《英语语言学》考试说明及答案

教资英语理论精讲-语言学【说在课前】1.今天开始语言学的三堂课。

在课堂上更多涉及到理解，大家一定先跟上老师的思路来理解，单词可以课下记忆，不要课上反复刷屏单词的问题。

每一个部分需要背哪些单词老师都会总结在 ppt 上，大家课后看 ppt 进行记忆即可。

2.语言学尽量不要走神，走神了课下可以听回放。

语言学涉及到比较多的理解，大家如果没有听明白，可以继续跟着老师听，语言学知识的连续性不是很强，不要打断课堂的思路。

3.课堂上有详有略。

略的部分不是考点，课上老师不再回答非考点部分。

上课打勾的部分是需要记忆的。

4.语言学：考试不会考查概念。

研究语言的，如研究语言的结构、发生、历史、发展等。

题量 1-4 题【解析】1.语言学概述又分为三个部分。

遵循从一般到特殊的规律。

先带大家了解语言学概述，再带大家一个个了解。

2.语言学通常考查 1-4 题，即 2-8 分，能拿到的分数尽量拿。

语言学和语法不一样，只要听懂并记下需要记的单词，8 分一定可以拿到。

3.句法学不考，这里不再赘述。

修辞学和二语习得考查较少，我们会从当中挑选重点概念进行讲解。

标红部分是重点内容。

Part1 语言学概述1.语言学的分类2.语言的本质特征3.语言的主要功能【解析】语言学的分类带着大家看下即可，考试不考。

标红的两个考试考过。

01语言学的分类【解析】语言学分类：微观和宏观语言学，考试的重点是标红。

1.微观语言学：从语音到语用。

从语言的音、形、意、用四个角度进行研究的。

（1）语音学：研究元音和辅音。

（2）音系学：研究发音的内部结构和发音规律。

（3）形态学：研究单词的形，这部分是围绕单词来展开的。

（4）语义学：研究语言的意义。

（5）语用学：研究语言的使用。

2.宏观语言学：将语言学和其他学科拼在一起进行研究。

考试不会考查得这么复杂。

02语言的本质特征(Design features)语言的本质特性，指的是人类固有的，有别于任何其他动物交流系统的特质。

学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学考试科目：英语专业基础考试时间：2008年1月20日下午说明：所有试题答案均需写在答题纸上，写在本试卷上的一律无效。

第一部分：语言学I. Fill in the blank with an appropriate linguistic term. (15 points)1. The most striking feature of human language is __________, which means that an infinitely large numberof sentences can be constructed out of a finite set of rules.2. If a phoneme is realized by more than one sounds in different phonetic contexts, the sounds are called__________.3. When words are decomposed, the minimum meaningful constituents are __________.4. If a phrase or sentence can be interpreted in more than one ways, it is __________.5. The infinitude of language is due to the fact that the same syntactic rules can be applied again and again.This is called __________.6. If a sound segment copies the feature of a neighboring sound in speech it is said to be __________.7. According to Chomsky’s theory of syntax, phrase structure rules and lexicon generate the deep structure ofthe sentence, which will undergo __________ before the surface structure appears.8. Both transformational-generative grammar and systemic-functional grammar are theoretical grammars,while traditional grammar is a __________ grammar.9. Modern linguistics differ from earlier studies of language in that it is __________, in other words, modernlinguistics attempt to find out objectively the universals of human language or the regularities of a specific language.10. __________ is an interdiscipline that studies the relation between language and the mind.11. Pragmatics is different from semantics because it studies meaning in __________.12. Both phonetics and phonology analyze speech sounds, but the latter studies sound __________ and__________.13. Politician and statesman are similar in meaning, but they are different in __________.14. According to Halliday, language plays three functions, they are __________, __________ and__________.15. In the metaphor “marriage is a journey,” the __________ domain is travelling.II. Transcribe the initial sound of the word and then describe it. (10 points)Example: funny: [f] voiceless labiodental fricative1. psycholinguistics: __________ ____________________2. amplify: __________ ____________________3. church: __________ ____________________4. phonology: __________ ____________________5. organization: __________ ____________________6. hasty: __________ ____________________7. chemical: __________ ____________________8. mnemonic: __________ ____________________9. youth: __________ ____________________10. thrifty: __________ ____________________III. Write three words that share the given feature. (10 points)Example: voiceless: [s] [f] [p]1. tense:2. round:3. palatal:4. labial:5. nasal:6. velar:7. back:8. front:9. aspirated10. alveolarIV. Write the number of the morphemes of the word and then point out how the word is formed if it is composed of more than one morpheme. (10 points)Example: bookstore: 2 compounding1. stepsister: __________ __________2. occupation: __________ __________3. brainwash: __________ __________4. motel: __________ __________5. faster: __________ __________6. finger: __________ __________7. fridge: __________ __________8. troublesome: __________ __________9. roasted: __________ __________10. impossibility: __________ __________V. Write four phrase structure rules of English based on the sentences (a) to (g). (12 points)(a) People work.(b) Women like it.(c) Young men play the game.(d) The boy goes to school.(e) The little boy sells newspapers.(f) The little boy delivers local papers to every household.(g) He went to the city.S →NP →VP →PP →VI. Draw two phrase markers (tree diagrams) to illustrate the structural ambiguity of sentence (h). (8 points)(h) They can fish.VII. Pick out the word in each group that does not share the semantic feature(s) with the others and write it in your answer sheet. (10 points)1. melon apple pear apricot plum2. truck sledge cart car van3. alive married absent fast female4. walk run swim hop jog5. temple charity sincerity bravery fear6. parrot peacock penguin swallow sparrow7. lemon carrot cabbage cucumber tomato8. gun knife sword pistol handgrenade9. stool fan chair couch bed10. chick kitten calf hen duckling pigletVIII. Answer the question about the conversation. (10 points)1. A: This is a nonsmoking car, sir.B: Sorry. (extinguishing his cigarette)Question: What is the illocution of A’s utterance?2. A: Don’t you think the hostess is a bit odd today?B: Do you want another glass of beer?Question: What maxim of the politeness principle is violated in B’s response?（注：原文如此，疑似有误，我认为这里应该问的是cooperation principle – icywarmtea）3. A: The play is wonderful, isn’t it?B: The theme is significant.Question: What maxim of the politeness principle is observed in B’s reply?4. A: I bet you 100 dollars that the Bulls will win this game?B: Oh, do you?Question: What kind of utterance of A’s according to Austin’s theory of speech act?（注：原文如此——icywarmtea）5. A: Are you going out this afternoon?B: No.A: Can I borrow your bike?B: O.K.Question: What is A’s first utterance called?IX. Write a short essay (approximately 130-150 words) expressing your view on the two interpretations of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, namely linguistic determinism and linguistic relativism. (15 points)第二部分：英语国家概况I. Answer the following questions and write your answers in the answer sheet provided. (20 points)1. What are the contributions of the Norman Conquest? (3 points)2. What is the significance of the American Civil War? (3 points)3. Describe the characteristics of the British economy. (4 points)4. Name three most influential newspapers in the United States of America. (3 points)5. How do you understand “The members of the stronger party in the House of Commons are reallaw-makers.” (3 points)6. What are the geographical features of the United States of America? (4 points)第三部分：翻译I. Translate the following paragraph from English into Chinese. (15 points)It seems that as if a great deal were attainable in a world where there are so many marriages and decisive battles, and where we all, at certain hours of the day, and with great gusto and dispatch, stow a portion of victuals finally and irretrievably into the bag which contains us. And it would seem also, on a hasty view, that the attainment of as much as possible was the one goal of man’s contentious life. And yet, as regards the spirit, this is but a semblance. We live in an ascending scale where we live happily, one thing leading to another in an endless series. There is always a new horizon for onward-looking men, and although we dwell on a small planet, immersed in petty business and not enduring beyond a brief period of years, we are so constituted that our hopes are inaccessible, like stars, and the term of hoping is prolonged until the term of life.II. Translate the following paragraph from Chinese into English. (15 points)白蛇传本事白蛇乃天上之精灵，因思凡下山，变成美女白素贞，与伺女小青（青蛇化身）居于杭州。

单元练习..．.．.7６页英语语言学概论—自学指导主编：支永碧王永祥英语语言学概论—自学指导主编：支永碧王永祥副主编:李葆春丁后银王秀凤前言本书主要为参加英语专业（本科段）自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写，是《英语语言学概论》（王永祥、支永碧，2０07）的配套辅导用书。

自2007年起,《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,200７)被确定为英语专业（本科段）自学考试的指定教材。

在此期间，许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。

他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。

而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。

其一，配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案；其二，和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面;其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导，而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂，再加上其它各种原因，不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点,因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题;此外,在英语专业研究生入学考试中,英语语言学是一门必考科目。

入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。

鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论，多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题,以备将来需要。

为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。

本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外,我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》（修订版）和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。

本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念,主要包括：本章主要考点,课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习，和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是，在本部分，我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题,以便考生更好地了解本章重点。

一、填空１５%1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。

2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助•••交际工具。

3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。

4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。

5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理•角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。

6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。

7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。

8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。

9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。

10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。

二、单项选择题（本大题共26小题，每题1分）1、下列关于“语言”和“言语”的表述中，不正确的一项是【】A.语言是社会的，言语是个人的B.语言是主要的，言语是从属的C.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的D.语言是书面的，言语是口头的答案：D2、下列关于一般语汇总体特点的表述中，正确的一项是【】A.构词能力强B.使用范围窄C.产生历史长D. 大多很稳定答案：B 解析：根据词在语汇系统中的重要程度，可以分为基本语汇和非基本语汇（一般语汇）两大类。

ACD三项都属于基本语汇的特点。

3、区分“单纯词”和“合成词”所依据的是【】A.词的音节数量B.词的语素数量C.词的音形关系D.词的地位用途4、语法规则的“系统性”是指【】A.对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B.相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C.语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释D.语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢答案：C 解析：ABD三项分别对应的是语法规则的“抽象性”、“递归性”、“稳定性”。

5、语音的四个物理要素中，区别不同的意义起着最为重要的作用的是【】A、音高B、音强C、音长D、音色6、元音和辅音本质区别是【】A、元音的发音可以延长，辅音不可以B、元音发音响亮，辅音不响亮C、元音发音时气流不受阻，辅音一定受阻D、发元音时，发音器官的各个部分均衡紧张；辅音则不然7、[ε]的发音特征是【】A、舌面前高不圆唇B、舌面后高不圆唇C、舌面前半高不圆唇D、舌面前半低不圆唇8、下列关于语义民族性的表述中，正确的一项是【】A.词义上的民族特点并不明显B.词的多义化不受民族特点的制约C.不同的民族语言在词的理性意义上并无差异D.不同的民族语言在词的非理性意义上会有所不同答案：D解析：不同民族对客观事物的认识不同，因而语义的民族特点也不同，词的多义化也会受制约，非理性意义也会有所不同，比如汉语中“狗”字常含贬义，像“走狗”；可在英语里，“dog”常含褒义，像“a lucky dog”（幸运儿）。

一、填空1．（词汇）就是一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇。

2．根据使用情况，一般把语汇中的词分为（基本词汇）和（一般词汇）两类。

3．基本词具有（全民常用性）、（稳固性）和（构词能力强）三个特点。

4．基本词包括（表示自然现象和常见事物的词）、(表示生产和生活资料的词）、（表示亲属关系的词）、（表示人体器官的词）、(表示方位和时令的词）、（表示数字的词）等类别。

5．（一般性）、（模糊性）和（全民性）是词义概括性的三个重要表现形式。

6．一个词最初的意义是（本义），在他的基础上派生出来的意义是（派生义）。

7．在多义词几项意义中，有一项意义占据主要地位，这种意义是（中心义）。

8．（引申）是派生义产生的主要途径，大致可分（隐喻）和（换喻）两种方式。

9．同义词的“同”主要指（意义所概括反映的现实现象）相同或相似，不同之处主要有（强调的重点和方面）、（感情色彩）和（语体色彩）等方面。

10．（意义相反的词叫反义词）。

反义词的意义所概括反映的都是同类现象中的两个对立的方面。

11．词语的组合一方面要受到（语法）的支配，另一方面要受到（环境）的限制。

12．文字的作用主要是突破了有声语言的（时间）和（空间）局限，使出口即逝的语言能够传于异地，留于异时。

13．文字是由（字音）、（字形）和（字义）三个方面组成的统一体。

14．文字是记录语言的（符号），汉字系统包括（笔画）、（笔顺）、（偏旁）、（标点）等，英文包括（字母）、（字母顺序）、（大小写）、（拼写规则）、（标点）等。

15．在文字产生以前，记事方式主要有（结绳）和（刻木）两种。

16．从文字的体系看，文字的发展经历了（表义）、（表意兼表音）和（表音）三个阶段。

17．世界上独立形成的古老的文字体系都是（意音文字），兼用了表意和表音两种方法。

18．汉字是意音文字，同拼音文字相比，不足的是难学、（难写）、（难认）和难记。

19．（口语）和（书面语）是语言的具体体现。

20．（渐变性）和（不平衡性）是语言发展的两个突出的特点。

语言学概论历年试题及参考答案【最新版】语言学概论历年试题及参考答案一、单项选择题(本大题共26小题，每小题1分，共26分)在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。

错选、多选或未选均无分。

1.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的( A )A.任意性B.强制性C.离散性D.线性2.音高取决于( B )A.发音体振动的振幅B.发音体振动的频率C.发音体振动的持续时间D.共鸣器的形状3.听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是( D )A.音素B.音位C.音渡D.音节4.就词重音而言，不能用来区别意义的是( C)A.自由重音B.移动重音C.固定重音D.不固定重音5.北京话“慢”单念时读[man]，但“慢慢儿”却有人读做[mai mar]，前一音节的语流音变现象是( B )A.同化B.异化C.弱儿D.增音6.“奥林匹克运动会”这个词包含的语素数量是(C )A.2个B.3个C.4个D.7个7.英语“worker”中的“-er”是( A )A.构词语素B.构形语素C.虚词语素D.词根语素8.下列汉语词语中的“儿”不属于词根语素(实义语素)的是( D)A.健儿B.女儿C.少儿D.花儿9.整个语汇系统的核心和基础是( D )A.通用语汇B.常用语汇C.一般语汇D.基本语汇10.一般语汇(非基本语汇)最重要的来源是( C )A.古语词B.方言词C.新造词D.外来词11.词组的聚合关系分类是指把词组分成( A )A.向心词组和离心词组B.联合词组和偏正词组C.基本词组和特殊词组D.简单词组和复杂词组12.把句子分成“单句”和“复句”，这种分类是( D )A.句子的句型类B.句子的句式类C.句子的功能类D.句子的简繁类13.“吓唬”和“恐吓”在非理性意义上的主要差别是( C )A.语气意义不同B.感情色彩不同C.语体色彩不同D.形象色彩不同14.下列关于词的本义和基本义关系的表述中，正确的一项是( C )A.二者总是一致B.二者总是不一致C.基本义比本义更常用D.本义比基本义更常用15.下列各项词义引申中，采用比喻方式的一项是( D )A.“锁”本指一种器具，后引申指凭借这一器具的行为B.“兵”本指兵器，后引申指使用兵器的人C.“南瓜”本指一种植物，后引申指这种植物的果实D.“后台”本指舞台的后面，后引申指在背后操纵、支持的人或集团16.下列关于等义词的表述中，正确的一项是( A )A.等义词是理性意义和非理性意义都完全相同的词B.等义词一般都能够长期并存C.等义词在语言表达上有一定的积极意义D.同义词大多是等义词17.“老王说服了小李”中“老王”是行为的施事，“小李”是行为的受事，这种意义是( B )A.语汇意义B.语法意义C.语境意义D.蕴含意义18.从现有文字史的资料来看，最早出现的字符大多是( D )A.记号B.笔画C.音符D.意符19.世界上最早的表音文字是( B )A.元音文字B.辅音文字C.意音文字D.全音位文字20.语言成分的借用，最常见、最突出的是( A )A.词语的借用B.语音成分的借用C.词缀的借用D.语法结构的借用21.下列几种类型的社会方言中，具有排他性的是( B )A.行话B.黑话C.官腔D.贵族语言22.以下对“思维”的表述中，正确的一项是( A )A.思维既包括思维活动，也包括思维结果B.思维分为感性思维和抽象思维两类C.思维的形式就是概念、判断、推理D.思维必须以语言为工具23.人类开始制造工具这种行为意味着( B )A.人类已经产生了语言B.人类已经产生了思维C.人类已经同时产生了语言和思维D.人类既没有产生语言，也没有产生思维24.患“失语症”是因为( B )A.大脑左、右半球的单侧化功能发生了改变B.大脑左半球的某个部位受到了损伤C.大脑的语言获得机制出现了遗传性障碍D.在语言临界期以前没有接触语言环境25.主要解释某个词语所代表事物的概念知识的一类词典是( D )A.历史词典B.信息词典C.语言词典D.百科词典26.从翻译技术的平面看，机器翻译可以分为四个层级，从低到高的排序是( A )A.单词、句法、语义、语境B.单词、语义、语境、句法C.单词、句法、语境、语义D.单词、语义、句法、语境二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分)在每小题列出的五个备选项中有二个至五个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。

［0126］《语言学概论》第一批次［单选题］3、英语tooth-teeth采用的语法手段是（）A：加词尾B：加词缀C：变换重音的位置D：词根内部音素的变化参考答案：D［单选题］4、以声音的高低来区别意义的语言单位叫A：时位B：重位C：调位D：音质音位参考答案：C［多选题］6、汉语〃紧张”和〃松弛”的词义（）A：是对立关系B：是重叠关系C：有时对立，有时重叠D：既有反义又有同义的因素E：无同义的因素参考答案：AD［多选题］8、下列说法错误的有（）A：语音演变规律只在一定时期起作用B：语法发展中的类推作用是无限的，可推而广之，无一例外。

C：古代汉语中的浊塞音声母在现代汉语中已经消失了D：随着旧事物的消失，表示它们的词语也会随之消失E：词语的替换全部取决于语言系统内部的原因参考答案：BCE ［单选题］5、世界语（Esperanto）是（）A：法国人设计的B：德国人设计的C：波兰人设计的D：美国人设计的参考答案：C［判断题］9、［a,i,u,y］的音质取决于振幅的大小。

参考答案：错误［单选题］1、现代汉语属于（）A：历时语言学B：共时语言学C：应用语言学D：普通语言学参考答案：B［多选题］7、元音音质的不同取决于（）A：开口度的大小B：发音体整动的频率C：舌位的前后D：嘴唇的圆展E：发音部位和发音方法参考答案：ACD［单选题］2、从造字方法看，兼用表意表音两种方法的文字叫（A：表意字B：假借字C：指事字D：意音文字参考答案：D［判断题］10、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。

参考答案：正确第二批次［单选题］2、构成反义词的一组词（）A：不属于同一意义领域B：多数属于同一意义领域C：少数属于同一意义领域D：必须属于同一意义领域参考答案：C［单选题］3、汉语/ k /和/ ts /两个音位系列在（），合并为/t b /音位系列。

A：开口呼、合口呼前B：齐齿呼、撮口呼前C：开、齐、合、撮四呼前D：只在齐齿呼前参考答案：B［单选题］1、汉语拼音方案中韵母之间的关系是（）A：聚合关系B：组合关系C：意义关系D：语法关系参考答案：A［单选题］5、重庆人将”沙坪坝”的声母和韵母发成［sam pa］,这种情况属于语流音变中的（）A：异化B：弱化C：月兑落D：清化参考答案：C［多选题］8、世界上独立形成的古老的文字体系有（）A：用拉丁字母作为文字符号的文字B：中美洲的马雅文C：用阿拉伯字母作为文字符号的文字D：古埃及的圣书字E：汉字参考答案：BDE［判断题］9、社会方言的特点反映在语音方面最明显。

Chapter I IntroductionIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventionsand the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2：PhonologyIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; itis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speakinga language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.Chapter 3：MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivationalaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by the mselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。

2021年南京大学963英语语言学考研真题和答案2021年南京大学外国语学院《963英语语言学》考研全套目录•南京大学外国语学院《963英语语言学》历年考研真题及详解•全国名校英语语言学考研真题详解说明：本部分收录了本科目近年考研真题，提供了答案及详解，并对常考知识点进行了归纳整理。

此外提供了相关院校考研真题，以供参考。

2．教材教辅•丁言仁《英语语言学纲要》笔记和课后习题详解•丁言仁《英语语言学纲要》配套题库【考研真题精选＋章节题库】•陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题详解•陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》（第2版）配套题库【考研真题精选＋章节题库】说明：以上为本科目参考教材配套的辅导资料。

•试看部分内容2014年南京大学963英语语言学考研真题第一题，术语区分题。

四组术语，24分。

1.phoneme vs. allophone2.homonymy vs. homophony3.illocutionary act vs. perlocu tionary actnguage switch vs. L1 transfe r第二题，选择题，考察的都是基础知识，10小题，共30分。

第三题，分析题。

给出几个句子，要求先填写名词前的冠词或复数后缀-s；然后总结出使用冠词或复数后缀-s的一般模式（com mon pattern）。

第四题，分析题，考察的知识点是歧义（a m b i g u i t y）。

给出两句话，要求先回答这两句话有无歧义，并写出每句话的不同理解，再分析这两句话产生歧义的原因是否相同。

1.The children play near the bank.2. Th e p ro f e sso r sai d o n M o n day th at h e wo u l d gi vean exam.显然，第一句话中的bank涉及lexical ambiguity, 而第二句话中的on Monday既可修饰said，又可修饰would gi ve an ex am，属于gramm atical/structural ambiguity。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. Butthe sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. Fo r example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.” The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and[bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounceddi fferently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones relatedto a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator,“one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprov e, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organizedcommunity. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for3. What is category How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helpsto make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typicallymarks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window)NP d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?。