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语用学是现代语言学发展最快和受到语言学界普遍重视的分支学科。
它以言语交际为研究对象，关注的是特定语境中话语的动态意义，强调交际双方在意义的生成和理解过程中的作用。
本课程将聚焦于语用学的传统研究课题，从指示语、言语行为理论、间接言语行为、古典格赖斯会话含义理论、新格赖斯会话含义理论、关联理论等视角剖析言语交际，为学生提供比较全面、系统的交际理论体系。
本课程的教学目的：通过本课程的教学，使学生了解语用学的发展历史、最新动态及发展趋势；了解传统语用学的研究体系及分析单元；了解各种交际理论的产生背景、基本内容、对言语交际的解释力及其局限性；培养学生运用语用学理论进行话语分析的能力。
了解语用学学科的形成和发展历史；了解传统语用学研究体系的主要课题；熟谙各交际理论的基本框架及其对言语交际的解释力；掌握运用语用学理论进行言语交际研究的基本方法。
以教师讲授、学生讨论为主，辅以课外语用小论文的写作。
教学手段可适当利用多媒体辅助教学。
第三讲：指示语一、指示语的含义：是其所指或意义需要特定的交际语境来确定的词语和语法范畴。
如：时、空、人称等。
如：我半小时后到那里。
二、指示语的特点：1、说话人参照：以自我为中心，主观性词语。
比勒（Buhlerk）指示场理论——“我”-“这里”-“现在”主体定位系统。
中枢人物：说话人；中枢时间：说话时间；中枢地点：说话人说话时所处位置；话语中枢：一句话中说话人当时正说到的部分。
社交中枢：说话人相对听话人的社会地位和等级。
有些指示语以说话人以外的参加者所处的位置为中心，如：家宅、活动组织等。
“Party”2、指示语的先用作用及指示的不可替代性（以非指示代指示）三、指示词语的用法：1、手势型用法即与身体语言一起使用，要理解指示的意义必须要知道说话人在说话的同时使用了什么样的身体语言。
如：“把钢琴放在这里”。
“不，不是这里，而是这里”。
理解完全依靠原来的真实交际情景2、象征型用法理解无需重现交际的真实情景，而往往只是包括交际发生人时间、地点在内的更大范围的时间、地点以及参与者。
指示语的分类及语用功能?依据列文森（Levinson）《语用学》（Pragmatics）1的归纳，可以将指示语分为五类，即：人称指示语、时间指示语、空间指示语、语篇指示语和社交指示语，下面一一予以说明。
?1.人称指示语?人称指示语指交谈双方用话语传达信息时的相互称呼。
可以分为三个小类：（一）第一人称指示语，如“我是军人”中的“我”，表达说话人的自指；（二）第二人称指示语，如“你真好”中的“你”，表达说话人的对指；（三）第三人称指示语，如“他是好人”中的“他”，表达的是说话人的旁指。
上述三小类都强调了“说话人”这一角色，所以人称指示语是以说话人为参照点的，而且其参照点存在于语言之外的语境中：正在说话的人是“我”，对面听话的人就是“你”，在言语交际中，“我”、“你”的交际角色是可以互换的。
?当然还有一些较为复杂的特殊人称指示，下面试举几例：（1）第一人称的复数形式在指示时有两种用法：包括式和排除式。
包括式即包括第一人称在内，如“咱们去上课吧。
”中的“咱们”就包括说话人“我”；排除式即指示对象不包括听话人在内，如“我们去逛街，你接着睡吧。
”中的“我们”就不包括听话人“你”。
（2）“我们”未必总是被两个或更多的人在说话时用以指自己，在许多情况下，“我们”被一个说话人用来指他自己以及他认为他所能代表的其他人。
例如“我们对各位专家的到来表示热烈的欢迎。
”中的“我们”可以指接待的校长和其随行人员，也同样能指示该学校的全体教职工。
（3）用复数第一人称代替单数第一人称来指说话人自己。
如“在这本书里，我们将介绍一种新的主持方式，这一方式是我们多年来从事节目主持的经验总结。
”这句话中的“我们”其实指示的就是说话人自己“我”。
（4）说话人不用第二人称“你”，而用一个指称第三人称的名词短语来指听话人。
例如“宝宝乖，宝宝不哭哦。
”中的“宝宝”其实就是指“你”，但用“宝宝”会显得更加亲切，是想如果换成“你乖，你不哭了。
”那么整句话关怀的程度就会大打折扣。
指示语deixis话语中跟语境相联系的表示指示信息的词语，就叫做指示语。
指示是语用研究中一个重要概念，涉及到一些词语，如代词、称谓、时间处所词语等。
这些词语的具体或确切的指称意义，必须结合具体的语境，才能准确理解。
指示语主要有：1、人称指示。
称指示是话语中关于人物人称的指示。
最典型的是人称代词，又分第一人称指示、第二人称指示、第三人称指示。
2、时间指示。
时间指示是话语中关于时间的指示。
时间是一个抽象的概念，人们只能人为地选定一些参照点。
在言语交际中，时间指示是以说话时刻作为参照点来计算和理解的。
3、空间指示。
空间指示是话语中关于处所、方位的指示。
空间指示主要有：表示方位和处所的名词、副词、指示代词，具有位移意义的动词如“来”“去”“走”“离开”“到达”等。
4、话语指示。
话语指示又称语段指示、上下文指示，是用来指明话语中部分与部分之间关系的。
由于言语交际是在一定的时间、空间中展开的，所以话语指示与时间指示、空间指示有密切关系，有些时间指示、空间指示同时也是话语指示。
5、社交指示。
社交指示是用来指明发话人和受话人之间，或发话人跟所谈及的人（第三方、之间的社会关系的词语。
DeixisFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaIn linguistics, deixis refers to the phenomenon wherein understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place. Words or phrases that require contextual information to convey any meaning - for example, English pronouns - are deictic. Deixis is closely related to both indexicality and anaphora, as will be further explained below. Although this article deals primarily with deixis in spoken language, the concepts can apply to written language, gestures, and communication media as well. And even though this article is primarily concerned with English, deixis is believed to be a feature (to some degree) of all natural languages.[1]The term’s origin is Ancient Greek: δεῖξις ""display, demonstration, or reference"", the meaning "point of reference" in contemporary linguistics having been taken over from Chrysippus.[2Types of deixis[edit]Traditional categoriesPossibly the most common categories of contextual information referred to by deixis are those of person, place, and time - what Fillmore calls the “major grammaticalized types” of deixis.[3] [edit]PersonPerson deixis concerns itself with the grammatical persons involved in an utterance, (1) those directly involved (e.g. the speaker, the addressee), (2) those not directly involved (e.g. overhearers—those who hear the utterance but who are not being directly addressed), and (3) those mentioned in the utterance.[4] In English, the distinctions are generally indicated by pronouns. The following examples show how. (The person deictic terms are in italics [a signaling notation that will continue through this article].)I am going to the movies.Would you like to have dinner?They tried to hurt me, but he came to the rescue.GenderIn many languages, that only have male and female, referring to gender neutral subjects has different aspects. Objects , or things have their own gender too between male or female. When referring to a genderless object, it is often referred to as a male, though the object is genderless. In the English language, when referring to any character that has no gender, a self-aware entity, it is referred to a male, or as a "He", such as an "it" is inappropriate when calling the sentient object a thing. In many languages, they would address to people as in male, such as a group mixed with men and women is referred to as a male, such as Ils in French. An example would be :A man is responsible for his own soulas opposed toEach person is responsible for his or her own soulcommon in many religious text referring to people of all genders using only the male gender. This can be understood in context, the male gender being used to signify male or female persons.PlacePlace deixis, also known as space deixis, concerns itself with the spatial locations relevant to an utterance. Similarly to person deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to. The most salient English examples are the adverbs“here” and “there”and the demonstratives“this” and “that” - although those are far from being the only deictic words.[3]Some examples:I enjoy living in this city.Here is where we will place the statue.She was sitting over there.Unless otherwise specified, place deictic terms are generally understood to be relative to the location of the speaker, as inThe shop is across the street.where “across the street” is understood to mean “across the street from where I am right now.”[3] It is interesting to note that while “here” and “there” are often used to refer to locations near to and far from the speaker, respectively, “there” can also refer to the location of the addressee, if they are not in the same location as the speaker. So, whileHere is a good spot; it is too sunny over there.exemplifies the former usage,How is the weather there?is an example of the latter.[4]Languages usually show at least a two-way referential distinction in their deictic system: proximal, i.e. near or closer to the speaker, and distal, i.e. far from the speaker and/or closerto the addressee. English exemplifies this with such pairs as this and that, here and there, etc. In other languages, the distinction is three-way: proximal, i.e. near the speaker, medial, i.e. near the addressee, and distal, i.e. far from both. This is the case in a few Romance languages and in Korean, Japanese, Thai, Filipino and Turkish The archaic Englishforms yon and yonder (still preserved in some regional dialects) once represented a distal category which has now been subsumed by the formerly medial "there".[5]TimeTime, or temporal, deixis concerns itself with the various times involved in and referred to inan utterance. This includes time adverbs like "now", "then", "soon", and so forth, and also different tenses. A good example is the word tomorrow, which denotes the consecutive next day after every day. The "tomorrow" of a day last year was a different day than the "tomorrow" of a day next week. Time adverbs can be relative to the time when an utterance is made (what Fillmore calls the "encoding time", or ET) or when the utterance is heard (Fillmore’s "decoding time", or DT).[3] While these are frequently the same time, they can differ, as in the case of prerecorded broadcasts or correspondence. For example, if one were to writeIt is raining out now, but I hope when you read this it will be sunny.the ET and DT would be different, with the former deictic term concerning ET and the latterthe DT.Tenses are generally separated into absolute (deictic) and relative tenses. So, forexample, simple English past tense is absolute, such as inHe went.while the pluperfect is relative to some other deictically specified time, as inHe had gone.Other categoriesThough the traditional categories of deixis are perhaps the most obvious, there are other types of deixis that are similarly pervasive in language use. These categories of deixis were first discussed by Fillmore and Lyons.[4][edit]DiscourseDiscourse deixis, also referred to as text deixis, refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contains the utterance — including the utterance itself. For example, inThis is a great story.“this” refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse, and inThat was an amazing day.that” refers to a prior portion of the discourse.Distinction must be made between discourse deixis and anaphora, which is when an expression makes reference to the same referent as a prior term, as inMatthew is an incredible athlete; he came in first in the race.Lyons points out that it is possible for an expression to be both deictic and anaphoric at the same time. In his exampleI was born in London and I have lived here/there all my life.“here” or “there” function anaphorically in their refe rence to London, and deictically in that the choice between “here” or “there” indicates whether the speaker is or is not currently in London.[1]The rule of thumb to distinguish the two phenomenon is as follows: when an expression refers to another linguistic expression or a piece of discourse, it is discourse deictic. When that expression refers to the same item as a prior linguistic expression, it is anaphoric.[4]Switch reference is a type of discourse deixis, and a grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages, this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers. In the translated example "John punched Tom, and left-[samesubject marker]," it is John who left, and in "John punched Tom, and left-[different subject marker]," it is Tom who left.[citation needed][edit]SocialSocial deixis concerns the social information that is encoded within various expressions, such as relative social status and familiarity. Two major forms of it are the so-called T-V distinctions and honorifics.Usages of deixisIt is helpful to distinguish between two usages of deixis, gestural and symbolic, as well asnon-deictic usages of frequently deictic words. Gestural deixis refers, broadly, to deictic expressions whose understanding requires some sort of audio-visual information. A simple example is when an object is pointed at and referred to as “this” or “that”. However, the category can include other types of information than pointing, such as direction of gaze, tone of voice, and so on. Symbolic usage, by contrast, requires generally only basic spatio-temporal knowledge of the utterance.[4] So, for exampleI broke this finger.requires being able to see which finger is being held up, whereasI love this city.requires only knowledge of the current location. In a similar vein,I went to this city one time . . .is a non-deictic usage of "this", which does not reference anything specific.Rather, it is used as an indefinite article, much the way "a" could be used inits place.。
第一章绪论1。
11.“pragma—”这个拉丁词根具有“做、行动”这一意思。
从广义上说,pragmatics指的是对人类有目的的行为所做的研究。
如果做这种理解的话，或许翻译为“行为学”更恰当.人类有目的的行为涉及人的所信、目的、策划和行为。
学术界首先提出这一术语的不是语言学家，而是哲学家。
2.最早使用pragmatics这一术语的是美国哲学家C。
Morris和R。
Carnap。
3.语境。
构成语境的语言外知识可分为三大类：背景知识，情景知识，交际双方相互了解。
4.交际过程也就是语境的建构过程.发话者能够有意识地“操纵”共有知识来建构有利于达到自己交际目的的语境。
(何兆熊蒋艳梅1997）1.41.语义学最广义的理解,也许可以把语用学对意义的研究纳入语义学中去。
2.语义学和语用学的共同点在于,都是对意义的研究。
但是属于两个不同层面的对意义的研究，这两种意义研究的关联性是十分明显的。
语义学对意义的研究是基本的,没这一层次的研究很难进行第二层次的研究。
语用意义不能脱离语言本身固有的内在意义。
语义学是对抽象语言能力的研究，语用学是对言语行为的研究,言语行为是语言能力的具体体现。
第二章意义和所指2。
11.越来越多的语言学家发现，对“意义和所指”只有结合话语的上下文和语境才能做出较充分的阐释和校准确的把握。
2.语义学一般将词汇意义划分为两个不同但彼此互补的层面，即外延（denotation）和意义(sense）。
一个语言表达式的外延一般是固定不变的，独立于具体的话语语境之外，这一层的语义存在于语言系统之内，独立于话语使用的特定语境。
所谓的意义通常处于变化不定的状态,而且随着语境的变化而变化。
（例如dog)因此，单个词素没有所指，但可以用作指称语的组成部分而被用语不同的话语和语境中。
3.为什么词项的系统意义和外延带有的边界模糊性不会影响交际的成功呢？认知语言学认为:人们对客观实体的感知和把握主要借助于大脑中业已积淀下来的、有关客观实体的“原型",人们对所指的对象一般均符合某一事物的“原型”。
浅析人称指示语的选择问题所谓人称指示，是指交谈双方用话语传达信息时的相互称呼。
在语际交往中，人们会在不同的语言环境下选择不同的人称指示语。
一般的人称指示语的选择涉及到第一人称、第二人称和第三人称的选择。
然而，人称指示语的选择不会只有这么简单，在语境允许的情况下，人们还会根据不同的角度和不同的情感来进行人称指示语的选择。
1.一般性人称的选择人称指示语指谈话双方传达信息时的相互称呼，即通过公开或隐含的人称代词把话语中涉及的人或物与说话者、听话者或第三者联系起来，表明彼此间的关系。
它是以发话人作基准的，受话人理解话语是自然要对人称指示做相应的变换。
例如：A对B说：你今天有空吗？我想请你吃顿饭。
B回答A：我有空的，谢谢你的邀请！这时候，A口中的“你”即B口中的“我”，而A口中的“我”自然就是B 口中的“你”。
人称指示语可分三类：第一人称指示，包括说话人；第二人称指示，包括听话人；第三人称指示，既不包括说话人，也不包括听话人，因此，在言语活动中，它一般不是谈话的参加者，但是在特定场合会用来借指说话人或听话人。
例如：A：她当时真的对我说了“我爱你！”这里的“我”指的就是“她”，而非说话者。
2.角度的选择在言语交往中，尤其是会话、访谈等口语互动，不仅存在着语言形式及策略的多向选择问题，还必然涉及说话人的视角选择问题，即说话人站在什么角度说话。
比如说话人是直接异议还是采用比较缓和的语气；或在选择词语的时候，本应该使用人称代词“你”或“你们”的场合却使用了“我们”等等。
视角体现了语言成分和语境之间的一种语用关系。
视角的选择涉及语境因素，尤其是说话人对听话人、某事或某物等所赋予的态度、情感和立场等。
也就是说视角可以体现说话人的情感倾向和认识倾向。
情感倾向包括感情、语气、态度等，认识倾向则指交际主体的信念和知识。
因此在交际中，说话人必然会把自己的视角在语言选择中直接或间接地体现出来，比如词语的选择、句法的选择、语序的选择等。
