1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。
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