approach concurrently stems from sustainable-development ideology and a more efficient strategy to protect and promote cultural heritage. It contributes to preventive conservation. There are two main trends at work here: one to maintain cultural usage and the other to bolster economic activity. In the first case, it is a question of protecting site traditional use, which can range from mere walks to religious or 'magical' practices. In both cases, measures that do not necessarily rank profit cost-efficiency at the top of the list take precedence. It sometimes entails sidestepping fences (Palmyra in Syria, Petra in Jordan, Dougga in Tunisia) to allow people to cross the site to get to their workplace. In Chellah (Rabat) the site is accessible free of charge on Fridays to allow local people to reach natural springs that, according to local tradition, help women to give birth to their first child. Tour operators are also involved in efforts to raise visitor awareness via codes of conduct prescribing adequate behaviour (). Naturally, school trips and attractions for local people can only strengthen the appropriation bond.Integration, however, necessarily also entails supporting local economic development, which can be done in several ways such as training craftsmen, shopkeepers, hotel staff and innkeepers in visitor expectations, supporting exports, distributing micro-credit to small-scale local producers and, if possible, employing on the site the local population (security, guiding, maintenance).3. The example of the World Bank in Mauritania3.1 The World Bank and the Cultural HeritageThe World Bank is an intergovernmental agency of the United Nations Organization. Its mission is to help states to finance actions of development. Since 1975, the Bank has developed a strategy to support projects in the cultural heritage sector to serve as a basis for local growth. It intervened in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, Honduras, Russia, Mauritania, China, Peru, Ethiopia. It provides loans, which is the most frequent case, or grants, according to the economic level of countries.3.2 Conditions of intervention of the World BankThe recipient countries also give counterparts to the loans provided by the Bank (direct financing, allocation of staff, fiscal adjustments). This financing is used to rehabilitate or create museums or cultural institutions (such as conservatoire of music), to restore and renew historic centres, to produce cultural events, to strengthen the conditions of protection and preservation of cultural assets, to improve the economic and cultural integration of the local populations.3.3. The case of MauritaniaThe case of Mauritania is particular because the Bank intervention focused partly on the protection/enhancement of World Heritage sites (Caravan cities of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Oulata and Tichitt) and partly on the protection of the libraries and the numerous ancient manuscripts present in the country. These surprising libraries were constituted on the occasion of the pilgrimage in Mecca, but also by exchanges between the inhabitants and the caravanners coming from Mali or from Arabia and Egypt.These libraries are not under common law. They are family's properties and cannot be sold or donated. They traditionally go to the leader of the family owner who keeps watch over them and is answerable for them to the main family's members during annual stocktaking. The most important among them, the library of the Habott family in Chinguetti, includes more than 1 500 manuscripts mainly of the XIXth century -some of them are much more ancient (exegesis of the Koran, astronomy, mathematics and logic, law). Some of these libraries are preserved in boxes by the nomad tribes living in the north and east of the country. The intervention of the Bank took place between 2001 and 2005.A project unit gathering Mauritanian specialists was in charge of the onsite actions conception and management. The Bank regularly sent missions of evaluation to follow their progress. Punctually international institutions also provided a scientific and technical support: UNESCO regarding the operations of preservation and training dedicated to the caravan cities. The financing was assured through a subsidy to the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.The strategy adopted by the Project with the support of the Bank consisted in implementing a series of actions of protection intended to strengthen the heritage knowledge and the associated know-how. Complete building surveys and inventories were made in the world heritage cities. Training courses on the restoration of dry-stone buildings were organized for the young local population. In Oualata, famous city for the inside and outside decorations of houses, an emergency action allowed to train girls in painting these very codified patterns and to preserve this knowledge about to disappear.Concerning manuscripts, the Bank financing was used to make an inventory of the private libraries (more than 600 on a total estimated at 700/750) and to catalog more than 40 000 works (on a total estimated at 50 000). These research works allowed to elaborate a computerized data bank of which the BnF (French National Library) has a copy (Department of manuscripts. Service of Arabic manuscripts). The service of restoration of the BnF assured the training of a group of owners of private libraries. Finally the Bank acquired neutral cardboards to distribute in libraries. But the political situation which became unstable in 2005 did not allow to finalize this initiative. A second project of reprinting the ten more important Mauritanian manuscripts suffered the same fate.This first phase of consolidation was completed by the publishing of travel guides in partnership with the Cultural Service of the Embassy of France in Nouakchott, the organization of trainings intended for the caravan cities innkeepers, the realization of a festival of nomadic musics in Nouackchott and punctual actions of support for the craft sector, in particular for the traditional hairdressers who have an exceptional know-how and were gathered within very dynamic associations of womenentrepreneurs. As in any project of the Bank, an important aspect of the program was dedicated to the institutional and legislative framework intensification.This Bank program certainly allowed to produce information and documents essential to the cultural heritage preservation (surveys, inventories, cataloguing, long-term preservation of know-how) and to the information circulation about the country (publishing of travel guides) without durably modifying the situation of the Mauritanian cultural heritage. The tourist flows, directed first and foremost to the visit of the caravan cities of the North (Oudane, Chinguetti), hiking in Sahara and the natural site of the Banc d'Arguin, registered as a world heritage site, benefited from these interventions, but the degradation of the political situation and the security conditions in this zone compromised the project results. On the other hand, the country limited institutional and economic capacities make it difficult to follow up these operations. Mauritania mainly progresses in this domain at the rate of international supports, while many Mauritanians have the skills required to assure a wider development of the cultural and tourism economy.中文文化遗产保护和旅游经济1.文化遗产旅游经济，一种最新的理论方法对文化遗产的经济作用的认识是相对较新的。

文献信息：文献标题：The Effect of International Tourism on the Development of Global Social-Economic Processes（国际旅游对全球社会经济发展的影响）文献作者：Cherkasov I L等文献出处：《Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism》,2017,8(6 (22)):1166-1170.字数统计：英文2560单词，13979字符；中文4047汉字外文文献：The Effect of International Tourism on the Development ofGlobal Social-Economic ProcessesAbstract The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effect of international tourism on the development of global social-economic processes. The authors prove that international tourism not only boosts inflows of foreign currency into the country but also ensures employment for the population and helps make rational use of domestic resources. The paper establishes that international tourism has lately been experiencing exceedingly rapid growth and development, second just to the automotive and chemical industries. Right now, the significance of tourism to the development of global social-economic processes is constantly growing, which is due to the influence of tourism on the economy of various nations. The authors conclude that the development of the tourism industry in various regions may also be fraught with certain dangers, like increased strains on the environment due to excessive concentration of production and people in tourism centers, devalued traditions, and declines in the prestige of national cultures as a result of the commercialization of life.Keywords:international tourism; development; globalization; need; service; export; cultureIntroductionTourism as a form of fulfilling people’s need for leisure has had a profound effect on the global community. Revenue from international tourism is currently among the more substantial components of so-called invisible export. The development of tourism relations is a crucial way to improve the situation around the world, strengthen partnership among nations, and foster mutual understanding among people of different cultures. Tourism has become an objective need in modern civilization.International tourism not only boosts inflows of foreign currency into the country but also ensures employment for the population and helps make rational use of domestic resources. It has lately been experiencing exceedingly rapid growth and development, second just to the automotive and chemical industries. This adds extra relevance to investigating international tourism as a crucial phenomenon of today’s society.The basics of the effect of international tourism on the development of global social-economic processes have been examined by scholars K.B. Kostin (Kostin 2016), D.Yu. Rozhkova (Rozhkova 2015), E.N. Trofimov (Trofimov 2011), A.A. Shilnov (Shilnov 2014), O.A. Yastremskaya (Yastremskaya 2014), and others. Notwithstanding the large number of scholarly publications devoted to general and special issues related to international tourism, various aspects of the operation of international markets for tourism services, and issues related to national competitiveness in them, certain theoretical-methodological and applied aspects of optimizing participation in international tourism exchange may need further research.1.MethodsThe methodological basis for this study is a systemic approach, with a set of general scholarly and special economic methods also employed, namely: the historical-logical method of cognition; methods of comparative analysis; methods of structural, functional, and situational analysis; economic-statistical methods (employed in determining the latest trends in the development of the market for tourism services); methods of expert assessment and comparative analysis of existing models; methods of scholarly abstraction, analysis and synthesis, and extrapolation(employed in examining the prospects for the participation of various nations in international tourism exchange and ways to galvanize it).The study’s information base is grounded in various fundamental solutions, information-analytical reviews, research and methodological publications by domestic and foreign specialists, statutory and regulatory sources, and statistical materials from international organizations.The work is focused on the following aspects of tourism: its place in the world economy and the latest laws governing its influence on the development of global social-economic processes; the distinctive characteristics of the global market for tourism services and factors in the transformation of its structure; the effect of large-scale public activities on the development of the tourism industry.2.ResultsUnder today’s conditions, tourism is among the more developed sectors of the world economy and one of the more dynamically developing forms of international trade in services (Ek. Agamirova, El. Agamirova, Lebedeva, Lebedev, and Ilkevich 2017, Jacobs, Horowitz, Mavroudis, Siegel, and Sade 2013). The total volume of foreign currency receipts recorded between 1950 and 2016 has increased 145 times. To be specific, in 1950 the number of tourists globally was 25 million and the industry’s turnover totaled $2.2 billion, while in 2016 these figures exceeded 450 million and $372.8 billion respectively.Today, international tourism is developed the most in Western European countries. The region accounts for over 70% of the world’s tourism market and nearly 60% of all foreign currency receipts. Around 20% is accounted for by America and less than 10% by Asia, Africa, and Australia combined.The biggest suppliers of tourists are the US, Belgium, Denmark, Germany Holland, New Zealand, Sweden, Canada, and England. The biggest recipients of tourists are Australia, Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Spain, Mexico, Turkey, Egypt, Portugal, France, and Switzerland.Research indicates that international tourism may develop unevenly not only inparticular regions of the world but within a particular destination as well, which may be due to the degree of development of tourism infrastructure in the area, its remoteness, and other factors.The recent ebullience in the tourism market has had a positive effect on the economy of most nations around the globe, with the financial turnover of the global travel and tourism industry totaling nearly $6.3 trillion in 2016. The sector contributed a total of 10.7% of all revenue to global GDP, the largest share being accounted for by the EU (11.6%), North America (10%), and East Asia (9.7%).Thanks to the interrelationship between tourism and adjacent sectors of the economy, tourism has supported 221.7 million jobs (8.4% of total employment globally). The greatest number of residents employed in the tourism sphere is observed in Southeast Asia (Korea, Japan, and China) – 74,818 thousand people. Southeast Asia is followed by South Asia – 30,796 thousand people. In Europe, the figure is 24,302 thousand people.Receipts from international tourism have totaled around $2 billion per day. In 2016, total expenditure in the industry was $683 billion, which is $48 billion or 3.5% greater than the 2015 figure. If we add to this $132 billion spent by foreign tourists on transportation, we get over $850 billion worth of tourism exports, which is 7% of the world’s total goods and services exports.Most of the receipts to the tourism sector come from the expenditure of tourists who travel for personal reasons – $2,834 billion. In 2016, the way in tourist expenditure was led by the US, Japan, countries within the EU, Canada, and Mexico. The volume of tourist expenditure in Europe increased $21 million in 2016 and totaled $348.In Asia, the observed rate of increase is 51%. The increase in receipts has been brought about by high rates of growth in China and administrative regions – Hong Kong and Macau. Southeast Asia – especially Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Vietnam – is becoming one of the most attractive regions for tourists, its demand outpacing the supply of tourism services.The increase in receipts to the Pacific region has for the most part been broughtabout by tourists’ interest in the arts and everyday life of aborigines. The greatest number of tourists are visiting Australia and Oceania at a time when Europe and North America are experiencing a slump in tourism activity. This may help smooth out seasonal fluctuations in international tourism.Asia and the Pacific region attract tourists with their unique nature, and new industrial nations – with their business tours. Recreational tourism is well-developed in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. The Japanese tourism industry is ranked 2nd in the world after that of the US. Hong Kong and Singapore offer shopping tourism services, while Thailand is developing new beaches on the country’s southern coast and organizing informative trips to its northern part.Tourism is well-developed in Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia and Micronesia. What additionally makes tourism lucrative for the Pacific Ocean islands is the relative proximity of the Australian market, and this getaway enjoys a good image with European tourists.In Africa, the current rate of increase is 64.2%. The warm climate, sandy beaches, unique historical and cultural monuments, and exotic flora and fauna of such nations as Kenya, Zambia, Mauritius, Tunisia, and Algeria have been facilitative of increases in the number of tourists visiting the African region. Right now, the most popular destinations in the North are Tunisia, Egypt, and Morocco, and in the East – Kenya, Tanzania, the Seychelles, Mauritania, and Zimbabwe. Some of these specialize in elite coastal tourism and have a world-class hotel industry in place, which helps them generate up to $900 off each tourist. However, overall Africa is lagging behind other regions in international tourism, as many of its nations are poorly developed economically and lack political stability, with the progress of many areas being impeded by military conflicts and epidemic diseases.America is second to Europe in terms of tourism’s contribution to GDP (30.6%). These are South America, Central America, North America, and islands within the Caribbean. The leading role in this region is played by the US and Canada, which have a vast internal tourism market and a highly-developed infrastructure with an extensive network of hotels and a solid transportation industry in place. SouthAmerica’s tourism flows are relatively minor, which is due to political instability and slow economic development. The major types of tourism in the region are coastal tourism, sports tourism, excursion tourism, and business tourism.Revenue from international tourism reaches 15–25% of overall export revenue. A level this high is the consequence of the region being competitive and certain regions actually specializing in tourism, like Canada and islands within the Caribbean.Europe remains the worldwide leader in tourism. In 2016, the rate of increase of its tourism resources totaled 5.3%. Europe leads the world in sanatorium-resort therapy, leisure, and tourism. The European region is home to popular mineral springs, beaches, and alpine areas. A major portion of the region has all the conditions for those interested in leisure and sanatorium-resort therapy.Evidence from practice suggests that international tourism is quite a dynamic phenomenon. Experts are forecasting the tourism sector to grow tangibly over the next 10 years, with annual demand for tourism services expected to increase 4.7% between 2017 and 2025 and the contribution of international tourism to the world economy expected to total $10.8 trillion in 2025.The production of tourism services is expected to have an annual growth of 3.6%, with the number of those employed in the tourism sector expected to increase 1.5%. Annual growth in tourist arrivals will total 5.8%, with growth in capital investment expected to reach 4.9% and total $1.7 trillion by 2025. The number of jobs in sectors adjacent to tourism is expected to reach 275 million by 2025.The way in terms of the number of those employed in the sector will be led by China (78.6 million people), followed by India (26.1 million) and the US (19.3 million). Tourist expenditure is expected to increase over the next 10 years. For instance, the expenditure of American tourists both inside and outside the country is expected to nearly double. And in terms of increase in this indicator it is, above all, the developing nations of Asia that are expected to be among the top 10 nations globally.Tourist expenditure will increase the fastest in China. Among European nations, the top 10 will include a couple of Eastern European nations – Poland, whose averageannual growth in tourism expenditure will total 8.3%, and the Czech Republic – 7.7%.According to the authors’ forecast, one should expect increases in the market share of international tourism through to 2030 in all regions of the world except Europe and America (Table 1).Table 1. Forecast for the development of international tourism across regions around theworld (million people)The average rates of growth will be the highest in the Middle East and East Asia and Oceania (7.2% and 6.4% respectively), while the lowest ones will be observed in America (3.8%).3.DiscussionThe reliability of the above approaches to assessing the effect of international tourism on the development of global social-economic processes has been substantiated by the study’s findings. Europeans will have to withstand tough competition for revenue from tourism, which will require that the European tourism industry boost the quality of services it provides (Dzhilavyan and Varyukhin 2012, Kuzakhmetova, Sitdikova, and Shilovskaya 2016, Urbanovich 2012).Expenditure on all types of travel – and, above all, on transportation – will increase faster than other family budget items. Trips will be more frequent but shorter, as expenditure on a single trip will reduce. On the whole, expenditure on travel will increase due to the inclination to consume higher-quality leisure.The number of trips will be increasing thanks to intercontinental trips from Europe to America, Asia, and Oceania. The use of airborne transportation will be expanding faster due to increases in the number of convenient direct flights.Considering the increasingly active implementation of computer systems, the waiting times for booking a trip will also be reducing.The following 2 age groups are expected to be represented by the most active tourists: senior citizens and youth. We will continue to witness growth in demand for tourism related to visits to major cultural heritage sites and active leisure. The condition of the environment will be one of the dominant factors in attracting tourists, especially in rural and seaside areas.The geography of international tourism will be determined by specific factors in the attractiveness of particular regions that will be a priority for tourists. Going forward, nature potential will remain the major source of satisfaction of tourist needs.International tourism will continue to boom, with South and Southeast Asia expected to be among the most popular regions to visit. There will be gravitation toward intact nature, which is naturally associated with the concept of beauty, and in this regard we are going to witness further development of, above all, the environmental tourism sector.ConclusionTo sum up, it is worth noting that the significance of tourism around the world is constantly growing. This is due to the influence of tourism on a nation’s economy: tourism boosts the contribution to its balance of payments, ensures employment for the population, facilitates the diversification of the economy, and helps ensure a more rational use of recreation resources. Having said that, the development of the tourism industry is also fraught with certain risks, like outflows of currency overseas, environmental and technogenic dangers, and loss of cultural values.Under today’s conditions, tourism is among the more developed sectors of the world economy and one of the more dynamically developing forms of international trade in services. Today, international tourism is developed the most in Western European countries. Going forward, some of the major trends in the development of tourism will be boosts in the quality of the tourism product, increased tourist expenditure on travel, and the development of non-traditional types of tourism.中文译文：国际旅游对全球社会经济发展的影响摘要本文的目的是分析国际旅游对全球社会经济发展的影响。

文献出处：Bobirca A, Cristureanu C. The international competitiveness of trade in tourism services [J]Advances in Tourism Economics.，2014，16（5）: 189-202.原文The International Competitiveness of Trade in Tourism ServicesAna Bobirca and Cristiana Cristureanu1 IntroductionTourism is the only service activity that can potentially provide trading opportunities for all nations, regardless of their level of development. However, it is also a sector where there is clearly an uneven distribution of benefits that is l argely dependant on countries’ ability to strengthen their performance in the global economy, which in turn requires improving their competitiveness.Since the beginning of the 1990s, Romania has experienced major changes in its tourism exports volume, growth rate and structure. These disparate punctuations have all influenced the relative competitive position of Romania on the international tourism market and have been associated with changes in its tourism trade balance. In the same time, the new and more heterogeneous European architecture has induced significant changes in Romania’s regional tourism competitiveness.Against this background, the paper attempts to suggest a framework for assessing the international competitiveness of Romania’s tourism services trade, by focusing on the relationship between competitiveness and tourism trade performance.To this end, the first part starts by introducing the concept of international competitiveness and by presenting, evaluating and systematizing key issues of the complex analysis on international competitiveness. The paper subsequently considers the relationship between export performance and international competitiveness, as well as its relevance for international tourism. The second part includes a macro overview of the tourism sector, focusing spherically on its importance to the econ omy. The third part of the paper sets out in detail the framework for calculating the proposed measures of competitiveness and shows the importance of the methodological approach in interpreting the information provided by these indicators. It also illustrates the recent performance of Romanian tourism, based on an integrated measure of international trade competitiveness. The paper concludes by explaining the competitive position of Romania on the European tourism market and by identifying research issues that require further study.2 Perspectives on International Competitiveness – The Relationship Between Export Performance and International Competitiveness and its Relevance for International TourismThe concept of international competitiveness, although controversial and elusive, has gained acceptance and continues to attract the attention of both academics and policymakers worldwide.Most measures of international competitiveness that have so far been considered were undertaken at the economy-wide level (Garelli 2003) and generally refer to the ability of a country to produce goods and services that meet the test of international markets, while simultaneously maintaining and expanding the real income of its citizens (European Commission 2007).Because competitiveness ultimately depends upon firms in a country competing successfully on the domestic and international markets, attention has focused on competitiveness at the firm level (Porter 1990), where it is generally understood to refer to ―.. . the ability of the firm to retain and, better still, enlarge its global market share, increase its profits and expand‖ (Clark and Guy 1998, OECD 1993).According to traditional economic theory, a firm can gain competitive advanage through comparative cost of production by, for example, reducing labor cost. However, recent research suggests that non-price factors are equally important determinants of competitiveness. The range of non-price factors is diverse and includes human resource endowment, such as skills; technical factors, such as research and development capabilities and the ability to innovate; managerial and organization factors, both internal to the firm and externally organized through relationships with other bodies, customers, suppliers, public and private research institutes, and other firms (Clark and Guy 1998, Fagerberg 1986). Together, these factors determine the ability of the firm to compete successfully in international markets, on the background of changing technological, economic, and social environments. Export performance and the ability of the firm to maintain its market share remain the ultimate indicators of international competitiveness.Consequently, although widely proclaimed, the theoretical bases of international competitiveness as it relates to national economies and their international trade have been less analyzed in academic literature. Thus, the nature, benefits and constraints on a nation of being internationally competitive remain ambiguous (Coldwell 2000, Krugman 1994, 1996).International competitiveness, within the context of trade in goods and services, refers to a nation securing and maintaining a trade advantage vis-à-vis the rest of the world. International competitiveness is advanced whenever the economic welfare of a nation is enhanced through an increase in the flow of trade or through an alteration in the conditions of trade starting from a presumed initial equilibrium (Coldwell 2000).Trade theory asserts that economic welfare is dependent on the production of goods and services that a country has comparative advantage in. This, in effect, means that international competitiveness is secured when production is in line with a country’s comparative advantage situation. If countries perform well internati onally and compete successfully for export markets, this could be a sign of their sound international competitiveness.Therefore, at the international level, competitiveness can be defined as the abilityof an economy to attract the demand for its exports and the investment to supply that demand, all within social norms that result in an improved standard of living for its citizens. This, in turn, depends on the macro and microeconomic policies, regulations and institutions that affect the productivity of the economy’s factors of production and the costs of doing business.A review of available literature and empirical evidences supports the notion that international competitivenes s can be explained, to some extent, by a country’s ability to export (Dollar and Wolff 1993, Fagerberg et al. 2004). There is, in fact, a self-recurring relationship between export performance and international competitiveness. Exports are the first level o f international competitiveness affirmation. The improvement in export performance leads to an increase in a country’s competitiveness. This effect is a result of enterprises’ skills, knowledge, propensity to innovate and use new technology, ability to exploit technological opportunities in a successfully commercial way, etc.On the other hand, in striving to achieve successful exports in highly competitive global markets, a country is forced to improve its competitiveness. The more competitive a country is, the more economically powerful it is. Consequently, it is more capable to compete on the global market, to attract people with higher level of knowledge, skills, to buy new technologies, etc., and to improve its export performance, as well as to achieve better export results. This can, in turn, favor additional innovations and trigger an improvement in its competitiveness.Consequently, export performance and competitiveness should not be considered in isolation, since they are mutually interdependent.However, competitiveness should not be equated only with a country’s ability to export. The evolution of export market shares is also an important element of trade competitiveness, while the latter is just a component of a nation’s competitivenes s defined by the European Declaration of Lisbon as the capacity to improve and raise the standard of living of its habitants by providing more and higher quality employment, and a greater social cohesion. The gains or losses of world market shares by individual countries are often considered as an index of their trade competitiveness. However, market share growth depends also on structural factors. Due to changes in demand, a country’s geographical and sect oral specialization at the beginning of a period is an important factor shaping future market share growth. Similarly, the country’s ability to adapt its exports to such changes will also affect the final outcome. Furthermore, the concept of international competitiveness in tourism services also encompasses qualitative factors, that are difficult to quantify; the quality of services involved, the degree of specialization, the capacity for technological innovation, the quality of human resources (Rubalcaba and Cuadrado 2001) are factors that may influence a country’s tourism trade performance favorably. Likewise, high rates of productivity growth are often sought as a way of strengthening competitiveness. But it is not necessarily the case that favorable structural factors of this sort will give rise to increased sales on foreign markets. They may, instead, show up as improving terms of trade brought about through exchange-rate appreciation, while leaving export performance broadly unchanged. It is for this reason, as well as because these factorsare hard to measure in quantitative terms, that consideration here is confined to a more specific and integrated method for determining Romania’s relative competitive position in international tourism.3 An Overview of Romania’s International Trade in Tourism Services3.1 Key FactsRomania’s Travel and Tourism Economy1 currently shows a return to positive territory, following negative results posted during the early years of economic transition, with an optimistic outlook for growth over the next ten years, much stronger than that of the EU.With a 4.8% contribution of tourism to GDP, Romania ranks the 162nd among 174 countries, being currently among the lower-tier, tourism-intensive countries of the region and the world. However, Romania’s prospects for tourism sector growth are better than for most of its neighbors and competitors within the regional and world ranking, i.e. 6.7% contribution to GDP over the next 10 years and 12th position, respectively (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).Romania’s Travel and Tourism Industry2 contributed 1.9% to GDP in 2006, rising to 2.5% of total GDP by 2016, while in the European Union, the Travel and Tourism Industry posted a GDP contribution of 3.9% in 2006 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).While the Travel and Tourism Economy accounts for 8.7% of global employment, Romania’s Travel and Tourism Economy employment was estimated at 485,000 jobs in 2006, representing 5.8% of total employment, or one in every 17.4 jobs. The current 265,000 Travel and Tourism Industry jobs account for 3.1% of total employment, as compared with 4.2% of total employment in the European Union (8.6 million jobs) (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).Travel and Tourism represented, in the European Union, 13.0% of total exports in 2006. In Romania, exports make up a very important share of Travel and Tourism’s contribution to GDP. Out of the total Romanian exports, Travel and Tourism represented 5.2% (1.2 billion Euros) in 2004, with a prospect to increase, in nominal terms, to 1.8 billion Euros (4.6% of total) by 2016 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2007).The vast majority of international arrivals in Romania are from Europe. Since 2000, some 95% of visitors every year have been intra-regional. Out of these, a growing number – 75% according to 2004 figures –represent arrivals from the five countries with which Romania shares a border: Ukraine, Moldavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Montenegro.3.2 Major FindingsThe analysis shows that, while still lagging behind the developed economies, the trend towards a service-oriented society is observable for Romania. This is also reflected by the increasing proportion of GDP attributable to tourism services and the growing share of employment in the tourism services sector.Although the overall tourism balance of Romania is positive, EU represents a net exporter of tourism services to Romania (the tourism balance is negative, with aworsening deficit from 2005 to 2006); still, the propensity to trade with EU partners is stronger in this field, reflecting a high er degree of integration into the EU tourism services market (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006).While Romania’s Travel and Tourism is growing in terms of international visitors, the country’s tourism receipts have been lagging considerably behind neighbori n countries. In 2004, Romania registered some 38% of those registered by Bulgaria, approximately 12% of those registered by Hungary and the Czech Republic and a mere 7% of Croatia’s receipts. This reflects the fact that many of Romania’s visitors do not stay overnight or spend anything while they are in the country, an important weakness to address for any tourism plan going forward (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 20058, 2006).–Within EU-15 countries, Romani a’s largest markets are Germany, Italy, France, Austria and the UK. Worryingly, arrivals from all of the EU-15 countries showed negative growth in 2004. This can be attributed in part to the accession of ten new countries to the EU and related incentives for visitors to these countries, such as low-cost airlines.– Growth in 2004 was driven by Hungary, which showed a 69% increase in arrivals in Romania. Outside Europe, Romania’s main international markets are the USA, which has shown steady growth since 2000, to 111,000 arrivals in 2004, as American tourists have started to be aware of the fact that Romania is more than a ―Dracula‖ destination; and Israel, although the Israeli market has remained stagnant in recent years. Tourists from China are also expected to increase in the future, as Romania received approved destination status in June 2004 (EUROSTAT 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006). Analysis of accommodation figures shows that a large number of these visitors do not stay in registered facilities and either reside with friends or relatives, or do not overnight in Romania. Thus, it is difficult to quantify their impact on the economy.– The majority of international arrivals to Romania are by road, again mirroring the large proportion of the country’s visitors from bordering countries. However, arrivals by air have also seen a healthy rise over the past five years, with increased frequency of scheduled services and some charters operating in regional airports.As Romania is forced to liberalize its aviation industry as a consequence of EU accession, air transport is set to rise dramatically in the near future. Arrivals by rail are decreasing at almost the same rate that air arrivals are increasing, as air travel becomes cheaper and more accessible.4 Methods for Assessing the International Competitiveness of Trade in Tourism Services4.1 The Research MethodFor the specific assessment of the international competitiveness of trade in tourism services, the underlying methodological approach undertaken in this study is based on the idea that the economy with an improving degree of competitiveness in tourism services is the one able to enhance the size of its tourism services exports to a certain market. Similarly, the economy with a declining degree of competitiveness is the one that increases the size of its tourism services imports coming from other countries.The greater or smaller degree of competitiveness a country (or sector) has shows the nature and degree of participation it has – through its exports – in the imports carried out by the analyzed market, i.e., a country improves its competitiveness in the way that the other country increases its imports coming from the former one (Mandeng 1991).In addition, the process of inserting a country in the international economy is related not only to its exporting progresses, but also to the behavior and actions of other competitors. The model is adapted from De la Guardia, Molero, and Valadez (De la Guardia et al. 2004) that introduced the aspect of the dynamic nature of markets and implemented through their work an ex—post assessment of services competitiveness, by providing a descriptive reference on the changes produced in the competitiveness level and specialization degree, in international trade. The commercial advantage is revealed through the evolution of tourism exports which reflects improvements in competi tiveness, and through the evolution of tourism imports that reflects a worsening of the commercial advantage.(1). Based on the aforesaid, the changes in the international tourism services trade competitiveness are measured through the analysis of different variables: 1. the first variable is the market share or participation in the market, and measures the portion of the market that is supplied by a certain country or the tourism sector of this country;(2). the second variable used is the export structure of the analyzed country. This variable reflects the relative weight of the tourism sector in the total exports of that country;(3) finally, by means of the import structure of the market, the degree of dynamism that the tourism sector has in the analyzed import market can be determined. Through the combination of the aforementioned variables, three ―tourism competitiveness matrices‖ (see Table 12.1) are constructed, that allow for the description of Romania’s international tourism trade development profile.The Market Share Competitiveness Matrix illustrates the fact that a country’s tourism exports can be classified according to their international competitiveness starting from the behavior of the country’s market share in tourism exports and the evolution of the world tourism services imports over time.In effect, the world market share held by each country in tourism services exports can increase or diminish throughout time; such modifications take place in the same time with the increase or decline that tourism imports register in international trade.This allows for the classification of a country’s tourism exports as performing, missed opportunities, declining and retreating.Tourism services are performing when a country enhances its market share in tourism, in circumstances in which this activity has an increasing importance in world-wide trade.Tourism services are missed opportunities when a country is losing market share, while international trade in the sector is enhancing.Declining are those tourism services in which the exporting country increases its market share, while the international market is shrinking.Finally, we define the situation of tourism services as retreating when thiseconomic activity, besides losing market share, registers a decline of dynamism in international trade.The competitiveness matrix of the export structure is obtained relating the behavior of a country’s tourism services export structure with the tourism services import dynamism of the international market.This matrix shows how the adjustments of the export structure can take place in the same direction or in the opposite direction with respect to the changes in world imports structure. The different segments of services exports, including tourism, can be classified, from the point of view of their international competitiveness, through the changes that take place in the services export structure of the country and the world services imports structure throughout time.Combining these two variables, tourism, as a services exporting sector can be classified as performing, missed opportunity, declining and retreating, with the equivalent meaning mentioned before.Finally, tourism exports can also be classified from the point of view of their international competitiveness throughout time, when the degree of trade specialization of each country and the evolution of the world imports are simultaneously analyzed.The specialization index is defined as the relative par ticipation that an exporting sector of a country has in world trade.3Similarly, tourism, as an exporting sector can be classified as performing, missed opportunity, declining and retreating, with an identical interpretation to the ones previously indicated.Our aim here is to adapt and apply the model developed by De la Guardia, Molero, and Valadez in order to assess the international competitiveness of tourism services, using information related to the current situation of the EU-25 countries and to that of Romania, based on the statistical information available.Balance of payments transactions for tourism services are less easy to link to actual tourism services provision than is the case for goods; some tourism activities may be difficult to disentangle from goods or capital transactions. Countries have developed unique national methods for assembling the data: some have tended to rely more on statistical surveys and others have relied more on central banks’ administrative systems. Even so, there has been and still remains considerable variation in data collection methods. To compound the picture, methods of collection have changed considerably over time.Despite these troubles, we believe that the forthcoming descriptive analysis could bring some highlights on international competitiveness and the factors determining the commercial position in tourism services trade.The sample data is drawn from UNCTAD-IMF-BOP Statistics on Trade in Services by sector and country (OECD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, UNCTAD 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006), a data-set which covers exports (credits) and imports (debits) of three main services categories: transportation, tourism and travel and other commercial services, according to the concepts and dentitions’ of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual with a focus on tourism services. Data-set comprises the 25 EU countries, Romania and the world (178 countries) and covers a yearly time periodcomprising 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.4.2 The Research Results4.2.1 The IndicatorsThe evolution of the market share shows the penetration ability of tourism as a services exporting sector of each country in the international economy.The data reveal that, for the analyzed period, the EU-25 economies were among the main world suppliers of tourism services, since they maintained an overall participation next to 45% of the world supply in tourism exports. Altogether, the group constituted by these countries slightly diminished the held proportions of the world quota in tourism services (–0.68% growth rate).From the perspective of individual countries, the economies that registered an increase of their quotas in the world market of tourism services were, in order, those of Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, UK and Luxemburg.By contrast, especially significant are the results registered by countries like Hungary, Finland and Spain, which decreased their market share in tourism.Romania’s market share in tourism services exports declined at both world level (Romania –world) and in relation to EU-25 countries (Romania –EU-25), but the decrease in the latter case was more severe (20.85%, as opposed to 4.65%). Also, the reduction in Romania’s market share on the EU-25 market was much higher then the overall European market retreat.Through the analysis of the export structure we can appreciate the importance that export of services has as currency provider for the EU-25 economies and Romania.Data show that, in relation to the examined services sectors, the exports of tourism services represent about 27% of the overall services exports in the EU-25 countries and about 28% at world level, meaning that, compared to the world export structure, the EU-25 countries exhibit a similar pattern, with a slight negative deviation for tourism services.In the analyzed period, most of the countries registered minor decreases in their currency entry through exports of tourism services. The countries that opposed this trend were Poland, Estonia, Malta, Germany, UK.In Romania, tourism services represent about 14% of the overall services exports, which is below the world and European average (27–28%).The evolution is similar with that signaled above, meaning that the structure of Romania’s exports is altered in the detriment of tourism services, that are decreasing both in relation to the world and to the EU-25 countries, but with a much higher amplitude in the latter case (27.85%, as compared to 6.14%).译文旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力安娜；克瑞斯缇娜1 引言对所有国家来说，旅游业都可以为本国提供交易机会，这也是唯一可能的服务活动。

文献出处: Hill, John. A new perspective of tourism product development: The Case of South Korea [J]. The Journal of International Travel, 2014, 35(3): 125-141.（声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。

）原文A new perspective of tourism product development: The Case of South KoreaHill, JohnAbstractAs the tourism consumption rising demand for personalized, tourism consumer’s independent participation consciousness enhancement. Tourism product development to meet the growing demand for personalized, tourists pay attention to the experience of tourists is crucial. The development of modern society and the change of consumption concept, tourism are more likely to experience the real life experience, enhance feelings of self-realization. The authenticity of the tourist experience is the cultural meaning of tourism activities.In the study of tourism experience, authenticity is one of the core issues. The study of experience of tourism authenticity, not only has theoretical significance of cultural studies, and has a guiding significance to tourism development. In recent years, tourism research in the field of authenticity as the academic concern increasingly, especially in terms of tourism culture, from the perspective of tourism experience less research of the tourism product development research.Key words: authenticity; Experience; Tourists; Tourism product development1 Tourism product development processContrast the status of the previous South Korean tourism product development, be helpful for us in the tourism product development in the era of experience economy into more targeted experience elements, enhancing the market value of tourism products. In South Korea tourism product of the market by the buyer to the seller's market, selling changes - the three stages of buyer's market.1.1 The first stageThe characteristics of this stage is give play to the resource advantage of primarycharacteristics of supply oriented seller's market, is also the number of tourist product innovation stage of development, especially the number of tourist spots. Before 1987, nearly 70% of tourists tourists travel purpose is, arguably, the history of South Korea tourism is in accordance with the history of tourism products. This one phase, the south Korean tourism under the policy of opening to the outside world and invigorating, started from the past political reception, cultural exchange is given priority to, to give priority to with business services, earning foreign exchange of economic business, the tourism market is basically a seller's market, tourism product innovation basic work mainly focused on giving full play to the advantages of resources, expand the number of tourist spots. South Korea tourism products in this period is given priority to with primary resources, variety single, the structure is not complete, rely mainly on the increase of the number of the tourist attractions and tourism facilities to meet the needs of tourists. Traditional on the basis of the resources of tourism products is very rich, South Korea tourism product development based on tourism as the breakthrough point, to Korean culture as the main body of the purpose of the rapid development of market monopoly to South Korea tourism products play an important role1.2 The second stageThis stage is the continuing development of tourism at the same time, begin to pay close attention to the special tourism products and the development of special tourism products. After the first phase of development, a south Korean tourist product and have been able to put into the market on a large scale, but the same time the world tourism market consumption trend towards, pure purpose of products in the market space gradually narrowing, real special tourism and special tourism products, tourism market a major Asian tourism at the same time adjustment, declining proportion of intercontinental travelers, tourists from close range scale expands rapidly. Close the popularity of the tourist not only expand the market space, deduce the specific tourist motives more diversification and the diversification of tourism way. Participatory, entertaining and distinct personality constitutes a new market focus for the integration of new products and development trend. In 1987, the national tourism administrationproposed change single do line situation, special tourism and special tourism development, the development of the individual and family travel, form a pattern of diversification of products. Since the early 1990 s, South Korea tourism departments and enterprises pay attention to the use of South Korean tourist resources type, features colorful compose various types of tourism product development. Since 1992, a year to determine the different theme, with focus on the promotion of different types of tourism products. Holiday products to drive the rise of the special tourism development and construction, prompted South Korea tourism products to form sightseeing, holiday and special pattern of the three pillars of tourism products. (2) This reflect a shift from a seller's market to a buyer's market, on the other hand shows that South Korea tourism market consciousness and competition consciousness gradually enhanced. Tourism product development by relying on resources to expand the number of tourist spots, also gradually transformed into construction with emphasis and plan a batch of tourist routes, tourist route construction to stimulate the development of tourist spots and the depth of the tourism resources development. At this stage, a buyer's market trend of tourism product makes tourism products in every link more closely contact with the market demand, tourism product diversification and specialization trend gradually formed, and pay attention to hardware product quality and improve the quality of our services, in order to improve the economic benefits of the tourism industry as a whole.1.3 The third stageThis stage is a buyer's market stage of development. Concept of market competition, tourism enterprises and tourism managers to research the demand of tourists, to design a marketable product. Is a comprehensive very strong products, tourism products require breakthrough construction of tourist route in the past, become a including tourism destination image construction, the coordination with economic and social development of tourism, tourists, local residents and tourism practitioners, the tourist ecological social environment coordinated coexistence, every aspect of system engineering. Along with the development of regional tourism, tourist activities on the near distance and developed, and the supply of tourist activitiescharacteristics change requirements change along the traveling route line of original model, and into the travel purpose ground roll out, to tourism destination as a unit of overall construction, coordination and optimization of the tourist products, the tourists in the tourist destination can fully meet the demand of various substances spirit. This prompted the tourism product marketing gimmick diversification, into service and experience factors in the product, meet the demand of tourist’s mental stage.2 Two problems existing in the tourism product experience2.1 Type single tourism product experiencePine with Gilmore put forward to make people feel is one of the most abundant experience include entertainment, education, and escape from reality, aesthetics four types of experience, the experience type is rich, experience the better the results. South Korea now experience of tourism products is given priority to with the purpose, more dominant aesthetic experience, only to mobilize the visual sense in experience, experience type single make profound cultural connotation of tourism products difficult to explicit, and for some cultural relics of ornamental also need certain professional background knowledge, aesthetics and education experience very snorkeling, tourists to tourism products stay in watching, buildings, monuments and so on the surface of the scenic spot tourism experience content, the lack of deep, various types of tourism experience.2.2 Travel experience the same contentNo patents, tourism products have the features of easy to imitate. Traditional Korean tourism product innovation is insufficient, the phenomenon of redundant construction is more common. South Korea tourism product regardless of from the type and quantity is very rich, but in actual travel, content is similar, resource characteristics have not been able to come out of the full performance. At the same time, the design of tourism projects lack of features, the experience of the same content makes visitors feel familiar, it is difficult to obtain the unforgettable travel experience, tourism products lack of professional travel experience design. And experience respectively the core elements of tourism is the tourism product experience provided by the object with the tourists everyday life, the difference of the differenceis larger, the more can stimulate the tourists travel desire, also has development value. The present tourism products lack of diversity development, it is difficult to meet the demand of tourist’s experience.Experience respectively the development of tourism products in South Korea is still in the theory of infancy, domestic academia for its research is limited, although scholars have carried on the preliminary study on tourism experience, is only for one tourism product shallow levels of discussion. Due to the development of the theory of experience economy in South Korea at an early stage, there was lack of experience on tourism products design experience respectively.2.3 Tourism experience of participationTraditional Korean tourism product development mode is a resource - oriented, the dependence on resources to product development. For most of the tourism products, or directly to the original resources as the project, make tourists can experience the resources of ecological and historical value, the development depth is not enough, not characteristics. At the same time, need few tourists involved to complete the project, the development of tourism products to stay on the surface of experience, and the resource itself very little contact with the local population. Product development lack of innovation, imitation, following severe, similar products, to the use of resources at the simple extensive stage, can't meet the personalized needs of unusual experience for visitors3 The tourists and the development of tourism productsFor different types of tourism products, the authenticity of tourists demand is different. Here we combine clement chug in the authenticity of the tourism experience rule and the scenic area management problem "as a law in this paper, we summed up experience of tourism authenticity. Author put all the scenic spot is classified into humanities scenic spot and the natural scenic area, and puts forward the concept of the original true scenic area, it refers to those who have experienced a certain time of the historical and cultural precipitation, less interference or destruction of the scenic spot.For with a history of ontology in the sense of real estate field and reflect real life custom tourism destination specific landmark tourism cultural products, namely theoriginal true strong tourism products, such as historical and cultural heritage, cultural relics sites, from the objective, they are real, for these scenic area, the main task of management is to protect the good humanities and natural environment, the less artificial interference, to give visitors experience the real; At the same time in the cultural objective authenticity intact at the same time, should pay attention to environment, and guide the design of the artificial factors such as service. To reflect the cultural activities held at the destination, such as some real folk music, dance, and some onto the stage of festival celebration activities, can understand from the perspective of structuralism real authenticity. Authenticity of experience can be increased by operating organization, Pierce (1986) argues that authenticity can be achieved by the experience of the physical environment, social interaction, and based on the experience of people get, theatrical real also can let visitors get high quality tourism experience. At the same time, the enthusiasm of the community residents to participate in is also very important.England's rural tourism is, through the method of "reproduction history", through the participation of visitors and the community residents to improve interaction effect of the authenticity of the experience. Held in destination for the destination of the cultural activities outside of products (such as theme parks) the authenticity of the experience, can be interpreted from the perspective of existentialism real, tourist experience has nothing to do with the object of tourism, tourist experience has intensified, intoxicated, feel the real self. Experience of this kind of tourism products is short, need to inspire visitor’s experience, objective existence not true to the real experience, and constantly to update the tourism products, tourism products to achieve sustained development.译文旅游产品开发的新视角：以韩国为例作者：希尔·约翰斯摘要随着旅游消费个性化需求的上升,旅游消费者自主参与意识增强。

文献信息：文献标题：TOURISM – ECONOMIC GROWTH FACTOR AND ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROMANIA（旅游是罗马尼亚区域发展的重要经济因素）国外作者：Adrian Liviu SCUTARIU文献出处：《Analele Stiintifice ale Universitatii "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" din Iasi - Stiinte Economice》, 2009,56,p318-330字数统计：英文1877单词，10281字符；中文2950汉字外文文献：TOURISM – ECONOMIC GROWTH FACTOR AND ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OFROMANIAAbstractThis paper aims to emphasize some aspects concerning the evolution of the tourism and its role in economic growth and regional development. The first part presents a conceptual delimitation of tourism, and the next parts are focused on the link of tourism with economic growth and regional development. We also present the organizational frame of the regional development policy and the role of tourism in this policy objectives achievement, and the final part brings some conclusions and some future development directions of tourism in Romania.1.IntroductionThe tourism became at present time one of the most important industries in the world, having an outstanding place in most of national economies. The spectacular increase of this activity, in terms of volume, but also from the incomes point of view, as well as its importance as exporting branch, lead us in making the incursion thatfollows, with the purpose of emphasize the role of tourism in the economic growth and regional development.2.Tourism – short conceptual delimitationsThe appearance of the tourism as an economic-organizatoric activity, at national level, took place in the second half of the twenty century, in the same time with the inclusion in the services (tertiary) sector of some new branches of national economies, generally called tourist industry.The new economic theory of tourism recognized the link between tourism and economic development of a country, the tourism being treated in a complex way, not only as recreational trip, but together with all the economic link that creates. So, at the present moment, this notion includes a whole industry, component of the services industry, which contributes at the tourist demands satisfaction, respectively: hotels, transports, entertainment.There were several different definitions given for tourism during the twenty century, but we will focus on some present approaches, accepted by most of the specialists of the field.The tourism can be shortly defined as being [Minciu, Baron, Neacu, 1991, 1993] an economic-social phenomenon specific for the modern civilization, strongly anchored in the life of the society and influenced by its evolution, with a high dynamism and having large social segments as target. It involves a large human capital and influences the evolution of the economy and society.So, one can notice, that, in the tourism definition, appeared more and more elements referring to the industry that handles the tourist need satisfaction, fact also revealed by The Little Encyclopedic Dictionary, which considers tourism as “a side of the tertiary sector of the economy, where the goal of the provided activity is the organization and ongoing of entertainment trips, or of persons travels at various congresses and meetings, including all the necessary activities for the consuming and services needs satisfaction of the customers".In order to clarify the aspects regarding the tourist phenomenon definition, onecan use the inductive method in order to get to a most possible comprehensive definition, aiming to retain the main elements that are characteristic for the tourist activity [Neacu, Baron, Snak, 2006, 21]:• travel of the persons during their trip;• the stay in a settlement out of their domicile (permanent residence) of the person that travels;• the stay have a limited period;• the stay doesn’t become a definitive residence.Continuing the anterior ideas, we will mention a definition variant, that includes the business travels, too, proposed by the professor dr. Claude Kaspar (the president of the International Association of the Scientific Experts in Tourism (A.I.E.S.T.)): “The tourism is an ensemble of relations and facts constituted from the travel and the stay of the persons for which the place of stay is not their home and not the principal place of their professional activity”.Considering the role and the economic-social importance of the intern (national) tourism, The World Tourism Organization (WTO) elaborated a definition of the national tourism, so we can consider national tourist any person which visits a place that is not his/her usual residence, situated inside his/her residence country and having a different purpose that a remunerated activity and with a staying of at least one night .3.The place and role of tourism in the economyTourism, as an important element of the tertiary sector and industry with huge potential, has an increasingly role in the economy of a country, being a factor which the economic growth is based on.By "economic growth" we mean a complex process involving the entire economic system, which is determined by the results of economic activity and is considered the only factor that ensures the economic success in the long term of each state.The tertiary or services sector has become prevalent in the postwar period, itsrole becomes more important, diversifying its activities in terms of content, taking different forms of expression, which have expanded and diversified ways of achieving social product, thus becoming a significant component of the reproduction mechanism. In developed countries this sector weightings are high.The services sector, as any other sector, experienced a development from early forms of the basic activities up to actual structures, which are characterized by a maximum utility for individuals and society.Tourism, as economic activity, includes various services that derive from the basic ones: information, placement of tourist travels, accommodation, food selling, offering treatments, as well as leisure and entertainment.Tourist offer increased both quantitatively and qualitatively, giving rise to a genuine industry of tourism, which requires the consideration of the tourism phenomenon as a growing distinct branch of the national economy, component of the tertiary sector. Separate treatment come from the complexity and specific nature compared to traditional branches of an economy. However, tourism is in close connection with the development of other sectors, being a consequence branch.As socio-economic changes in the contemporary era have created and developed tourism, this in turn bringing by default a specific demand for goods and services necessary to consolidate tourism product, it stimulates some productive sectors such as: industry, agriculture, construction, transport, trade, communications, culture, healthcare, etc.From the expenditures of the tourist-consumer of goods and services, which turns into money for the economic units of tourism industry (transport, accommodation, food, recreation, treatment etc.), some goes directly to those units as profits and cash funds for pay their workers, some goes to the state budget as taxes, fees, and another part reach other branches of the economy as payment for goods delivered and services rendered by them for the needs of tourism industry.Considering tourist products consumed by foreign visitors during their stay, international tourism will appear as a form of "invisible export", with advantages such as the duty free sale of products to foreign tourists into the country. Therefore,tourism has often a higher labor efficiency than classical export of goods, and some of them, consumed by tourists during the stay, nor would be subject of classic export because of being perish, of their costs of transport or other prohibitive measures.Due to the economic advantage of international tourism, many developing countries have taken steps to develop their tourism industry, this form of "invisible trade" in the economy could bring large quantities of currency.Some statistical data come to support the previous statements. The spectacular development of tourism in the last period can be observed also from the fact that the total number of tourists traveling abroad have increased from 1995 to 2008, becoming almost twice (Figure no.1).Source: O.M.T., UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, V olume 7, No.1, January 2009Figure no.1. International tourist arrivals (millions) The exemplification of the tourism place may also come from the fact that in The E.U. Member States about 20 million people are directly or indirectly involved in tourism, the share of it in the creation of gross domestic product of these countries being on average of about 4% [Postelnicu, 1997 , 53].4. The role of tourism in the regional development objectives achievementThe regional development policy main objective is to reduce the economic and social disparities that exists between the various regions of Europe.Several of the regional development policies objectives can be achieved by boosting a field of activity that has some undisputed aces: the tourism. In this part of the paper, we in tend to succinctly design some arguments for the ideas formerly expressed concerning the role of tourism in the regional development.The sustainable regional development must necessarily correlate and integrate the Romanian tourism, between the other components of the local economy, taking also into account that this clean industry does not affect the environment, and, generally, does not requires big investments. A good sustainable development project, included in a regional development program, supposes the less investments costs in this activity, the more harmoniously the integration is made. The tourism can become an important component of the economy, which could cause important changes in territorial profile, contributing at economic and social development of some regions less developed.The tourism can contribute more than other sectors at the achievement of some larger objectives, established by governments as priorities in the general interest of the citizens: fighting against poverty, life conditions improvement, currency receipts increasing, the intensification of the links between countries and even political purposes.The general objective of the regional development policy, reducing existing regional imbalances, with emphasis on balanced growth and revitalization of disadvantaged areas can be reached also by stimulating the areas with tourist potential, for which the tourism would represent one of the less possibilities of standard of living and development increase (especially in the rural areas). The development of the tourism by the capitalization of the existing potential can lead also to the achievement of one of the ERDF objectives.The ERDF financing explicitly supports the tourism development and the investments in the cultural patrimony, including its protection and th e natural one’s, with the condition of creating labor places.5. ConclusionsIn the actual period, the tourism became an outstanding element of the tertiary sector, having an important role in the economy of a country and being one of the factors that contribute at the economic growth.As we presented, the tourism had an extraordinary development all over the world, the number of tourists being twice as much than 15 years ago, and the incomes from tourism increased considerably. Its effects can be noticed in the development of its good and services suppliers’ branches, the whole economy of the zone being stimulated in this way, through the so-called multiplier effect. At the tourism stimulation, as branch that doesn’t need important investments and don’t a ffect environment, the development policies can successfully contribute.After a general presentation of the regional development coordinates in Romania, we designed some development possibilities for the tourism with the help of the founds that can be accessed through this policy. In Romania there is an important potential for the tourism development. There are several causes for which the tourist activity level is not as high as the existing potential, such as: infrastructure low developed or the low quality of the services. By accessing these founds, several of the deficient aspects can be improved. The sums are considerable, but it is necessary to increase the absorption capacity for the available founds.中文译文：旅游是罗马尼亚区域发展的重要经济因素摘要本文旨在强调一些因素对旅游业发展演变的影响和旅游业在经济增长、区域发展中的作用。

文献出处：Cucculelli, Marco, and Gianluca Goffi. Does sustainability enhance tourism destination competitiveness? Evidence from the Italian Destinations of Excellence [J]. Journal of Cleaner Production (2015)：1-13.原文Does sustainability enhance tourism destination competitiveness? Evidence fromItalian Destinations of ExcellenceMarco Cucculelli, Gianluca GoffibAbstractThis paper extends the Richie, Crouch (2000) model on destination competitiveness by introducing a set of sustainability indicators and testing their role in explaining the competitiveness of a tourism destination. The model is tested on a unique dataset of small Italian “Destinations of Excellence”, i.e., outstanding tourist destinations recognized by prestigious national and international awards. Both a principal component analysis and a regression analysis are applied to test the empirical validity of the model. Empirical results show that factors directly referring to sustainability have a positive impact on all the competitiveness indicators used as dependent variables. Furthermore, the impact of sustainability variables is larger in value than other variables, thus confirming the role of sustainability as a crucial determinant of the competitiveness of a tourist destination.Keywords: Sustainability; Tourism; Destination competitiveness; Italy Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries in many countries around theworld, and the main source of foreign income for a significant number of developing countries. Therefore, the study of tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) has attracted the attention of policy makers, public and private organizations, and tourism researchers (Pearce, 1997, Crouch and Ritchie, 1999, Kozak and Rimmington, 1999, Buhalis, 2000,Hassan, 2000, Dwyer and Kim, 2003 and Enright and Newton, 2004).After the milestone study by Ritchie and Crouch, 2000 and Ritchie and Crouch, 2003, a number of theoretical models have been developed to explain destination competitiveness (De Keyser and Vanhove, 1994, Hassan, 2000, Heath, 2002 and Dwyer and Kim, 2003), as well as to analyze the competitive positions of tourism destinations (Sirše and Mihalič, 1999, Dwyer et al., 2003, Enright and Newton, 2004 and Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008). Many authors have highlighted the relationship between sustainability and the competitiveness of a tourism destination and suggested, with different emphases, that sustainability can improve competitiveness (among others, Ritchie and Crouch, 2003 and Hassan, 2000).However, the large debate on the role of sustainable development has partly overlooked the call for a deeper empirical test, and there is still no clear empirical evidence of sustainability's role in explaining the competitiveness of a destination. The empirical models developed in the TDC literature (e.g., De Keyser and Vanhove, 1994, Sirše and Mihalič, 1999, Dwyer et al., 2003, Enright and Newton, 2004 and Gomezelj and Mihalič, 2008) provide very useful insights into destination competitiveness, but partly neglect the role of sustainability factors.This study aims at contributing to this literature by integrating a basic model of TDC (Ritchie and Crouch, 2000) with features related to sustainability. To test the relationship between factors of sustainability and TDC, we operationalize the conceptual approach by analyzing a number of indicators we have found to be important in defining sustainability. The study also has the potential to offer a more comprehensive assessment of the factors that influence TDC. We follow the Dwyer et al. (2003) approach in identifying a list of indicators derived from previous empirical models of TDC and from the literature in sustainable tourism and tourism planning and management.Furthermore, little empirical work has focused on small tourism destinations, and practically no research on TDC has been applied to small destinations such as villages or small towns. The existing literature has mostly dealt with countries or large geographical areas, whereas the issue of TDC has been assessed by considering the prevalent role of large tourist destinations. However, there are a number of countries where a significant part of the tourist competiveness actually relies on small places because of the highly fragmented cultural heritage, or the inherent nature of the tourist sites. Italy is a paradigmatic example of this pattern: the four major destination cities (Rome, Milan, Florence, and Venice) account only for a part of the tourism flows (24.7% in terms of total international bed nights), whereas a great number of minor destinations constitute the largest remaining part. Surprisingly, the empirical literature neglects the role of these small centers almost entirely: these destinations need attention not only because they account for a sizable share of the total arrivals, butalso because they represent a tourism model that is common to many other tourism countries. Therefore, our result could be of interest for a larger audience.We selected small Italian “destinations of excellence” as those that have been awarded importa nt international (“Blue Flag”) and national certifications (“Orange Flag,” “Most Beautiful Villages in Italy,” “Blue Sail”). To test the role played by sustainability factors on the competitiveness of a tourist destination, we studied the relationship between TDC, measured by four dependent variables (environmental impacts, socio-cultural impacts, economic impacts and tourists' satisfaction), and some explanatory variables that can be identified in terms of sustainability. To reduce the large set of independent variables to a smaller set, we performed a Principal Component Analysis (PCA), as in Dwyer et al. (2004), and used these results in the subsequent OLS estimates of the model. As opposed to previous indicators of TDC such as arrivals, bed-nights, revenues, or market share, the TDC measures we use in the paper acknowledge the view of Müller, 1994, Hunter, 1995, Buhalis, 2000 and Ritchie and Crouch, 2000, and others who recognize that a competitive destination pursues and establishes the right balance on the following different objectives: optimum satisfaction of guest requirement, subjective well-being of the residents (economic health), unspoiled nature, and healthy culture.The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 sets the theoretical framework. Section 3 gives details about the empirical analysis (variables, case study, data and methodology). Section 4 provides a discussion of the main findings. Conclusions are drawn in the last section of the paper.Sustainability and competitiveness in small tourism destinationsMany studies and models have identified destination competitiveness by using the lens of high visitor numbers and market share as contributing factors to a competitive destination. This view has a major limitation in that it ignores the sustainable perspective of not overloading the carrying capacity of a destination, or preserving its environmental integrity (Croes, 2010). Many authors seem to agree that the competitive destination is the one that preserves natural and cultural resources and increases long-term well-being for its residents by delivering an experience that is more satisfying compared to similar destinations (Hassan, 2000, Heath, 2002, Ritchie and Crouch, 2003 and Bahar and Kozak, 2007).The concept of sustainability was introduced to tourism from the notion of sustainable development, following the publication of the World Commission on Environment and Development Report, known as the Bruntland Report (WCED, 1987). Even though after a quarter-century the world is an enormously different place (Sneddon et al., 2006), and the Report has been criticized for its central approach (Adam, 1990) and the lack of attention given to power relations among local-to-global actors (Lélé, 1991), it represented an important starting point for the formulation of sustainable policies. In Sharpley's view (2000), sustainable tourism development does not appear to be entirely consistent with the developmental aspects of sustainable development, but has a larger inward and product-centered perspective.Tourism researchers have been trying to define sustainable tourism development (STD) for many years. Despite the fact that it is widely accepted that STD is along-term goal (WTO, 1992), or a concept that is constantly evolving (Inskeep, 1991) and intrinsically dynamic (Liu, 2003), there is no standard definition for “sustainable to urism destinations” (Tepelus and Cordoba, 2005). Lee (2001, p. 314) observes that, “Since destinations are unique, so are sustainable development issues in these destinations.”However, there is an emerging consensus that STD aims to minimize environmentally negative impacts, preserve cultural heritage, while at the same time provide learning opportunities, including positive benefits for the local economy and contributing to the enhancement of local community structures (Weaver, 2005).Practical evidence shows that STD can not only stop further deterioration, but it can also contribute towards the appreciation of the destination (Aguiló et al., 2005). Various mass tourism destinations are trying to move toward a more sustainable approach for the tourism development model (Fortuny et al., 2008 and Rodríguez et al., 2008). Mass tourism was initially considered incompatible with the notion of sustainability (Krippendorf, 1987, Butler, 1991 and Valentine, 1993), as they were seen as polar opposites by Pearce (1992). This idea was followed by the position of the “movement,” resulting in the demand to change mass tourism into more sustainable forms (Cohen, 1987 and Butler, 1990), and finally to the idea of “convergence” between the two types (Inskeep, 1991). Inskeep, 1991, Hunter and Green,1995, Clarke,1997, Swarbrooke,1999, Budeanu,2005 and Tepelus,2005 highlight that all types of tourism can aim to be sustainable. Budeanu (2005, p.90) asserts that, “Sustainable tourism cannot be achieved if mass tourism practices arenot adjusted to integrate sustainability.”Hence, economic benefits for locals and the minimization of environmental and social repercussions could be complementary aims in every kind of destination: the key factor could be managing and controlling the tourism activity. That is the main reason why we aim to demonstrate that a more sustainable tourism policy and destination management could have a positive impact on destination competitiveness.Furthermore, two other aspects of sustainability need to be considered. Firstly, Liu (2003) and Kastenholz (2004) observe that sustainable tourism cannot be achieved without proper management of tourism demand. Notwithstanding, demand issues have often been neglected in the sustainable tourism debate. This may be due to the fact that the concept of sustainability was simply transposed from the broader concept of sustainable development, where the nature of demand is considered as a given condition. This is not the case for tourism – which is both supply and demand driven –requiring consideration of the demand factor in the explanation of TDC (Dwyer et al., 2003), and also in the case of small tourist destination competitiveness.Secondly, many authors agree that the competitive destination is the one that increases well-being for its residents in the long term (Crouch and Ritchie, 1999, Bahar and Kozak, 2007, Dwyer and Kim, 2003 and Heath, 2002). In this sense, Bramwell, (1996) observed that “locals” need to be empowered in order to move towards sustainable tourism development: if tourism is an income-generating sector for local communities, and it can have a multiplier effect, then the host population has to feel empowered, fully participating in the development process,which could be even easier in a small community.译文可持续性能增强旅游目的地的竞争力吗？来自意大利优秀目的地的证据马尔科，詹卢卡摘要本文通过引入一组可持续性指标，继承了里奇,克劳奇(2000)关于目的地竞争力的模型，并测试了解释旅游目的地竞争力的作用。

毕业论文文献综述国际经济与贸易浙江省旅游服务贸易国际竞争力研究目前，关于区域旅游国际竞争力，国内外学者的研究主要如下：一、区域旅游国际竞争力的国外相关研究国外对旅游竞争力的研究从20世纪80年代末开始，由加拿大学者Geoffrey I.Crouch 和J.R. BrentRitchie 等人组成的研究团队，至1992年开始，长期致力于旅游竞争力的相关研究，认为旅游目的地竞争力的可持续性。

提出了旅游目的地竞争力可持续性模型，在理论和模型的研究方面作出了突出的贡献。

1997年，美国学者Auiana Poon在他的著作中分析了20世纪90年代以来，社会经济发展尤其是以IT技术为代表的科学技术的进步对旅游消费者行为的影响。

在此基础上，他提出了美国旅游企业应该重视IT技术在旅游业上的应用，同时发展生态旅游等旅游品种，以确保美国旅游业的竞争力。

Pan-Long Tsai，Kuo-Liang Wang于1998年以日本和美国游客在台湾旅游客源市场份额中的变化为例，研究了台湾国际旅游竞争力的决定因素。

2000年，权威旅游期刊，英国的Tourism Management 出版专刊研究旅游目的地国际竞争力，主要文章诸如《从可持续发展角度看旅游国际竞争力》、《旅游目的地全面质量管理——欧洲如何获取竞争力》、《旅游目的地环境管理——获取旅游业竞争力的因素之一》。

近年来，世界旅游组织工作重心已转入对旅游目的地可持续竞争力问题的大量关注上，且专门成立了旅游目的地管理特别工作小组研究这一重大的问题。

二、区域旅游国际竞争力的国内相关研究国内的学者基于当前服务贸易自由化大背景，分别运用了不同的方法，对中国或我国某地区进行了旅游国际竞争力研究。

其研究方法及结论分别如下：姜国庆、张维维基于“钻石结构”模型，即从旅游生产要素状况、国内旅游需求、相关及辅助产业状况、旅游业的战略结构和竞争状况、机遇与政府，以上六个要素的组合与动态作用过程，研究旅游业的国际竞争力，提出应转变我国旅游业的比较优势为竞争优势．实现国际旅游业由粗放型增长向效益型增长。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译).Enhance the competitiveness of the Regional Tourism StrategyAbstract: The development of tourism is closely related to tourist resources and marketing activities. However, the geographical features of tourist resources and touristmovementaccount for the interaction between tourism and geographical structure. This leads to the existing a signficant task to research into the strategies of advancing regional tourism competitiveness.Key words: regional tourism; competition; influenceIn recent years, with the rest of the world competing to tourism as a pillar industry for the development of local and regional competition among the more obvious and in-depth. How to base their own reality, create competitive advantage, has become a top priority of the regional tourism development, but also travel in the new round of competition of the race. On the competitiveness of regional tourism can enhance the regional competition of the sense of urgency, to promote discovery and understanding of the regional competition in their own strengths and weaknesses, and then rapid response, positive response, the local competitiveness through theexpansion of China's tourism industry to strengthen the international market competitive power.First, the regional tourism competitiveness factorsThe so-called regional tourism competitiveness refers to the various tourist regions as a whole, in its own process of development shown in the competition for tourists, development, occupation, industry, tourism development of the market and obtain the capacity factor and growth potential. Regional tourism competitiveness is not the competitiveness of a given area, but by the interaction of many factors affecting the results, but also a potential to the competitive strength from the competition, to competition, the results of the dynamic development process. Competitive once made, has aroused extensive concern of scholars home and abroad. The most prominent of which is research professor at Harvard University, the famous expert on competitive strategy Porter, his "national diamond map" model for industry competitiveness study provides an economic paradigm. In this paradigm which, Porter summarized the six factors: (1) factors of production, including natural resources, human resources, knowledge resources, capital resources and infrastructure; (2) demand conditions, the major source markets that the demand structure and the scale of demand; (3) related and supporting industries conditions;(4) business strategy, structure and competition; (5) government action; (6) opportunities. For the tourism industry, because of its comprehensive features of its development, determine the impact of competitive factors in the regional tourism industry is also multifaceted. Based on these factors affect the competitiveness of the tourism industry, the size, can be divided into a decisive factor in supporting factors, developmental factors and security factors. Decisive factors include the conditions of resources, tourism demand conditions, the competitiveness of tourism enterprises and the regional state tourism image overseas. These factors constitute the core of competitiveness of regional tourism, but also to improve the future competitiveness of the regional tourism industry must focus. Factors supporting the development of tourism is not simply to exist, but the increase through its own perfect and can better stimulate and promote the competitiveness of regional tourism enhancement. Such factors include infrastructure, related and supporting industry conditions, personnel quality, technology level. Regional tourism development factor is the formation and savings based on the future competitiveness, mainly referring to the regional tourism resources development and utilization of capacity, marketing, tourism enterprises, innovation, tourism, access to capital and the use of capacity, tourism industry, optimization, adjustment capability . Protective factors constitute the development of regional tourism industry, the external environment, to promote and ensure the smooth direction of tourism development along healthy. Such factors include the tourism environment, the government and other development opportunities. Affect the competitiveness of the regional tourism industry is not independent of each other four factors, but an organic community. Decisive factor in competitiveness as a regional tourism in the core part of their development directly affects the strength of the overall competitiveness of the region. When the supporting factors for more approach and tilt to the tourism industry, the development of factors can play abetter role. The supporting factors and developmental factors working together, can enhance the decisive factors on the actual and potential tourist attraction, but also to better meet the needs of visitors and enhance visitor satisfaction provide a guarantee. Factors can protect the decisive factor, supporting factors and developmental factors play better to create a good atmosphere, contributed to the severity.Second, to enhance the competitiveness of regional tourism strategy choice Competitive loading phase theory of Porter on the industry, another important contribution to competitiveness, according to this theory, the formation of regional tourism competitiveness go through four stages, namely, factor-driven stage, the investment-driven stage, innovation-driven stage and wealth driver stage. It is characterized by two stages: In the factor-driven stage, the formation of competitiveness from the rich resources of the region require regional integration through the resources found superior resources, then the resource advantage into competitive advantage. Investment-driven stage of the formation of the competitiveness of the region benefited from government and business and investment willingness and ability to the development of advanced production factors. For most of our region, on the one hand is rich in tourism resources, according to different levels of resources. Specific strategy choices are as follows: (A) strategic planning of regional tourism development strategyPlanning for the development of tourism in a region crucial in determining the future direction of the regional tourism industry and overall program goals. Regional tourism development strategic planning as a competitive regional tourism product development is based on enhancing the competitiveness of regional tourism, sustainable tourism development as the goal to achieve, through a specific area of tourism competitive strengths, weaknesses, challenges, opportunities analysis, choose the appropriate local development strategy, and then Yangzhangbuduan to ensure long-term regional tourism, sustainable and stable development. With traditional planning for regional tourism, regional tourism development strategic planning a more comprehensive and targeted to specific implementation on a lot of flexibility there, and therefore more suitable in the competitive environment for tourism development by the guide. Regional development through regional tourism strategic planning, can effectively integrate resources to maximize the mining and upgrading capacity development and utilization to avoid unnecessary waste caused by wrong decisions so as to further enhance the potential of regional tourism competitiveness.(B) government-led strategyTourism development requires a favorable external environment, any one of tourism enterprises and groups can create and lead all Du industry to create such an environment, which requires the development of tourism Government Leading Strategy to be. As a government department, should play an active and effective coordination of their own initiative and capabilities, leading towards a good direction for regional tourism development. The author believes that the government departments to achieve the following three aspects of its leading role: First, establisha good market competition, improve the tourism market system and strengthen the laws and regulations on tourism, and create a fair and reasonable competition in order; the second is the establishment of a flexible industrial development policies and reasonable investments, increased capital investment in the tourism industry, encourage and travel agents; third is to strengthen the coordination and guiding role of the government, weakening regulatory functions to the tourism industry and enterprise more development space and options.(C) of the tourism product differentiation strategy seriesTourism products is carried out based tourism activities and conditions. Enriched and improved in all regions travel through the product line can enhance the overall level of supply capacity and to increase the intensity of the tourists buy. In the international tourism market, a large number of homogeneous products flooded conditions, and adhere to different product lines, can effectively avoid weakening the homogeneity between regions due to strong competition resulting product. Meanwhile, the neighboring region through the differentiation between the products can also achieve the effect of Yangchangbuduan interest in regional cooperation and win-win situation. Of course, the more important characteristic of differentiated tourism products in the market more easily attract tourists and stimulate the visitors to buy. The formation of differentiated tourism products should be based on the region's resources, to identify the type of resources the region to be the exclusive, in-depth scoop out the culture, Jin Xing starting point for the design and development, fighting first began to enter the market characteristics of the formation of high grade Yi brand competitiveness. In addition, to increase efforts to develop new products, opened the product grade, in the design of the core products, to products and ancillary products to the extension of research and development, give the region's tourism products to meet consumer tourism tourism, leisure, business and exhibition, science, education, exploration and other multi-level requirements and extend the product's serial tourists stay in a tourist destination, further increase in regional tourism revenue.(D) Travel Financing StrategyFunds are one of the basic elements of tourism development. The economic strength of weak regions, the shortage of funds is restricted to enhance the competitiveness of the regional tourism industry bottlenecks. Therefore, the local government to attract investment, loans, tax preferential policies to develop, optimize investment environment, promote investment diversification. Meanwhile, the local government's budget must be conscious tilt to the tourism industry, and gradually increase the capital investment in the tourism industry. The tourism industry itself must play an initiative to mobilize the enthusiasm of all sides, as much as possible for foreign capital, private capital and overseas Chinese, etc., and mobilize and guide the society to run tourism. In addition, as well as "to promote Tour Tour", will achieve a reasonable income from tourism investment to the development and construction, in development construction, in construction development, and ultimately the cycle of development of tourism economy.(E) tourism market integration strategySource is the foundation and focus of tourism development. With the country "to develop domestic tourism, stable development of inbound tourism, outbound tourism moderate development" policy, the domestic tourism market will be the focus of regional competition. The region should coordinate and organize the travel of three forms, a purpose, to focus on developing and nurturing the important goal of domestic tourist market, in particular, to actively guide the visitor's travel choices within the region, the full development and mining of large and medium cities in neighboring provinces and southeast coastal economically developed areas of the tourists in order to stabilize and promote the growth of tourists within the region to ensure the long term to maintain sustained and rapid development of tourism. (F) Industry Cluster StrategiesClustering of industrial concentration in the present state of horizontal space on the organizational form. As a form for creating competitive advantage and organizational form of industrial space, industrial clusters with a group a competitive advantage and economies of scale centralized development, industrial development can bring spillover effects. Currently, most of the region's tourism business is weak, it is difficult to form a strong market competition. In view of this situation, government departments and relevant trade organizations through effective guidance and support to promote the tourism business conscious, voluntary and related support industries to communicate and co-ordination and cooperation and competition, and then link through the formation of a variety of single business enterprise clusters to maximize the unique cluster of economic concentration, information sharing, risk weakening the advantages, to achieve single enterprise specialization, standardization and scale management, and further enhance the competitiveness of SMEs.(7) tourism optimization strategyRegional tourism is the core competitiveness of the overall competitiveness of the industry, namely, "food, shelter, transportation, travel, shopping and entertainment," the development of six-coordination ability. Many regions of the world "buy" and "entertainment" seriously lagging behind the building, brought in to the tourists visiting the many inconveniences, it is also greatly affected the tourism revenues. Optimize the industrial structure of tourism, we must focus on strengthening the weak links in the construction of these foundations, while continually improving the level of the construction of supporting facilities, enhance the "OK" and "Travel" convenience, improve the "food" and "live" in comfort to promote the coordinated development of various sectors to comprehensively improve the overall supply capacity of regional tourism and increase visitor satisfaction.(8) Talent StrategyTalent competition is the highest stage of competitive regional tourism. As the formation of high-level tourism competitiveness factors of production, tourism professionals in the region to maintain long-term competitive advantage is a strong guarantee. With the escalation of competition in the tourism industry, the demand for tourism professionals will be more and more. Should be noted that the regional specialization of talents, full-time is the future of the industry demand trends. Thus,talent building, on the one hand to develop the talents and efficient introduction of a flexible mechanism for talented people to provide appropriate treatment and relaxed environment, and inspire their play to their maximum ability. On the other hand, we should actively join hands with the university, according to the market and industry development, personnel training to develop a reasonable plan for regional tourism to achieve savings and competitive advantage of reserve forces and intelligence support. In addition, existing practitioners to focus on strengthening professional training, and gradually improve the overall quality of industry personnel.In short, to enhance the competitiveness of the regional tourism industry has become a top priority throughout the development of tourism, all localities should make full use of their advantage in resources, based on primary production in the elements of competitiveness, based on efforts to build talent, innovation and brand-based long-term, effective competence, through the enhancement of regional competitiveness to promote our tourism industry in the international market competitiveness.Reference:[1] Hartserre A. Lesson in managerial destination competitiveness in the case of Foxwoods Casino resort[J].TourismManagement, 2000, 21(1):23-32.[2] Dr. Dimitrios Buhalis. Marketing the competitive destination of the future[J].TourismManagement, 2000, 21(1):97-116.[3] Hassan Salah S. Determinants of market competitiveness in an environmentally sustainable development [ J].Journal of Travel Research, 2000,38(2):263-271.[4] Ritchie J R B, Crouch G I. The competitive destination:sustainability perspective[J].Tourism Management, 2000,21(1):127.[5] Dwyer L, Forsyth THP, Rao P. The price competitiveness of travel and tourism: a comparison of 19 destinations [ J].Tourism Management, 2000, 21(1):9-22.[6] Pearce D G. Competitive destination analysis in southeast Asia[J]. Journal ofTravel Research, 1997,35(4):16-25.加强区域旅游竞争力战略摘要旅游业想要迅猛的发展是离不开旅游资源的开发以及旅游者活动的开展，但是旅游资源的地域特征和旅游者活动的空间转移特点，决定了旅游业的发展必然要与相应的空间地域结构联系，呈现出一定的区域特点，这也决定了区域旅游业竞争存在的必然性和必要性。

旅游服务贸易的比较优势外文翻译外文翻译原文The comparative advantages of trade in tourism servicesMaterial Source:World Tourism EconomyAuthor:David JamesThe thought of comparative advantage was mentioned earliest in The Wealth of Nation of Adan Smith, then David Ricardo came out the theory of Comparative Advantage. By the research of Eli F Heckscher and Bertil Ohilin, factor was added into the theory and the theory of comparative advantage was further perfected. With the development of international trade, people found that something happening in international trade could not be explained by the theory of comparative advantage. So, Michael Porter came out the theory of comparative advantage of nations and constructed competitive advantage of nations and constructed comparative perfect theory system.International service trade came forth later in international trade, but with the share of it becoming bigger and bigger, all the countries attached more importance to service trade. So, service trade was brought into multilateral trade system of GATT. The tourism trade shared a large portion in the service trade, and brought forth a moreconcern of every government.With opening up of China’ tourism market, the tourism service trade face opportunities and challenges never met before. This thesis was separated into four parts. The first partintroduce China’ tourism service trade and analyze the importance to china’ trade. Classic Comparative Advantage Theory and Competitive Advantage Theory were discussed in chapter twoIn chapter three, these two theories were used to analyze actuality of China tourism trade. In chapter four, some countries’ good measure were discussed, and relevant measures were brought forward to improve the competitive adva ntage of China’ tourism service trade in the world.The service trade is the most rapidly developing area in the international trade domain. In the recent several decades, the volume growth of service trade in western developed country has gone far beyond the growth of the goods trade. As the most important component in the service trade, and as one of a few key industries which have international competitive advantages after China enters WTO, the tourism industry obtains the widespread attention. Tourism in our country has already obtained huge achievement during the 30 years of reform and open. But it is an unavoidable question to promote international competitiveness of China's tourism for China transforming from the traveling great nation to the traveling powerful one. This paper utilizes the theory ofindustrial international competitiveness in tourism and does a research on the problem of international competitiveness of tourism in our country. And by illustrating the current developing situation of tourism in China, the author uses Mr. Porter's "state Diamond" model to analyze the existing key factors which could significantly affect our international competitiveness of tourism. Furthermore, this paper sets up an index system basing on the tourism service data of import and export, which is composed of three indices such as International Market Occupancy Factor, Trade Competitive Power Index, Revealed Comparative Advantage Index, makes a worldwide comparative analysis of our tourism competitiveness. World tourism resources and the tourism industry are the external environment of China's tourism, and have the most significant impact to China's tourism. So in the four part of this thesis, the paper introduces some development patterns in the world, analyzes three countries' tourism and gets some new ideas on how to develop China's tourism services. Finally, bases on the conclusion made by the certain analysis and practical evaluation, the author provides some useful suggestions for promoting China's tourism competitiveness from the tourism product structure, regional structure of the tourism industry and so on.The tourism is one of the biggest and develops quickest service industries in the world. and is regard as “the forever sunrise industry”. On Ju ly 21, 2005, Peoples Bank of China announced our countrystarts to implement take the market supply and demand as a foundation, refers to a basket currency to carry on the adjustment, to have the management floating exchange rate system. From now on, the price of Renminbi was increased , and brought the profound influence for our country’s tourism. Under the Renminbi revaluation background, how big of the traveling service trade’s competitive in the international market; how to became a powerful traveling nation in the world; pay more attention to the competitive while make a strategy of traveling developmental and use the theries conduct t the practice are the main viewpoints in this article This article utilizes the domestic and foreign traveling competitive power theory in the traveling service trade domain, research the competitive power of our country’s traveling service trade international under the background of Renmibirevaluation. First, this article to the domestic and foreign traveling international competitive power theory which has carried on the elab omtion with to organize, discusses the suitable in the traveling service trade domain, has emphatically introduced the baud conpetitiv -e advantage theory。

外文翻译原文--旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例外文翻译原文--旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力:罗马尼亚的案例Chapter 12The International Competitiveness of Tradein Tourism Services Evidence from RomaniaAna Bobirca and Cristiana Cristureanu121 IntroductionTourism is the only service activity that can potentially provide trading opportunitiesfor all nations regardless of their level of development However it is also a sectorwhere there is clearly an uneven distribution of benets that is largely dependant oncountries ability to strengthen their performance in the global economy which inturn requires improving their competitivenessSince the beginning of the 1990s Romania has experienced major changesin its tourism exports volume growth rate and structure These disparate uc-tuations have all inuenced the relative competitive position of Romania onthe international tourism market and have been associated with changes in itstourism trade balance In the same time the new and more heterogeneous Euro-pean architecture has induced signicant changes inRomanias regional tourismcompetitivenessAgainst this background the paper attempts to suggest a frameworkfor assessingthe international competitiveness of Romanias tourism services trade by focusingon the relationship between competitiveness and tourism trade performanceTo this end the rst part starts by introducing the concept of internationalcompetitiveness and by presenting evaluating and systematizing key issues of thecomplex analysis on international competitiveness The paper subsequently consid-ers the relationship between export performance and international competitivenessas well as its relevance for international tourism The second part includes a macrooverview of the tourism sector focusing specically on its importance to the econ-omy The third part of the paper sets out in detail the framework for calculating theproposed measures of competitiveness and shows the importance of the method-ological approach in interpreting the information provided by these indicators Italso illustrates the recent performance of Romanian tourism based on an integratedA Bobirca BFaculty of International Business and Economics Academy of Economic StudiesBucharest Romaniae-mail AnaBobircacomá Matias et al eds Advances i n Tourism Economics189DOI 101007978-3-7908-2124-6_12 C Physica-Verlag Heidelberg 2009 190 A Bobirca and C Cristureanumeasure of international trade competitiveness The paper concludes by explainingthe competitive position of Romania on the European tourism market and byidentifying research issues that require further study122 Perspectives on International Competitiveness – TheRelationship Between Export Performanceand International Competitivenessand its Relevance for International TourismThe concept of international competitiveness although controversial and elusivehas gained acceptance and continues to attract the attention of both academics andpolicymakers worldwideMost measures of international competitiveness that have so far been consideredwere undertaken at the economy-wide level Garelli 2003 and generally refer to theability of a country to produce goods and services that meet thetest of internationalmarkets while simultaneously maintaining and expanding the real income of itscitizens European Commission 2007Because competitiveness ultimately depends upon rms in a country competingsuccessfully on the domestic and international markets attention has focused oncompetitiveness at the rm level Porter 1990 where it is generally understood torefer to the ability of the rm to retain and better still enlargeits global marketshare increase its prots and expand Clark and Guy 1998 OECD 1993 According to traditional economic theory a rm can gain competitive advan-tage through comparative cost of production by for example reducing labor costHowever recent research suggests that non-price factors are equally important deter-minants of competitiveness The range of non-price factors is diverse and includeshuman resource endowment such as skills technical factors such as research anddevelopment capabilities and the ability to innovate managerial and organizationalfactors both internal to the rm and externally organizedthrough relationshipswith other bodies customers suppliers public and private research institutes andother rms Clark and Guy 1998 Fagerberg 1986 Together these factors deter-mine the ability of the rm to compete successfully in international markets on thebackground of changing technological economic and social environments Exportperformance and the ability of the rm to maintain its market share remain theultimate indicators of international competitivenessConsequently although widely proclaimed the theoretical bases of internationalcompetitiveness as it relates to national economies and their international trade havebeen less analyzed in academic literature Thus the nature benets and constraintson a nation of being internationally competitive remain ambiguous Coldwell 2000Krugman 1994 1996International competitiveness within the context of trade in goods and servicesrefers to a nation securing and maintaining a trade advantage vis-à-vis the rest ofthe world12 Evidence from Romania191International competitiveness is advanced whenever the economic welfare of anation is enhanced through an increase in the ow of trade or through an alteration inthe conditions of trade starting from a presumed initial equilibrium Coldwell 2000Trade theory asserts that economic welfare is dependent on the production ofgoods and services that a country has comparative advantage in This in effectmeans that international competitiveness is secured when production is in line with acountrys comparative advantage situation If countries perform well internationallyand compete successfully for export markets this could be a sign of their soundinternational competitivenessTherefore at the international level competitiveness can be dened as the abilityof an economy to attract the demand for its exports and the investment to supplythat demand all within social norms that result in an improved standard of livingfor its citizens This in turn depends on the macro and microeconomic policiesregulations and institutions that affect the productivity of the economys factors ofproduction and the costs of doing businessA review of available literature and empirical evidences supportsthe notion thatinternational competitiveness can be explained to some extent by a countrys abil-ity to export Dollar and Wolff 1993 Fagerberg et al 2004 There is in fact aself-recurring relationship between export performance and international compet-itiveness Exports are the rst level of international competitiveness afrmationThe improvement in export performance leads to an increase in a countrys com-petitiveness This effect is a result of enterprises skills knowledge propensity toinnovate and use new technology ability to exploit technological opportunities in asuccessfully commercial way etcOn the other hand in striving to achieve successful exports inhighly competi-tive global markets a country is forced to improve its competitiveness The morecompetitive a country is the more economically powerful it is Consequently it ismore capable to compete on the global market to attract people with higher level ofknowledge skills to buy new technologies etc and to improve its export perfor-mance as well as to achieve better export results This can in turn favor additionalinnovations and trigger an improvement in its competitivenessConsequently export performance and competitiveness should not be consideredin isolation since they are mutually interdependentHowever competitiveness should not be equated only with a countrys ability toexport The evolution of export market shares is also an important element of tradecompetitiveness while the latter is just a component of a nations competitivenessdened by the European Declaration of Lisbon as the capacity to improve and raisethe standard of living of its habitants by providing more and higher quality employ-ment and a greater social cohesion The gains or losses of world marketshares byindividual countries are often considered as an index of their trade competitivenessHowever market share growth depends also on structural factors Due to changesin demand a countrys geographical and sectoral specialization at the beginningof a period is an important factor shaping future market share growth Similarlythe countrys ability to adapt its exports to such changes will also affect the naloutcome192 A Bobirca and C CristureanuFurthermore the concept of international competitiveness in tourism servicesalso encompasses qualitative factors that are difcult to quantify the quality ofservices involved the degree of specialization the capacity for technological inno-vation the quality of human resources Rubalcaba and Cuadrado 2001 are factorsthat may inuence a countrys tourism trade performance favorably Likewise highrates of productivity growth are often sought as a way of strengthening competi-tiveness But it is not necessarily the case that favorable structural factors of thissort will give rise to increased sales on foreign markets They may instead showup as improving terms of trade brought about through exchange-rate appreciationwhile leaving export performance broadly unchanged It is for this reason as wellas because these factors are hard to measure in quantitative terms that considerationhere is conned to a more specic and integrated method for determining Romaniasrelative competitive position in international tourism123 An Overview of Romanias InternationalTrade in Tourism Servicescom Key FactsRomanias Travel and Tourism Economy1 currently shows a return to positive terri-tory following negative results posted during the early years of economic transitionwith an optimistic outlook for growth over the next ten years much stronger thanthat of the EUWith a 48 contribution of tourism to GDP Romania ranks the 162nd among174 countries being currently among the lower-tiertourism-intensive countries ofthe region and the world However Romanias prospects for tourism sector growthare better than for most of its neighbours and competitors withinthe regional andworld ranking ie 67 contribution to GDP over the next 10 years and12thposition respectively World Travel and Tourism Council 2007Romanias Travel and Tourism Industry2 contributed 19 to GDP in 2006 ris-ing to 25 of total GDP by 2016 while in the European Union theTravel andTourism Industry posted a GDP contribution of 39 in 2006 WorldTravel andTourism Council 2007While the Travel and Tourism Economy accounts for 87 of global employ-ment Romanias Travel and Tourism Economy employment was estimated at485000 jobs in 2006 representing 58 of total employment or one in every 174jobs The current 265000 Travel and Tourism Industry jobs account for 31 oftotal employment as compared with 42 of total employment in the EuropeanUnion 86 million jobs World Travel and Tourism Council 20071Broad concept developed by the World Tourism and Travel Council and used in Tourism SatelliteAccounting referring to both the direct and indirect economicimpacts of tourism2Narrower concept developed by the World Tourism and Travel Council and used in TourismSatellite Accounting referring only to the direct economic impact of tourism12 Evidence from Romania193Travel and Tourism represented in the European Union 130 of total exports in2006 In Romania exports make up a very important share of Travel and Tourismscontribution to GDP Out of the total Romanian exports Travel and Tourism repre-sented 52 12 billion Euros in 2004 with a prospect to increase in nominalterms to 18 billion Euros 46 of total by 2016 World Travel and TourismCouncil 2007The vast majority of international arrivals in Romania are from Europe Since2000 some 95 of visitors every year have been intra-regional Out of these agrowing number – 75 according to 2004 gures –represent arrivals from theve countries with which Romania shares a border Ukraine Moldavia BulgariaHungary Serbia and Montenegrocom Major FindingsThe analysis shows that while still lagging behind the developed economies thetrend towards a service-oriented society is observable for Romania This is alsoreected by the increasing proportion of GDP attributable to tourism services andthe growing share of employment in the tourism services sectorAlthough the overall tourism balance of Romania is positive EU represents anet exporter of tourism services to Romania the tourism balance is negative with aworsening decit from 2005 to 2006 still the propensity to trade with EU partnersis stronger in this eld reecting a higher degree of integration into the EU tourismservices market EUROSTAT 2003 2004 2005 2006– While Romanias Travel and Tourism is growing in terms of international visitorsthe countrys tourism receipts have been lagging considerably behind neighboringcountries In 2004 Romania registered some 38 of those registered by Bulgariaapproximately 12 of those registered by Hungary and the Czech Republic anda mere 7 of Croatias receipts This reects the fact that many of Romaniasvisitors do not stay overnight or spend anything while they are in the country animportant weakness to address for any tourism plan going forward EUROSTAT2003 2004 20058 2006– Within EU-15 countries Romanias largest markets are Germany Italy FranceAustria and the UK Worryingly arrivals from all of the EU-15 countries showednegative growth in 2004 This can be attributed in part to the accession of ten newcountries to the EU and related incentives for visitors to these countries such aslow-cost airlines– Growth in 2004 was driven by Hungary which showed a 69 increase inarrivals in Romania Outside Europe Romanias main international markets arethe USA which has shown steady growth since 2000 to 111000 arrivals in2004 as American tourists have started to be aware ofthe fact that Romaniais more than a Dracula destination and Israel although the Israeli markethas remained stagnant in recent years Tourists from China are also expected toincrease in the future as Romania received approved destination status in June2004 EUROSTAT 2003 2004 2005 2006194 A Bobirca and C Cristureanu– Analysis of accommodation gures shows that a large number of these visitors donot stay in registered facilities and either reside with friends or relatives or do notovernight in Romania Thus it is difcult to quantify their impact on the economy– The majority of international arrivals to Romania are by road again mirroringthe large proportion of the countrys visitors from bordering countries Howeverarrivals by air have also seen a healthy rise over the past ve years with increasedfrequency of scheduled services and some charters operating in regional airportsAs Romania is forced to liberalize its aviation industry as a consequence of EUaccession air transport is set to rise dramatically in the near future Arrivals byrail are decreasing at almost the same rate that air arrivals are increasing as airtravel becomes cheaper and more accessible124 Methods for Assessing the International Competitivenessof Trade in Tourism Servicescom The Research MethodFor the specic assessment of the international competitiveness of trade in tourismservices the underlying methodological approach undertaken in this study is basedon the idea that the economy with an improving degree of competitiveness in tourismservices is the one able to enhance the size of its tourism services exports to a certainmarket Similarly the economy with a declining degree of competitiveness is the onethat increases the size of its tourism services imports coming from other countriesThe greater or smaller degree of competitiveness a country or sector has showsthe nature and degree of participation it has – through its exports – in the importscarried out by the analyzed market ie a country improves its competitiveness inthe way that the other country increases its imports coming from the former oneMandeng 1991In addition the process of inserting a country in the international economy isrelated not only to its exporting progresses but also to the behavior and actions ofother competitors The model is adapted from De la Guardia Molero and ValadezDe la Guardia et al 2004 that introduced the aspect of the dynamic nature ofmarkets and implemented through their work an expost assessment of servicescompetitiveness by providing a descriptive reference on the changes produced inthe competitiveness level and specialization degree in international tradeThe commercial advantage is revealed through the evolution of tourism exports –which reects improvements in competitiveness and through the evolution oftourism imports that reects a worsening of the commercial advantage Based on the aforesaid the changes in the international tourism services tradecompetitiveness are measured through the analysis of different variables1 the rst variable is the market share or participation in the market and measuresthe portion of the market that is supplied by a certain country or the tourismsector of this country12 Evidence from Romania1952 the second variable used is the export structure of the analyzed country Thisvariable reects the relative weight of the tourism sector in thetotal exports ofthat country3 nally by means of the import structure of the market the degree ofdynamism that the tourism sector has in the analyzed import market can bedeterminedThrough the combination of the aforementioned variables threetourism com-petitiveness matrices see Table 121 are constructed that allow for the descriptionof Romanias international tourism trade development proleThe Market Share Competitiveness Matrix illustrates the fact that a countrystourism exports can be classied according to their international competitivenessstarting from the behavior of the countrys market share in tourism exports and theevolution of the world tourism services imports over timeIn effect the world market share held by each country in tourism servicesexports can increase or diminish throughout time such modications take placein the same time with the increase or decline that tourism imports register ininternational tradeThis allows for the classication of a countrys tourism exports as performingmissed opportunities declining and retreatingTourism services are performing when a country enhances its market share intourism in circumstances in which this activity has an increasing importance inworld-wide tradeTourism services are missed opportunities when a country is losing market sharewhile international trade in the sector is enhancingDeclining are those tourism services in which the exporting country increases itsmarket share while the international market is shrinkingFinally we dene the situation of tourism services as retreating when this eco-nomic activity besides losing market share registers a decline of dynamism ininternational tradeThe competitiveness matrix of the export structure is obtained relating the behav-ior of a countrys tourism services export structure with the tourism services importdynamism of the international marketThis matrix shows how the adjustments of the export structure can take place inthe same direction or in the opposite direction with respect to the changes in worldimports structureTable 121 The tourism competitiveness matrixMarket share Declining PerformingExport structure Retreating Missed opportunitySpecialization indexImport market structureSource adapted from De la Guardia et al 2004196 A Bobirca and C CristureanuThe different segments of services exports including tourism can be classiedfrom the point of view of their international competitiveness through the changesthat take place in the services export structure of the country and the world servicesimports structure throughout timeCombining these two variables tourism as a services exporting sector can beclassied as performing missed opportunity declining and retreating with theequivalent meaning mentioned beforeFinally tourism exports can also be classied from the point of view of theirinternational competitiveness throughout time when the degree of trade special-ization of each country and the evolution of the world imports are simultaneouslyanalyzedThe specialization index is dened as the relative participation that an exportingsector of a country has in world trade3Similarly tourism as an exporting sector can be classied as performing missedopportunity declining and retreating with an identicalinterpretation to the onespreviously indicatedOur aim here is to adapt and apply the modeldeveloped by De la GuardiaMolero and Valadez in order to assess the international competitiveness of tourismservices using information related to the current situation of the EU-25 countriesand to that of Romania based on the statistical information availableBalance of payments transactions for tourism services are less easy to link toactual tourism services provision than is the case for goods some tourism activ-ities may be difcult to disentangle from goods or capital transactions Countrieshave developed unique national methods for assembling the data some have tendedto rely more on statistical surveys and others have relied more on central banksadministrative systems Even so there has been and still remains considerable vari-ation in data collection methods To compound the picture methods of collectionhave changed considerably over timeDespite these troubles we believe that the forthcoming descriptive analysis couldbring some highlights on international competitiveness and the factors determiningthe commercial position in tourism services tradeThe sample data is drawn from UNCTAD-IMF-BOP Statistics on Trade in Ser-vices by sector and country OECD 2003 2004 2005 2006 UNCTAD 2003 20042005 2006 a data-set which covers exports credits and imports debits of threemain services categories transportation tourism and travel and other commercialservices according to the concepts and denitions of the IMF Balance of PaymentsManual with a focus on tourism services Data-set comprises the 25 EU countriesRomania and the world 178 countries and covers a yearly time period comprising2003 2004 2005 and 20063The specialization index is dened as the ratio of a services category exports to total servicesexports of a country with respect to the same ratio to the world economy The index measuresthe countrys revealed comparative advantage in exports according to the Balassa formula Valuesabove 1 indicate that the country is specialized in the sector under review12 Evidence from Romania197com The Research Resultscom1 The IndicatorsThe evolution of the market share shows the penetration ability of tourism as aservices exporting sector of each country in the international economyThe data reveal that for the analyzed period the EU-25 economies were amongthe main world suppliers of tourism services since they maintainedan overallparticipation next to 45 of the world supply in tourism exportsAltogether the group constituted by these countries slightly diminished the heldproportions of the world quota in tourism services –068 growth rate From the perspective of individual countries the economies that registered anincrease of their quotas in the world market of tourism services were in order thoseof Poland Estonia Lithuania UK and LuxemburgBy contrast especially signicant are the resultsregistered by countries likeHungary Finland and Spain which decreased their market share in tourismRomanias market share in tourism services exports declined at both world levelRomania – world and in relation to EU-25 countries Romania –EU-25 but thedecrease in the latter case was more severe 2085 as opposed to 465 Alsothe reduction in Romanias market share on the EU-25 market was much higher thenthe overall European market retreatThrough the analysis of the export structure we can appreciate the importancethat export of services has as currency provider for the EU-25 economies andRomaniaData show that in relation to the examined services sectors the exports oftourism services represent about 27 of the overall services exports in the EU-25 countries and about 28 at world level meaning that compared to the worldexport structure the EU-25 countries exhibit a similar pattern with a slight negativedeviation for tourism servicesIn the analyzed period most of the countries registered minor decreases in theircurrency entry through exports of tourism services The countries that opposed thistrend were Poland Estonia Malta Germany UKIn Romania tourism services represent about 14 of the overall services exportswhich is below the world and European average 27–28 The evolution is similarwith that signaled above meaning that the structure of Romanias exports is alteredin the detriment of tourism services that are decreasing both in relation to the worldand to the EU-25 countries but with a much higher amplitude in the latter case2785 as compared to 614Finally through the analysis of the import structure we can illustrate the changesthat have taken place in the world imports of tourism servicesThe rst relevant fact reected by the data is that EU-25 tourism import activitiesevolved in the same direction as compared to the world but with a different growthrate 098 increase in tourism imports for EU-25 countries as compared to 231at world level With respect to the services import structure itself it is similar atEU-25 level and world level with tourism services representing about 26–28 ofservices imports198 A Bobirca and C CristureanuThe highest increase in the contribution of tourism imports to the overall importswas felt in Poland Lithuania Spain and The NederlandsThe structure is different in Romania with tourism services accounting foronly 16 of the overall services imports In relation to the EU-25 countries thepercentage is slightly higher ie 182While at the world level and the EU-25 countries level the greater relative weightof the imports increase corresponded to the activity of tourism these services aredecreasing their contribution to services imports in Romania the corresponding rateis much higher at world level 1419 than in relation to EU-25 countries 495com2 The Tourism Competitiveness MatricesAs it has already been indicated a rst assessment procedure of a countrys compet-itiveness in tourism services consists of analyzing simultaneously the market sharethat an economy holds with respect to tourism services exports and the changes thatare taking place in the world tourism trade imports throughout time The results of the analysis are reected in Table 122 where countries examinedin accordance with these criteria have been orderedA second tourism competitiveness assessment procedure consists of simultane-ously analyzing the behavior that the export structure of the economy has throughouttime and the changes that take place in the structure of world trade with emphasison tourism services see Table 123A third and most complex tourism competitiveness assessment procedure con-。

旅游中英文对照外文翻译文献旅游中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文Tourism: A Matter of Common Concern AbstractProblems of tourism and recreation in the Wadden Sea are discussed. Special regard is given to land- based activities being in harmony with nature and favoring the protection of environment. The discussion focuses on the trilateral Wadden policy of the conceded European countries. The Netherlands, Germany and Denmark.Key words:Trilateral Wadden Sea policy, tourism, land based recreation, adverse effects on nature1.Why a Common Concern?In the Wadden Sea area people live, work and recreate. Trilateral Wadden policy has been mainly focused on sea- based recreation. But an activity in the Wadden area which also has a direct influence on the dunes, mudflats and tidal areas is land based recreation. Millions of people visit the area each year for leisure. Until now this has been neglected by the international Wadden policy. Because of the influence of and developments in this sector, it is necessary to widen the scope of this policy so that a strategy can be developed for all recreational activities. This implies making intelligent choices. What kind of recreational activities and accommodations fit this nature area? When and where should they take place? What amounts are in harmonywith the nature we want to protect? Answers to these questions are part of a strategy for conservation of nature and recreation.In 1994, in Leeuwarden, ecological goals were drawn up not only for the tidal area, but also for the beaches and dunes, the salt marshes, the coastline and the rural areas (on the islands and the adjacent areas of the mainland). In addition, it was recognized that the trilateral policy covered a wider area than just the Wadden Sea. loss of natural habitats and the disturbance of flora and fauna as a result of increasing tourism was identified as a cause for cancel. To better understand the influence of landbased recreation on the area's natural environment, it is necessary to first consider the situation in the tourism sector. This is mainly based on the experiences obtained by the Dutch Wadden Society in the Dutch Wadden Sea region.2.A Summary of the SituationI. Since the middle of this century, the Wadden Sea area has been a popular destination for an ever growing number of tourists. Today tourists can choose from a wide range of accommodations: hotels, hiking cabins, apartments, camping sites, bungalows and so on. This development has sparked a lot of building activity; sometimes to replace old buildings, but more often for new building sites. In a number of cases this has been at the cost of dune areas.A first observation: to offer all these visitors a place to sleep more and more space is occupied. Sometimes at the cost of nature and sometimes at the cost of historical buildings or rural landscape.II. But not all visitors to the area stay overnight. On the one hand there are the day tourists to the islands. Especially the islands with a short ferry time and/or low ferry costs ate favorites. On the other hand the different recreational areas along themainland coastline also attract a large number of day tourists, particularly in Germany. Tourists not only desire a place on the beach in the sun, but also want to walk in the dunes, buy a cup of coffee and have proper transport facilities to and from the area. On the main land side of the ferry dam to Ameland, for example, there ate plans for a second level in the car park on the mainland to offer day tourists extra parking space close to the ferry.A second observation: day tourism leaves its marks in the landscape by facilities, over fulled ashtrays, empty beach chairs and treaded plants, also when the day is over.The short second or third holiday, a midweek break or a day to escape it all, has become reality for many. The quiet and long off-season period is a thing of the past for the local population and nature. The accommodation-branches anticipates this trend by building more and more cabins and bungalows at former camping sites. The lengthening of the holiday season has been encouraged by the development of so-called "bad weather facilities" like the tropical swimming pool. The result is that walkers and cyclists can be found on the beach or in the dunes as early as March. This can cause problems for migratory and breeding birds. Should the areas important to these birds be closed off to the public earlier in the year? That is against the idea that people should be given as many chances as possible to enjoy nature. So what is more important: undisturbed feelings of liberty or undisturbed nest building?A third observation: lengthening of the holiday season means more disturbance risk to a number of bird species.IV. Recreational activities are no longer limited to a walk breathingthe fresh sea air of a healing dip in the water. The currentpossibilities seem endless, a few examples: parachute jumping, golfing, "nature combing", walking on the mudflats, visiting bird colonies, seals, a wagon ride through the dunes and marshes, short aero plane trips, kiting, sunbathing, night-life, cross country cycling and so on.A fourth observation: recreational activities, even nature oriented, have more and more adverse effects on nature.The economic aspect of tourism certainly plays a role in the trilateral policy decisions. The weight that this aspect carries in the policymaking process is a choice in itself. But in what terms are we measuring the economic effects, in jobs, in regional income and investments, or in the sustainable use of nature?A fifth observation: economic aspects are part of the discussion about tourism and there is quite some cash flow related to it.3.Developments and New Trendsit When coming up with a strategy for recreational activities is important to consider developments and trends in the sector.1. Tourism is a growing industry. It is seen as a sector which can provide employment in the near future. And for this reason subsidies are given. That is an attractive proposition, particulary in regions with relatively high unemployment. Many community councils along the Dutch coast have plans to exploit tourism. These vary from building a small bungalow park to a health spa with a beach. Work is already inprogress on the islands to improve the quality of accommodation. This requires larger investments and returns.2. The trend to take a number of short holidays. The same number of over night stays are therefore being shared by more and other visitors and more transport is required.3. Hotel managers want the same bed occupied more often.The stabilization of the number of beds available (a policy on the Dutch Wadden islands) is therefore certainly not synonymous with a stabilization of recreation volume.4. The trend towards more active holidays. The activities can range from nature excursions to sport events. This raises the question whether the Wadden nature is seen as a backdrop or as a destination itself. In order to formulate a strategy on tourism we will have to take into account the five observations made.4.summarize:(I) more and more space is taken by accommodations, improving quality also requires more square meters per tourist;(II) Day tourism leaves its marks in the landscape;(III) Season lengthening means shortening of the undisturbed periods for birds;(IV) Recreation activities, even nature oriented, have more and more adverse effects on nature;(V) The tourism related cash flow is on the rise;(VI) A growing number of people visit, know and hopefully appreciate the Wadden Sea area and.., disturb each other.The importance of the international Wadden Sea area does not need to be stressed. Nor does the importance of protecting the area's natural development. Joint trilateral goals and targets have already been laid down or are receiving the final touches. Al1 we have to do, is bring about the goals. The trilateral Wadden policy can no longer ignore land based recreational activities; their effects are too far reaching. Dunes, marshes and birds are currently witnessing a loss in territory and an increase in disturbance and damage. The countryside is under attack and new building projects threaten to overshadow the cultural and historical value of the area. And sometimes there ate just toomany people around.It's not enough to acknowledge that recreation is important to the area, to declare ah area a national park, to do some zoning or to fix the number of beds.A fundamental consideration is needed. What kind of recreational activates and accommodations fit this nature area?When and where can they take place? Whatamounts are in harmony with the nature we want to protect? Answers to these questions ate the start of a strategy for conservation of nature and sustainable recreation.5.The Choice of the Dutch Wadden SocietyThe Wadden Sea area offers some very special opportunities for recreation. When people get to know and appreciate an area they are more willing to protect it. And from the perspective of tourism it is nature, the openness, the birds, the unique landscape and the historic cultural values that makes .this area into something singular and special. These are the selling points of the Wadden Sea area on the touristic market. In our view there should be possibilities to experience that specific Wadden Sea nature. This means Wadden nature" oriented recreation. But in such a way that it is and continues respecting nature. This is of course something totally different from island hopping by aero plane or a disco party on the beach.What such a choice means from a sustainable and economic perspective is of course an important question. Does it mean more visitor management, more excursion leaders and less disc jockey? More bird watches facilities and wardening and less recreational air traffic and tropical swimming paradises? These aspects definitely need moreresearch. The Dutch Wadden Society has taken initiatives in this direction but we certainly cannot cover this alone.T oformulate such a strategy it is vital that there is a complete picture, based on comparable data, of recreation in the international Wadden area. At this moment data are still incomplete. So from our point of view the following steps lead to a strategy for conservation of nature and of sustainable possibilities for recreation:- identify the processes and areas which need extra protection. -identify the unique opportunities the area offers. -identify frictions between existing tourism and nature conservation goals. -select the types of tourism and recreational activities that can be accommodated in harmony with the area and the goals. -make choices regarding: "when', "where" and "what amounts'. - formulate clear policy goals. - develop indicators to monitor and -execute itTime is ripe to make choices and there are already some hopeful initiatives. In "Nord Friesland a "Zukunftswerkstatt Tourism’s und Umwelt" is being drawn up with the aim to elaborate concepts for "umbel- und sozialvertrigliche Tourismusentwicklung'.The Dutch, German and Danish province and regions along the Wadden Sea started a project to develop a vision on sustainable tourism. The trilateral Wadden policy can encourage these initiatives. In 1997, in State, there should be an acknowledgement of the importance and effects of land based recreation at a trilateral level. It must be possible to developa common strategy for all tourism and recreation activities in the trilateral Wadden area, particularly in the light of the ecological and landscape goals that have already been agreed on in the past and which also reflect the recreational interests.译文:旅游业共同关心的问题摘要旅游业协会针对瓦登海问题进行了讨论，讨论的内容是关于陆地活动与自然和谐以及环境的保护。

文献出处：Bobirca A, Cristureanu C. The international competitiveness of trade in tourism services: Evidence from Romania[J]Advances in Tourism Economics.Physica-Verlag HD, 2013: 189-202.The International Competitiveness of Trade in Tourism Services:Evidence from RomaniaAna Bobirca ，Cristiana CristureanuAbstract: Tourism is the only service activities that can provide trade opportunities for any level of development of the country. However, it is also a large extent because of the country's capacity and performance in the global economy and also has a clear benefit to the uneven distribution of industry, which they need to improve their competitiveness.Since the early 1990s, Romania's tourism industry has experienced significant changes in export volume, growth rate and structure. These fluctuations affect the relative competitive position of Romania in the international tourism market and cause changes in the balance of its tourism trade. At the same time, new and more jumbled the European construction, caused a significant change in the regional tourism competitiveness in Romania.In this context, this paper attempts to propose a framework to focus on the relationship between competitiveness and tourism trade performance, and to assess the international competitiveness of the tourist trade in services in Romania.First, the international competitiveness of international tourismThe concept of international competitiveness, although controversial, elusive, but has now been recognized, and all over the world continue to attract the attention of scholars and policy makers.So far, have been taken to improve the international competitiveness of measures have been considered at the economic level (Jiarui Li, 2003) usually refers to a country's production of goods and services to meet the test of international markets, while maintaining and to increase the ability of the citizen's income (European Commission, 2007).Competitiveness ultimately depends on a country's business success in domestic and international markets, the competitive attention focused on enterprise-level competitiveness (Porter, 1990), for this generally understood to refer to "... the company to maintain and better, to expand its global market share to increase and the ability to expand profit "(Clark and cover, 1998, the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, 1993).Therefore, although the widespread international competitiveness as with the theoretical basis of the national economy and international trade have been less in the academic literature. Therefore, the nature of a country's international competitiveness, efficiency and limitations are still unclear (Cole Dwyer, 2000, Krugman, 1994, 1996). International competitiveness, consolidate and maintain trade advantage trade advantage relative to the rest of the world refers to a country's trade in goods and services.Whenever a country's economic welfare through increased trade flows, or through the from initial equilibrium terms of trade change and increase international competitiveness will be improved the (Cole Dwyer, 2000). Therefore, the international competitiveness of the definition for an economy to attract its export demand and investment supply demand capabilities and the ability to enhance the living standards of citizens in all social norms. This in turn depends on the macro-and micro-economic policies affect the economic productivity of the production elements and operating costs of the regulations and the system.A review of the literature and empirical evidence available to support international competitiveness can be explained to a certain extent, this view of a country's ability to export (Lok and Wolff, 1993, Ge Boge, etc.). There is, in fact, is a circular relationship between export performance and international competitiveness. Exports is a measure of international competitiveness. The improvement in exports will lead to enhance the competitiveness of a country. This effect is the skills, knowledge, innovation and use of new technologies and the use of technology can be a successful business opportunity of the results of an enterprise. The other hand, in order to successfully achieve export efforts in the highly competitive global market, a country forced to improve their competitiveness. More powerful country, its economy more competitive. Therefore, it is better able to compete in the global market, in order to attract a higher level of knowledge, skills, level of people to buy the new technology, and improve its export performance, as well as to achieve better export performance. Turn, may favor a more innovative, caused by the improvement of their competitiveness.Competitive, however, should not be only equivalent to a country's ability to export. Wherethe evolution of the share of the export market is also an important element of the trade competitiveness, while the latter is only part of a country's competitiveness is defined as the Lisbon Declaration by the European through the provision of more and higher quality of employment, to improve and enhance the standard of living in and greater social cohesion. The world market share of the gain or loss of individual countries are often seen as their trade competitiveness index. However, the growth of the market share depends on structural factors. Due to changes in demand in the beginning of a period of a country's geographic and industry specialization is an important factor in shaping the growth of the market share in the future. Similarly, the state the ability to adapt to changes such export, will also affect the final result.Second, overview of the international trade in tourism services in RomaniaTravel and tourism in Romania in the early years of economic transition period after the negative results, showing a positive return, and the next decade of growth outlook is much stronger than the EU.The Romanian tourism's contribution to GDP was 4.8%, 174 tourism-intensive countries in the world, ranked 162. However, the prospects for the growth of the tourism sector in Romania in the regional and world ranking better than its neighbors and competitors in the next 10 years, the contribution to GDP was 6.7% and ranked 12 (World Travel and Tourism Development Committee , 2007).Romania travel and tourism's contribution to GDP in 2006 was 1.9%, will rise to 2.5% in 2016, in the EU, the travel and tourism's contribution to GDP in 2006 was 3.9% (World Travel and Touri Global travel and tourism industry employment accounted for 8.7% of global employment, Romania's travel and tourism industry employment in 2006 is estimated at 485,000 people, or 5.8% of total employment, or 17.4 parts have a tourism job. Compared employment, 4.2% of total employment in Europe (860), 3.1% of the current work of total employment of 265,000 copies of the travel and tourism industry (World Travel and Tourism Commission, 2007).sm Commission, 2007).The vast majority of international tourists in Romania from Europe. Since 2000, about 95% of the visitors to this area every year. In addition to these, more and more - 75% based on 2004 data - to tourists from five countries bordering with Romania: Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Montenegro.Third, the evaluation of tourism service trade competitivenessresearch methodsAs tourism service trade and international competitiveness assessment methods, the basic approach is taken in this study based on one to improve the competitiveness of the tourismeconomy is able to improve the economic basis of the idea of the scale of certain travel services exports. Similarly, the decline in the competitiveness of the economy, a country to increase its scale of travel services imported from other countries. Competitiveness of countries (or departments), large or small display of the nature and extent of participation in the country - through its exports - imports conducted market analysis, that a country with other countries to increase imports from the country to improve its competitiveness (Mander, 1991).In addition, a country in the process of insertion in the international economy is not only related to the progress of its exports, but also related to the behavior and actions of other competitors. The model is adapted from the de la Guardia, Moleiro, and Guevara Fernandez (de la Guardia, etc., 2004) introduced the dynamic nature of the market, and through their implementation of the ex-post evaluation of service competitiveness by providing a level of competitiveness in international trade and the change in the degree of specialization in production as a descriptive reference.Commercial advantage through the evolution of tourism exports show - this reflects the improvement of the competitiveness and reform through tourism imports, reflecting the deteriorating commercial advantage.Based on the above, changes in international tourism service trade competitiveness is measured by analyzing the different variables:The first variable is the market share or to participate in the market, and measuring the market share of a country or the country's tourism sector;The second variable is the analysis of the country's export structure. This variable reflects the relative weight of the tourism sector in the country's total exports;Finally, through the import structure of the market, the tourism sector is the driving force in the import market analysis can determine.The combination of these two variables, the tourism industry as a service export sector as operative, missed opportunities, decline and retreat, equivalent to the previously mentioned significance.(B) the results1. IndicatorsThe evolution of the market share that the penetrating power of tourism as a service export sector of each country in the international economy.The data shows that, during the analysis, the EU-25 economies is a major travel service provider in the world, because their overall accounted for 45% of the world tourism exports provide.From the point of view of the individual countries, the quota increase of travel services in the world market economy, according to the orderly, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg.During the analysis, the majority of countries in the process they enter the currency through the export of tourism services slight loss. Reflects this trend, countries are Poland, Estonia, Germany, the United Kingdom.2. Tourism competitiveness matrixBecause it has been shown that a national tourism service competitiveness assessment procedures, including the first simultaneous analysis of the market share held by a country on the export of tourism services tourism service trade (exports) and the whole world changes.The results of this analysis are reflected in Table 12.2, which has decided to countries based on these criteria detection.Second tourism competitive evaluation process including the simultaneous analysis of the behavior of the export structure of the economy as a whole and the national trade structure changes, especially in the tourism trade in services (see Table 12.3).The third and most complex tourism competitiveness evaluation process including the simultaneous analysis of the path of the commercial specialization behavior of its economy and the international trade performance (see Table 12.4).In turn, the degree of specialization and international trade of a country's commercial development in the same direction or the opposite direction. Therefore, the tourism industry as a country's export sector specialization can win or lose weight, and at the same time, expand or reduce the scale of travel services in international trade.Fourth, the Conclusion: Romania in the European tourism market competitive positionWhen the import growth of world tourism (20%), the EU's 25 countries are losing market share (market share growth rate of -0.68%), Romania is also (-4.65% market share growth rate). Romania serious decline in market share in the EU-25 market (-20.86% market share growth), which compared to the world is a fact, despite the European tourism growth in imports, butRomania urban market share in the world market. faster than the speed of losing market share in the European market. It is worth mentioning that the new growth is slower than the growth of imports of the World Tourism (6.12% compared with 20%). This may mean that the number of tourists from the EU-25 is higher than the number of tourists from other parts of the world, but the revenue structure is different.In fact, tourism services in Romania is losing market share, is strengthening and improvement of international tourism services, which allow it to miss the opportunities classification.The contribution of tourism to world services imports growth (2.31%), but reduced its contribution to the EU-25 exports (0.38%). In Romania, the decrease in the contribution of tourism to export more (6.14%). As for the 25 EU countries, they travel services imports contribution rate of 0.98% (lower than the world level), travel services more severe reduction in the contribution of exports to Romania (27.85%). This indicates that Romania from being reduced travel to the EU-25 exports and reduce the more than tourism exports to the world market share in the context of travel services is increasing.This result is not the same, because if Romania an important foreign exchange earnings from international the early partial expansion or contraction, that derive the result is not the same.The loss of the tourism sector, in Romania's export structure reflects the smaller currency entering through these exports, thus affecting the economy's external balance, therefore, the possibility of its economic future growth.Therefore, this integrated approach led to the conclusion that the the Romania international tourism trade in services, both in the 25 countries of the European Union (a greater extent) or the world is experiencing a decline in market share, in the context of the expansion of international trade in tourism services contribution of exports and the degree of specialization.Macroeconomic impact from a country to reduce the quota remains in the world market, or the structure of its exports to modify or reduce the degree of specialization is different depending on the international economic departments of their own behavior and this change.On the macroeconomic side, from the front of the travel services exports to contact and after Lenovo is different, depending on their structure and quality. In other words, the impact on the economy is very different depending on the structure of tourism services exports. Apply to this paper for the study of international competitiveness of the tourism services, the lack ofcompetitive research, at least from a statistical stance, it seems that is not specific enough or executive power is not enough, and that the quality and structure of the service. When analyzing the competitiveness of the method is very important, but the statistics are complex. For this reason, statistical calculations of competitiveness in terms of quality and not be implemented, can constitute the subject of further study.Despite the efforts made by the international agencies in order to tourism services sector is just progress than usually provide more extended family and with accurate statistics are necessary. Travel services, lack of information is particularly serious. Shortcomings in this regard so that any studies are difficult, because the department has a pivotal position in the department. More details in this regard are avoided in this reason, in the current paper.We build a first necessary to contribute to the assessment of the tourism sector in Romania deeper and more complex steps, aimed at improving the competitiveness of the industry and help design a policy map.Become a full member of the EU to overcome the existing weaknesses of the Romanian tourism service trade competitiveness may have a positive effect. The last couple of years to repeat the above analysis may better reveals the consequences of tourism service trade competitiveness in the EU member.旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例安娜﹒博比尔克，克瑞斯缇娜﹒克瑞斯瑞图引言旅游业是唯一的可以为任何发展水平的国家提供贸易机会的服务活动。

外文翻译：旅游业是世界上最大的产业之一原文来源：Keywords network university remote learning HomeNet 电子商务包括如何建立客户关系网络将成为即将举行的为期一天的夏洛特周三重点。

旅游电子商务发展的世界小型和中型企业的胜利最新的策略，在11月15日夏洛特万豪城市中心。

这次活动将包括一个由八莫里西的营销总监赛恩特主持，全国的领先供应商的电子商务解决方案，谁将会是怎样的因特网正在改变的企业，挑衅性的研究一发表演说大和小，从开始既定的企业窗口。

旅游业是世界上最大的产业之一，它是一个互联网，自然伙伴，那里也是世界上最大的在线行业。

旅游业是增长最快发展中国家，它是一种最经济的重要组成部分。

，。

以社区为基础的旅游（CBT）的已被证明在发展中国家促进地方发展，特别是在贫穷的农村地区。

与此同时，信息与通信正在部署的技术在贫困社区发展中国家，开始表现出诱导地方发展的潜力。

本文介绍了引入电子商贸的行动研究倡议社区在三个亚洲的旅游业农村社区（电子CBT）的，以揭示其潜在的（CBT）的，社区发展。

电子CBT的目标是在CBT的重要和不断增长的市场发展中世界，对他们来说是重要的个人旅行的旅客组成，其组成部分的生活方式，谁寻求新的和真实的体验，是不是，，，针对大众市场。

建议描述了一个战略合作伙伴关系大学在香港及其他亚洲三所大学将与当地谁并为社区的发展最终传播旅游部门利益电子在这些国家间更广泛的农村人口CBT的。

CBT的。

“在电子商务获胜，是既要提供优质的客户服务和产品，它更是一个技术问题。

互联网开辟了特别为小型和中型企业知道如何提供顶尖的可能性和新市场，新领域电子服务，“莫里西说。

其他会议会议包括来自夏洛特的一些电子商务公司专家的介绍。

演讲内容包括一个有关电子商务行业发展趋势与法案MindBlazer，Wachovia证券塞莫内斯惠特利的小组讨论，公司也将是一个包括资金的基础上为讨论，，与乔治的小企业技术开发中心（SBTDC），霍华德和克里斯的保障科学飞行风险投资基金的第一凯利Lubert麦卡利斯特。

越南旅游产品开发外文文献翻译2014年译文3200字文献出处: Friedman D. The development of Vietnam tourism products [J]. The Journal of International Travel, 2014, 15(6): 55-71.（声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库）原文The Development of Vietnam Tourism ProductsFriedman DAbstractTourism product development and innovation is the key to tourism competition, each country can develop tourist satisfaction products, decide how much to the visitors and tourism competitive power degree, the design of tourism products and innovation is crucial for the development of tourism. In this paper, the Vietnamese, analyzing the present situation and problems of the development of tourism products to evaluate each tourist products.Key words: Tourism product development; Vietnam1 The development present situation of Vietnam tourism productIn recent years, the implementation of the national comprehensive reform of Vietnam's economy has maintained a high level, the growth of tourism has outstanding contribution. Tourism has been identified as one of the important sector of the economy, the government has been focus in order to promote the development of tourism industry and provide many specific Suggestions at all levels and departments and potential in the whole society and national strength. In 20 years ago, Vietnam tourism growth levels still ranked as the last in southeast Asia,but now Vietnam tourism growth levels have been rising average in southeast Asia. In 1994, Vietnam has hosted over 1 million international tourists, from 1994 to 1994, 10 development, the number of international passengers has been increased to nearly 3 million people, 300% increase over 1994.And in 2010, the number of international passenger number has reached 5 million, increased by nearly 170% over 2004.With the increase of number of passengers, the revenue of tourism industry is becoming more and more high.Vietnam has very rich tourism resources, cultural resources from ecologicalresources. Tourism resources is the foundation of the tourism. So, Vietnam is a country full development potential of tourism. According to the current tour resources, Vietnam's main developing island tourism, cultural and ecological tourism. Most of the passengers choose to Vietnam for tourist destination and to experience the special and appreciate its unique scenery. Of island tourism development present situation, island tourism attracted 70% of the total international travelers, 50% of domestic passengers, accounting for 70% of the total amount of the national tourism revenues. Vietnam has a large number of development of island tourism coast and the size of the island. The number and level of accommodation facilities are continuously increase and improve, especially more than 3 star accommodation facilities mostly concentrated in coastal areas.2 Vietnam tourism product development evaluation2.1 Island tourism productsCoastal resources is Vietnam's most important tourist resources. Long sea lines with different climate make island has different features, such as: the beaches, islands, lagoon, bay, etc.Because of the terrain and climate partition, each are not identical in the form of haicheng in Vietnam. The diversity of land with mountains, hills and plains dozens of beautiful beach. Especially the bottom of the sea, the island has many attractive scenery, interesting caves. Due to its own belong to tropical monsoon climate, so in Vietnam can be effectively organized beach tourism activities all year round. Moreover, Vietnam beach tourist haven't environmental pollution. Coastal resources include rich vegetation, national forest, nature reserves, mineral water, water source, such as rare animals attract tourists to participate in the holiday travel, tour, sports, or scientific research, such as the attraction of the tourism activities. Coastal biological resources is also provide passengers with food and specialty resources, to make beautiful art by hand travel products provide raw materials (such as tortoise shell, pearls, coral, wood, etc.).2.2 Cultural tourism product evaluationVietnam has four thousand years of history, thus have great potential in terms of cultural tourism development. Cultural tourism is to create the most species form oftourism, tourism products is the most classic form of tourism destination. Each nation's unique culture characteristics is an important factor to attract tourists, the tourists want to know and experience the culture of different countries and regions. Therefore, the development trend of tourism industry in the world, although the life development lead to changes in lifestyle and requirements, but the development of tourism in cultural tourism is always leading tourism form.2.3 ecotourism product evaluationin recent years, the ecological tourism in the world many countries have increased rapidly, be widely attention andwelcome by the masses. In addition to natural protection, biodiversity conservation, cultural community, the significance of developing ecological tourism to the local communities, with beautiful landscape and the natural reserve in remote areas bring large economic profits, employment opportunities and increase the national income. In addition, the ecological tourism also help through the environment education, culture, history, entertainment and other activities and improve the intellectual property rights and public health. The climate of Vietnam belong to tropical monsoon climate, and about three-quarters of the area is a mountainous area, so the Vietnam's ecological tourism has great potential for development. Under the trend of developing ecological tourism in the world, Vietnam also is forming and developing many kinds of ecotourism products.3 Three Vietnam tourism products to develop new ideas3.1 Establish special island tourism productsVietnam island tourism overall product from above, can be divided into four special island tourism products, thus creating the image of special products to attract more tourists market: coastal landscape (main products long wan) of the sea, coastal seaside resort (main product is bonsai holiday coastal area and service, combined with heritage tourism), sea movement, the main products are some of the key sea international sports tourism destination (diving activity in nan tang, windsurfing in mina), island tourism, vacation and explore (rich island, Queensland island).For four kinds of special products in area of island tourism resources characteristics and classification. Northern area and coastal landscape become theleading product, is in central and south central NorthVietnam's coastal area, the largest in bonsai holiday and sea movement for leading products, with rich countries in southern island and the island tourism Queensland island products. These special products is the core of each regional tourism development, the development together with the region's tourism products system. In order to satisfy the tourist and rich journey, should use were culture or other characteristics of the tourism resources to create additional tourism products, tourism resources, promote and maintain the value of other tourism products development. Based on this, you can create some suitable for island tourism passenger's products, such as: dragon under the northern area of coastal tourism combined with the nearby city tourism and shopping tourism, coastal landscape tourism and recreational activities, enjoy gourmet activity combination, coastal landscape travel and appreciate the scenery of mountain area, understand the coastal mountains and customs and cultural characteristics; Central coastal resort tourism products with high central region combining with the common product development. Create high bonsai holiday products and experience, understand the central region and coastal zone, customs, habits and culture.Binhai holiday tourism products with hue, quango name provincial heritage tourism system; The bonsai eco-tourism products combined with national park ecological tourism activities;Binhai holiday products combined with sightseeing and shopping tour to explore tourism products, ecotourism products and islands.Island tourism product development of infrastructure, of seaside tourism destination tourism infrastructure when compared with other tourism products. But, also need to improve infrastructure and improve the close to the seaside tourismdestination. Develop more domestic and international flights to particular island tourism products of tourist destination. Improvement and development of the port transportation system and perfect water shipping network to meet the needs of maritime transport and tourism. Four special sea travel products have different travel purpose, therefore, have different sevice requirements, and also to the requirement of tourism personnel training. For coastal landscape tourism products need knowledge, culture, geography and geology in coastal resorts and tourism products of recoveryand health care, food and other aspects of knowledge. In addition, in fact, the high quality human resources mainly concentrated in the big cities, the coastal tourist destination in attracting high quality human resources is limited to a certain degree of. So, it is necessary to create a more professional training on near seaside tourism destination facilities, at the same time, the cultivation of the enterprise itself also want to do more projects.3.2 Establish the special cultural tourism productsVietnam now cultural tourism products mainly include: view and understand the local life and culture, heritage, historical sites, to understand and appreciate the food culture and national history. In fact, cultural tourism products only focus on cultural heritage and development of historic sites, lead to some cultural heritage destination appear the phenomenon of degradation or commercial. On this basis, the need to play - the value of social development under the perspective of cultural tourism products, to broaden the scope of existing traditional cultural tourism destination, can according to the following topics and develop cultural tourism products:Visit the sites to understand history and traditional history revolution;Visit cultural heritage or combined with experience of non-material cultural heritage; Festival tourism or combine with cultural heritage tourism;Religious tourism;Community culture and appreciate the food;Cultural tourism products was very rich, from the above subject orientation can create more cultural tourism products in each region. North of the old street - yen Bai - rich life of three provinces of northern clusters become the center of the cultural tourism. Hue - da nan - central quango name in the three provinces of cluster heritage cultural tourism products and appreciate the food as theme, also is the central part of the cultural tourism center.Mei Shu cities of the nations of central highlands residents cultural traditions and customs, is the main bond me Shu cultural tourism products. Southern and western delicacies and Kowloon residents of the Yangtze river delta of the traditional culture is a cultural tourism products here.Each region of the different culture to form the cultural characteristics of each region and distinguish the basis ofeach region.3.3 Establish ecological tourism special productsThe diversity of the ecological tourism resources of Vietnam and many special properties, which can well meet the needs of tourists. However, the development of guidance on the product type: biodiversity, ecological studies Vietnam - adventure tourism, natural ecological landscape. In order to ensure the development of ecological tourism, is bound to improve ecological tourism infrastructure, the next time, planning anddesign of each form of ecological tourism resources right accommodation type of research is also very important. Need to research and development of tourism resources of appropriate regulations and policies, business management and regional tourism activities. And ecological tourism service training organization improve cognitive course, step by step to national parks, nature reserves, investment, convenient to maintain, and meet the demand of tourists in the protection and development. In addition, because of the ecological tourism products only in the primary stage, therefore, in the process of ecological tourism product diversification, to carefully study is suitable for the type of ecological tourism and ecological tourist area's ability to not affect the landscape and the diversity of resources, the resources of protective unique service activities.译文越南旅游产品的开发作者：弗里德曼摘要旅游产品的开发和创新是每个国家旅游业竞争的关键，能否开发出令旅游者满意的产品，决定着游客量的多少和旅游业竞争实力的强弱程度，可见旅游产品的设计和创新对旅游业的发展来说至关重要。